L1 theory behind research methods
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Innovative Design & Manufacturing Research Centre
University of Bath
“World-leading research in engineering design and manufacture.”
IdMRC Social Research MethodsAutumn Lecture-Workshop Series
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ESQUEMAS DE DISEÑO DE INVESTIGACIÒN
• Enfoque cuantitativo• Enfoque cualitativo• Enfoque utilizando métodos mixtos• Elementos del esquema:• Supuestos filosóficos (Qué constituye el conocimiento)• Procedimientos de investigación (Estrategia de búsqueda)• Los métodos:• Procedimientos detallados de recolección de datos o
información• Estrategia de análisis de la información• Reporte de los hallazgos
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Esquemas: Para su propuesta de un diseño de investigación contéstese cuatro preguntas:
• ¿Cuál posición epistemológica?. Teoría del conocimiento que subyace en la perspectiva teórica que Ud. ostente. (ej.: Objetivismo, subjetivismo)
• ¿Cuál Perspectiva teórica? Sustento filosófico detrás de la metodología a utilizar.
• ¿Qué metodología? Estrategia o plan de acción que conectará los métodos que utilizará y concatenará los hallazgos. (ej.: experimental, survey, etnografía, etc.)
• ¿Cuáles métodos? Técnicas y procedimientos que se propone utilizar. (ej.: cuestionario, entrevista, grupo focal,)
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Orden de las preguntas
¿Qué métodos utilizaré?
¿Cuál metodología define el uso de esos métodos?
¿Desde cuál perspectiva teórica empezamos para aplicar la metodología correcta o más adecuada?
¿ Qué posición epistemológica sustenta la perspectiva teórica seleccionada?
¿Qué conocemos?
Lo ontológico. Sobre la naturaleza de la realidad.
¿Cómo lo conocemos?.
Lo epistemológico. Sobre la naturaleza de la relación investigador-objeto.
¿Con cuáles valores?. Lo axiológico. Sobre los valores
¿Cómo lo escribimos?. Lo retórico. Sobre el análisis del discurso
¿Con cuál proceso lo estudiamos?. Lo metodológico
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Epistemology
objectivism
subjectivism
Theoretical perspectivepositivism
Interpretativism
symbolic interactionism
phenomenology
hermeneutics
feminism
(post)modernism
Social-constructivism
Methodology
experimentaldescriptivesurveyethnographyheuristicaction researchdiscourse anal.evaluation
Methods
scalingquestionnairesobservationinterviewfocus groupcase studynarrativesethnographicstat analysisdata reductioncognitive mappinginterpretative methdocument analysiscontent analysisconversation anal.
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6/24
ESQUEMAS PARA LA PROPUESTA DE DISEÑO DE INVESTIGACIÓN
CUALITATIVA, CONSTRUCTIVISTA
• Introduction
– Statement of the problem (including existing literature about the problem)
– Purpose of the study
– The research questions
– Delimitations and limitations
• Procedures
– Characteristics of qualitative research (optional)
– Qualitative research strategy
– Role of the researcher
– Data collection procedures
– Data analysis procedures
– Strategies for validating findings
– Narrative structure
• Anticipated ethical issues
• Significance of the study
• Preliminary pilot findings
• Expected outcomes
• Appendices: interview questions, observational forms, timeline, and proposed budget
PROPUESTA CUANTITATIVA
• Introduction
– Statement of the problem
– Purpose of he study
– Theoretical perspective
– Research question or hypotheses
– Definition of terms
– Delimitations and limitations
• Review of the literature
• Methods
– Type of research design
– Sample, population and participants
– Data collection instruments, variables, and materials
– Data analysis procedures
• Anticipated ethical issues in the study
• Preliminary studies or pilot tests
• Significance of the study
• Appendixes: Instruments, timeline, and proposed budget
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PROPUESTA DE FORMATO MIXTO
• Introduction• Statement of the problem• Purpose of the study (include both quantitative and quantitative• Statements and a relational for mixing methods)• Research questions(include both qualitative and quantitative)• Review of the literature (separate section, if quantitative)
• Procedures or methods• Characteristics of mixed methods research• Type of mixed methods design (including decision involved in its choice)• Visual model and procedures of the design• Data collection procedures
• Types of data• Sampling strategy
• Data analysis and validity procedures• Report presentation structure
• Role of the researcher• Potential ethical issue
• Significance of the study• Preliminary pilot findings• Expected outcomes
• Appendixes: instruments or protocols, outline for chapters, and proposed budge
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Science
• Aim?• When is knowledge scientific knowledge?
