Knowledge Sharing in Virtual Environments

From a cross-cultural perspective

provided by you, the audience

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Contents

Knowledge Management/SharingKnowledge Sharing in Virtual Environments

Virtual TeamsCommunities of PracticeResearch Communities

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

What is Knowledge Management (KM)“Broad KM is the systematic and explicit management of knowledge related activities, practices, programs and policies within the enterprise” (Wiig, 2001, p. 6), or…

Knowledge management is the process by which the organization generates wealth from its knowledge or intellectual capital (Bukowitz & Williams, 2000), or…..

In June 1995, a health worker in Kamana, Zambia, logged on to the CDC Web site in Atlanta and got the answer to a question on how to treat Malaria (Denning,

2001), or,…….

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

and a virtual ad hoc, one-off, emergency response team

A New Zealand company with international offices had a one-month deadline to supply a South-east Asian government ministry with a strategic business plan. The project leader in Wellington accessed company expertise in New Zealand, Australia and on location in Asia and was able to complete the project on time. She said:

“While it is good to have people by your side, if we had tried to get all these people up to Asia, we probably would never have met the deadline.”

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Davenport and Prusak, in Working Knowledge (1997) define knowledge as:

“a fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual information, and expert insight that provides a framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information …”

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

What is Knowledge from a Chinese Perspective?the Chinese philosopher Fung Yu-Lan stated:

"Epistemology has never developed in Chinese philosophy. Whether the table that I see before me is real or illusory, and whether it is only a idea in my mind or is occupying objective space, was never seriously considered by Chinese philosophers. No such epistemological problems are to be found in Chinese philosophy (save in Buddhism, which came from India), since epistemological problems arise only when a demarcation between the subject and the object is emphasized. And in the aesthetic continuum, there is no such demarcation. In it the knower and the known is one whole.“ ref: Yu-Lan, F. (1948). A short history of Chinese philosophy: A Systematic account of Chinese thought from its origins to present day.

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

History of KM

KM has been an important matter from the beginning – even one of life and deathThen a religious and philosophical matterThen an economic matter, e.g.Crafts GuildsNo overarching theory of KM, yet.KM is rooted in a variety of disciplines

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Recent KM Roots

Organizational ManagementRationalization of work - Taylorism, TQMThe importance of information and explicit knowledge as organizational resources – DruckerThe cultural dimension of KM – the “learning organization” – SengeInnovation diffusion and information and technology transfer

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Information and Communications Technology (ICT)

Dealing with exponential increases in the amount of available knowledge and increasingly complex products and processes

Early groupware and hypertext applications – Engelbart, 1978; McCrakenArtificial Intelligence and expert systemsCSCW (computer-supported collaborative work), Decision Support Systems, Workflow, Document Management, Relational and object databasesRecords Management

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Other Psychology

The role of knowledge in behavior

Library and information scienceCognitive sciences

How we learn and know to improve tools and techniques for gathering and transferring knowledge

EconomicsSocial Sciences

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

1980’s “Knowledge Management” enters business vocabulary

To provide a technological base, the Initiative for Managing Knowledge Assets was started in 1989KM articles begin appearing in journals

1990’sManagement consulting companies begin in-house knowledge management training programs1991 – “Brainpower” article in Fortune magazine1995 - The Knowledge-Creating Company: How Japanese Companies Create the Dynamics of Innovation (1995), Ikujiro Nonaka & Hirotaka TakeuchiBy mid-90’s – KM initiatives are flourishing – OECD, World Bank, etcBecame a big business for the likes of Ernst & Young, Arthur Anderson, Booz-Allen & Hamilton

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Driving ForcesCompetitive environment/knowledge economy

Knowledge is often the only advantage

GlobalizationTechnology

Information managementcommunications

The knowledge workerChanging/mobile workplace

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Status

Categorization of KM Approaches (Sveiby)

Management of Information• Knowledge = objects and can be handled

by information management systems

Management of People• Knowledge = processes, a complex set of

dynamic skills, know-how, etc that is constantly changing.

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Issues

No shortage of issuesdefining KM and related issuesdetermining organizational needsgetting people onsideselecting and implementing strategieshuman resource issuesselecting and implementing technologiesmeasuring success (ROI)

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

KM & Strategy

“ Knowledge has become the key economic resource and dominant – and perhaps even the only – source of competitive advantage’”

Peter DruckerManaging in a time of great

change(1995, p.90)

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Motivation for KMKnowledge confers the ability to attain business goalsKnowledge is the only truly sustainable personal and organizational advantageThe knowledge worker

The most expensive resource is knowledgeable staff

TechnologyInformation managementcommunications

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Three Levels of KM and Appropriate Technologies (Allee, 2000)

What?Operational

• Connecting knowledge to people who need it

How?Tactical

• Connecting people to each other

Why?Strategic

• Connecting knowledge to the business model

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Operational KMConnecting knowledge to those who need it

How can we codify knowledge and share routine tasks?

e-learning toolsworkflow softwareknowledge repositoriesbest practice databasesknowledge engineeringimaging technologiessearch enginesnewsfeeds

What else?