• Criteria?• Knowledge sources?• When is research scientific research?
Henri Christiaans
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Science
• RealismWhat we observe is real
• InstrumentalismWhat we observe doesn’t need to be real
• Social constructivismTheories only get meaning through social and political context
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What is Knowledge?
• Justified true belief (Plato’s Theaetetus)• The Greeks classify knowledge into 2 types:• Doxa (believed to be true)• Episteme (known to be true)
• Doxa Epistime• Through Scientific process of inquiry
• How do we know what we know?• Define knowledge alternatively• Supported by evidence (usually empirical)• Conceive knowledge claims in a probabilistic sense
• Knowledge is a matter of societal acceptance
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How is Knowledge Acquired?
• Role of science, where science is a convention, related to societal norms, expectations, values, etc.
• Thus, is science equals any scholarly attempt at acquiring knowledge
• Science requires conventions to be followed
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How is Knowledge Acquired?
• Role of science, where science is a convention, related to societal norms, expectations, values, etc.
• Thus, is science equals any scholarly attempt at acquiring knowledge
• Science requires conventions to be followed
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Knowledge in design
• Implicit prioritisation of the (language-based mode of) propositional knowledge (justified true beliefs) seems to exclude certain kinds or formats of knowledge associated with practice, which are often called practical, experiential, personal, or tacit knowledge and which evade verbal articulation.
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Knowledge sources
• Observation• Experiments/measurements
• The Reason• Mathematics/logical reasoning
• Intuition• Authority• (Divine) Revelation
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Science based on empirism
Empirism:Knowledge derived from how the world is experienced. Scientific statements are controlled by and derived from our experiences and observations. en
Scientific theories developed and tested by experiments and observations through empirical methods
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Questions to be asked
1. Which methods do we plan to use?
2. Which methodology defines the use of methods?
3. Which theoretical perspective do we start from in order to apply the right methodology?
4. Which epistemology feeds this theoretical perspective?
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Ontology
1. A systematic account of Existence. Nature of the world around us.
2. (From philosophy) An explicit formal specification of how to represent the objects, concepts and other entities that are assumed to exist in some area of interest and the relationships that hold among them.
3. The hierarchical structuring of knowledge about things by subcategorising them according to their essential (or at least relevant and/or cognitive) qualities.
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Epistemology and ontology
The way of understanding and interpreting how we know what we know.
Particular methodologies tend to entail (subscribe to) particular epistemologies and, in their turn, particular forms of ontology
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Ontology in Computing Terms
• For AI systems, what "exists" is that which can be represented.
• We can describe the ontology of a program by defining a set of representational terms. Definitions associate the names of entities in the universe of discourse (e.g. classes, relations, functions or other objects) with human-readable text describing what the names mean, and formal axioms that constrain the interpretation and well-formed use of these terms. Formally, an ontology is the statement of a logical theory.
• A set of agents that share the same ontology will be able to communicate about a domain of discourse without necessarily operating on a globally shared theory. The idea of ontological commitment is based on the Knowledge-Level perspective.
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Epistemology
• From the Greek words episteme (knowledge) and logos (word/speech) is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature, origin and scope of knowledge.
• Refers to our theory of knowledge, in particular, how we acquire knowledge (Hirschheim, 1992).
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Research background
Epistemology
objectivism
subjectivism
Theoretical perspectivepositivism
Interpretativism
symbolic interactionism
phenomenology
hermeneutics
feminism
(post)modernism
Social-constructivism
Methodology
experimentaldescriptivesurveyethnographyheuristicaction researchdiscourse anal.evaluation
Methods
scalingquestionnairesobservationinterviewfocus groupcase studynarrativesethnographicstat analysisdata reductioncognitive mappinginterpretative methdocument analysiscontent analysisconversation anal.
Crotty, 1998
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Research background
Epistemology
objectivism
subjectivism
Theoretical perspectivepositivism
Interpretativism
symbolic interactionism
phenomenology
hermeneutics
feminism
(post)modernism
Social-constructivism
Methodology
experimentaldescriptivesurveyethnographyheuristicaction researchdiscourse anal.evaluation
Methods
scalingquestionnairesobservationinterviewfocus groupcase studynarrativesethnographicstat analysisdata reductioncognitive mappinginterpretative methdocument analysiscontent analysisconversation anal.
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Theoretical perspective
Philosophical point of view which feeds the methodology and offers a context for the process and the logics, and gives our criteria a basis.
Cultural differences play a role
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Research background
Epistemology
objectivism
subjectivism
Theoretical perspectivepositivism
Interpretivism
symbolic interactionism
phenomenology
hermeneutics
feminism
(post)modernism
Social-constructivism
Methodology
experimentaldescriptivesurveyethnographyheuristicaction researchdiscourse anal.evaluation
Methods
scalingquestionnairesobservationinterviewfocus groupcase studynarrativesethnographicstatistical analysisdata reductioncognitive mappinginterpretative methdocument analysiscontent analysisconversation anal.
Crotty, 1998
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Three Main Epistemologies
Positivist Interpretivist Critical
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Interpretivism
Interpretivism rests upon idealism:
•the world is interpreted through the mind; e.g., classificatory schemes of species;•the social world cannot be described without investigating how people use language and symbols to construct what social practices; i.e., understand their experience;•the social world becomes the creation of the purposeful actions of conscious agents; and•no social explanation was complete unless it could adequately describe the role of meanings in human actions•Actions are not governed by discrete patterns of cause and effect (as in positivism), but by rules that social actors use to interpret the world
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Positivist Science
• 5 Pillars• Unity of scientific method• Causal Relationships • Empiricism• Science and its process is Value-Free• Foundation of science is based on logic and maths
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Ontology of Positivism
• Realism• Universe comprised of objectively given, immutable
objects and structures, existing as empirical entities, on their own, independent of the observer’s appreciation of them.
• Contrasts with relativism or instrumentalism, where reality is a subjective construction of the mind, thus varying with different languages and cultures.
• While hugely successful in physical sciences, it is not as successful for social science.
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Anti-Positivism
• Latter part of 19th century• Man as an actor could not be studied through the methods of
natural sciences that focus on establishing general laws. In the cultural sphere man is free (Burrell and Morgan, 1979)
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Post-Positivism
• Based on the concept of critical realism, that there is a real world out there independent of our perception of it and that the objective of science is to try and understand it,
• combined with triangulation, i.e., the recognition that observations and measurements are inherently imperfect and hence the need to measure phenomena in many ways.
• The post-positivist epistemology regards the acquisition of knowledge as a process that is more than mere deduction. Knowledge is acquired through both deduction and induction.
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10-04-23
Objective Analysis
design Problem
design Solution
Designer
objective Analysis
Rational Solving Problem Paradigm
Design Task(= problem +
situation+ teime)
design Solution
Designer
subjective Interpretation
Reflection in Action Paradigm
POSITIVISM PHENOMENOLOGY
Constructivist Root
Rationalist Root
Simon versus Schon
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Methodology
Our strategy and action plans, the design process which defines what specific methods we will choose
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Research background
Epistemology
objectivism
subjectivism
Theoretical perspectivepositivism
Interpretativism
symbolic interactionism
phenomenology
hermeneutics
feminism
(post)modernism
Social-constructivism
Methodology
experimentaldescriptivesurveyethnographyheuristicaction researchdiscourse anal.evaluation
Methods
scalingquestionnairesobservationinterviewfocus groupcase studynarrativesethnographicstatistical analysisdata reductioncognitive mappinginterpretative methdocument analysiscontent analysisconversation anal.
Crotty, 1998
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Types of Research
Analytical Historical PhilosophicalLiterature study Meta-analysis
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Descriptive Survey (questionnaire, interview)
Case study Task analysisDocument analysis Correlation anal.Observation Etnographics
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Explorative Survey Correlational
Case study Experimental-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Experimental Pre-experimental
True-experimentalQuasi-experimental
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Ethnographics
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Types of research methods
idiographic nomothetic
rational
empirical
unbiased
participatory
qualitative
quantitative
inductive
deductive
prescriptive
descriptive
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knowledge problem
Fundamental Research: the Empirical cycle
‘t Hart c.s.
testing
deductionprediction
theory
generalising
modelling
Explaining/interpretin
g
modelling
testing
evaluating
describing/
interpreting
evaluation
specifying
inductionhypotheses
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Practice oriented Research: The regulative cycle
problem from practice
evaluation
intervention
plan(problem solving)
generalising
modelling
designing
deciding
process evaluation
describing/
interpreting
action-process supportingobserving
evaluating
diagnosis
‘t Hart c.s.
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Method
The technique to gather data, related to the research question.
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Research background
Epistemology
objectivism
subjectivism
Theoretical perspectivepositivism
Interpretativism
symbolic interactionism
phenomenology
hermeneutics
feminism
(post)modernism
Methodology
experimentaldescriptivesurveyethnographyheuristicaction researchdiscourse anal.evaluation
Methods
scalingquestionnairesobservationinterviewfocus groupcase studynarrativesethnographicstat analysisdata reductioncognitive mappinginterpretative methdocument analysiscontent analysisconversation anal.
Crotty, 1998
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41
Qualitative Positivist Research versus Non-Qualitative Positivist Research
QPR Methods Non-QPR Methods
Field experiment Math Modeling (analytical modeling)
Lab experiment Group feedback
Free simulation experiment Participative research
Experimental simulation Case study
Adaptive experiment Philosophical research
Field study
Opinion research
Archival research
Table 1. QPR versus Non-QPR Methods (Click on the method for its definition)
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Type of Research, General Research Approaches, Data Collection Techniques, & Data Analysis Techniques
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Research-Led
Design-Led
ParticipatoryDesign
generative toolsDesign
and Emotion
Critical Design
User-centered Design
contextual
enquiryLead-user inovation
appliedethnography
Usability testing
Human factors and ergonomics
Dutch/Scandinavia
n design
Research-Led
Part
icip
ato
ry m
ind
set
Exp
ert
min
dset
Probes
Sanders, 2002
Design-Led
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Research-Led
Design-Led
ParticipatoryDesign
generative toolsDesign
and Emotion
Critical Design
User-centered Design
contextual
enquiryLead-user inovation
appliedethnography
Usability testing
Human factors and ergonomics
Dutch/Scandinavia
n design
Research-Led
Part
icip
ato
ry m
ind
set
Exp
ert
min
dset
Probes
Sanders, 2002
Design-Led
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Research background
Epistemology
objectivism
subjectivism
Theoretical perspectivepositivism
Interpretativism
symbolic interactionism
phenomenology
hermeneutics
feminism
(post)modernism
Methodology
experimentaldescriptivesurveyethnographyheuristicaction researchdiscourse anal.evaluation
Methods
scalingquestionnairesobservationinterviewfocus groupcase studynarrativesethnographicstatistic. analysisdata reductioncognitive mappinginterpretative methdocument analysiscontent analysisconversation anal.
Crotty, 1998
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Definitions
• ‘Research’ = the systematic inquiry to the end of gaining new knowledge
• a ‘researcher’ = a person who pursues research (e.g., in design).
• Practice’ = professional practice (e.g., in design) or to processes usually used in professional practice to produce professional work for any purpose other than the (deliberate) acquisition of knowledge.
• ‘Practitioner’ = anyone who works in professional practice.
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Process (design methodology)
product people
Design Knowledge
designers
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Design knowledge
• Design knowledge resides firstly in people: in designers especially. Therefore, we study human ability - of how people design. This suggests, for example, empirical studies of design behaviour, but it also includes theoretical deliberation and reflection on the nature of design ability. It also relates strongly to considerations of how people learn to design
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Design knowledge
• Design knowledge resides firstly in people: in designers especially. Therefore, we study of human ability - of how people design. This suggests, for example, empirical studies of design behaviour, but it also includes theoretical deliberation and reflection on the nature of design ability. It also relates strongly to considerations of how people learn to design.
• Design knowledge resides secondly in processes: in the tactics and strategies of designing. A major area of design research is methodology: the study of the processes of design, and the development and application of techniques which aid the designer.
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Design knowledge
• Design knowledge resides firstly in people: in designers especially. Therefore, we study of human ability - of how people design. This suggests, for example, empirical studies of design behaviour, but it also includes theoretical deliberation and reflection on the nature of design ability. It also relates strongly to considerations of how people learn to design
• Design knowledge resides secondly in processes: in the tactics and strategies of designing. A major area of design research is methodology: the study of the processes of design, and the development and application of techniques which aid the designer.
• The product dimension asks for forms and materials, and finishes with the embodiment of design attributes: both the intentional world (teleological and functional –wishes and needs–) in relation with the principal, partial and elementary function and the man’s connection with the systemic formal and material part (structure, organization, parts and connections).
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Scientific Interpretive
Theoretical perspective
Scientific, usually based on physics Interpretive, focusing on individuals’ experiences, their construction of understanding, perceptions and interpretation of reality. Often centres on individual creativity and subjective perceptions relating to being creative.
Focus Empirical realities of the design processes, design objects, design brief and contexts.
The core concept of ‘design’ is defined in terms of these activities.
Experiences of designers and other design constituents. Tries to identify form of internal creative design activities from observation of externalities.
Typically defines design in terms of creativity, art, individual genius and socio-cultural influences
Design Research
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Scientific Interpretive
View of Design Design is a process.
May or may not include creativity.
Intuitive, involving hidden aspects of human subjective thinking and affective activity.
View of creativity
‘Something, or a specification for something, is “created”’.
Creation can be achieved mechanically, by automation or intuitively.
Human internal activity that results in ideas for new, unusual, highly valued, never before created things, emerging ‘magically’ from the genius of designers.
Focus on ‘individual creativity’ attributed to specific ‘designers’ and socio-cultural influences.
Design Research
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Scientific Interpretive
Data collection Similar to physics and natural sciences.
Drawn from various qualitative traditions, e.g. anthropology, ethnography, history, includes self reporting data collection.
Analysis methods
Similar to physics and natural sciences.
Drawn from various qualitative traditions, e.g. anthropology, ethnography, history, includes reflective analysis of self reports and self perception.
Knowledge focus
Discipline specific empirical information (along with)
elicited representations of tacit information and data that designers use.
Tacit and embodied skills of designers and users.
Culturally-determined knowledge.
Embedded meanings.
Design Research
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Scientific Interpretive
Strengths 1. Techniques to investigate phenomena in ways that are transparent, repeatable, testable, and verifiable.
2. Research methods are expressed in a formal language that enables precise critique of the data collection techniques, methods of analysis, processes that lead to abstractions, and the theory abstractions and conclusions.
3. Correspondence between characteristics of phenomena and the formal defined symbolic language of concepts and operations in which mathematically theories and representations of the phenomena are expressed.
1. Focus on human considerations, such as the human creative aspects of design, and how users and other interpret designed outcomes.
2. Interpretive methods give space for designers and users to explain, in their own words, and from their own perspectives, how they design and use designed outcomes and how they communicate with others about designs.
3. Interpretive methods also allow exploration of opinions of users about cultural aspects of particular designs.
4. The interpretive approach can be extended to draw strength from the use of large data sets by which correlations and measures of confidence in them can be established between individuals’ ‘stories’ and the phenomena being studied.
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Scientific Interpretive
Weaknesses Scientific empirical method does not adequately address human subjective, interpretive and experiential phenomena except via physiological substrates.
Main weakness is lack of reliability of individuals’ evidence, perceptions and interpretations i.e. lack of correlation between what people say and reality.
Evidence of this problem in studies of e.g. witness testimony, reliability of memory, relationships between reported thoughts and physiological evidence, influence of subconscious ‘thinking’, mental illusions and delusions in normal people.
‘False consciousness’: people’s representations of themselves are inaccurate or simply wrong.
Extends to individuals descriptions of processes, and the social activities that they undertake.
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Scientific Interpretive
Contradictions There is an incompatibility between scientific modelling of design process and inclusion of a process element ‘create a new solution’ as a subjective human activity.
Claims that all sub-fields of design are incommensurate as they use different knowledge (and that the broader field of design is fundamentally fragmented) is at odds with scientific representation of designers working across disciplines and in multi-cross- and trans-disciplinary teams.
There is tension between interpretive approaches that focus on experiential subjective phenomenological aspects of human creative design activity and the frequent shift of emphasis onto aspects of design and creative activity that are more accessible empirically using a physical science approach.
There is an epistemological inconsistency in claims that Design exists of itself as a phenomena capable of creative agency and action.
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Love’s proposal:
a unified basis for design theory bridging these two incompatible approaches.
Advantages
• It provides a coherent epistemological basis for new theories
• It recasts prior research and theory within a justified integrated framework with a clear epistemology and ontology.
• This in turn provides the basis for developing a design field.
Design Research
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• Designs (i.e. the specification for creating or doing something) • Designed outcomes (after they are manufactured/actualised) • Design activity • Design processes • The skills of designers • The role of design activity • Cognitive design processes • Behaviour of designers as individuals and in social groups • Combinations of the above
Foundations for a unified basis
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Epistemologies Assumptions for Qualitative and Quantitative Research
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Researcher tests or verifies a theory
Researcher tests hypothesesor research questions
Researcher defines and operationalizesvariables derived from the theory
Researcher measures or observesvariables using an instrument
to obtain scores
Creswell, 2003
Deductive logic of quantitative research
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Generalizations or theoriesto past experiences and literature
Researcher looks for broad patterns.Generalizations or Theories from
Themes or Categories
Researcher analyze data toform themes or categories
Researcher asks open-ended questionsof participants or records field-notes
Researcher gathers informatione.g. interviews, observations Creswell, 2003
Inductive logic of qualitative research
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Qualitative vs Quantitative
Purpose
Perspective
Procedures
Quantitative
General Laws
Test Hypotheses
Predict behavior
Outsider-Objective
Structured
formal measures
probability samples
statistical analysis
Qualitative
Unique/Individual case
Understanding
Meanings/Intentions
Insider-Subjective
Unstructured
open ended measures
judgement samples
interpretation of data
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Qualitative Research
Triangulation By using several data collecting methods – field notes, interviews, narratives – a complete picture of the phenomenon can be provided
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Interpretation:observation of species
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a
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Interpretation
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a b
c d
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Interpretation:observation of discourse
J (reading) pack is firmly attached to the bike positioning of the backpack was alright fact that the centre of gravity of the backpack is placed rather far to the back of the bike (inaudible)I do we have any … em...J there's a problem with potholes .. the backpack tends to slide up and down which adversely influences stability I guess when you hit bumpsI isn't that in the negative?J mm yeah well the product was considered ugly well that's solvable (laughter) we can fix that one if nothing else ... it takes a while to get used to cycling with this weight; mistakes are made attaching the fastening device to the bike so it has to be easy to attachK with only one yeah gotta be fool proof so that's part of ourJ yeah that should be in our specK functional spec
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The role of interpretation
Gap between objects and our representations, in 3 forms ('methodological horrors', Woolgar '88):
1. Indexicality2. Inconcludability3. Reflexivity
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