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Usefulness of Knowledge Automation

RoutineRoutine Logical Logical VariationsVariations

Unusual Unusual VariationsVariations

NonNonRoutine Routine

New &New &InnovationInnovation

Fre

qu

ency

of

Wo

rk

Complexity of WorkComplexity of Work

Databases

Job Aids

Training

IT Tools

Ack: Karl Wiig

Technology advances help movemore complex work to routine

Allee, 2000

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Tactical KM Connecting people to each other

How can we better create, share and apply our knowledge?Communities of practice

collaborative toolsafter action reviewsknowledge mappingvideo-conferencingproject historiespersonalization toolssocial network analysisvirtual team toolsgroup processes

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Usefulness of Knowledge Automation

RoutineRoutine Logical Logical VariationsVariations

Unusual Unusual VariationsVariations

NonNonRoutine Routine

New &New &InnovationInnovation

Fre

qu

ency

of

Wo

rk

Complexity of WorkComplexity of Work

Databases

Job Aids

Training

IT Tools

Ack: Karl Wiig

Technology advances help movemore complex work to routine

Allee, 2000

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Strategic KM Connecting knowledge to the business model

How do we create business value?Scorecards, business modeling

New modeling toolsSystems mappingScenario buildingNetwork ethicsCollaborative culturesNon-financial reportingPartnering agreementsDialogueOpen exchange

Knowledge Sharing in Virtual Environments

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Virtual Teams

Cyber teamsE-teamsDistributed teams

(Temporary), culturally diverse, geographically dispersed, electronically communicating workgroups.BusinessResearchEducationGovernmentNGO’s

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

A Virtual Scenario available now

London

Tokyo

Wellington

New York

Shared document, video and audio link, and databaseRio

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Factors driving virtual teams

Organizational structure changing to meet the demands of the fast-paced, dynamic global economy Many organizations are moving from a systems-based organizational model to a collaborative, networked organizational model.

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Practitioner-based literature on organizational virtual teams began in 1994 (O’Hara-Devereaux & Johansen (1994), Grenier & Metes (1995), Lipnack & Stamps (1997) .

Academic studies on students date from about 1997-98. (e.g., Cramton, 2001, Jarvenpaa, Knoll & Leidner, 1998), Kayworth & Leidner, 2000; Lau Sarker & Sahay, 2000),

Published empirical research on organizational virtual teams began appearing in (in earnest) in 1999-2000 Jackson, 1999; Vickery, Clark, & Carlson, 1999), (Nandhakumar, 1999), (Maznevski & Chudoba, 2000 .

Quite a popular subject now

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Research AreasTeam Issues Issues of trust (Jarvenpaa et al, 1998; Nandhakumar, 1999 Attribution bias (Cramton, 2001) Collaborative processes (Cramton & Webber, 2000; Sahay et al 1999) Communication (Tan et al, 2000; Warkenten & Beranek, 1999).Virtual team dynamics and effectiveness (Maznevski & Chudoba, 2000 Leadership (Kayworth & Leidner, 2002)

Organizational aspects of virtual teams (Jackson, 1999; Vickery, Clark, & Carlson, 1999)

Boundary Issues – Time, Distance, Organizational, Culture, etc Espinosa et al., 2002; O’Leary & Cummings, 2002; Montoya-Weiss et al., 2001

Knowledge Management Situated learning in virtual teams (Robey, Khoo & Poers, 2000) Information Sharing in virtual teams (Crampton & Orvis, 2001) Situated Knowledge and Learning (Sole & Edmondson, 2002) Creation of Intellectual Capital (Majchrzak et al., 2002)

The Use of ICT Communication channels in building virtual relationships (Pauleen & Yoong, 2001).

Theory-based studies Adaptive Structuration (Majchrzak et al., 2000)

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

What has the research looked at?

Creating social interaction, building trust, aligning and maintaining motivationsharing tacit knowledge to maintain common understandingchoosing appropriate team management structuresmaking team member expectations explicitEffective use of ICT

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Communities of practice

Groups of people informally bound together by shared expertise and passion for a joint enterprise.

Knowledge is not some substance that can be managed from a distance like an inventory. It is part of the shared practice of communities that need it, create it, use it, debate it, distribute it, adapt it, and transform it. (Despres & Chauvel, p. 206)

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Characteristics of Communities of Practice Members choose

to belong because they

Enjoy knowing each otherFind each other interestingRespect each others’ perspectives

Peers in the execution of real work. What holds them together is a common sense of purpose and

real need to knowwhat each other knows.

- John Seely Brown, VP and Chief Scientist,

Xerox Corp

Verna Allee

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

DomainDomain

A domain of common knowledgeA domain of common knowledgegives people a sense of jointgives people a sense of jointenterprise that emerges fromenterprise that emerges fromtheir shared understanding.their shared understanding.

CommunityCommunity

They function as a They function as a community through community through relationships of mutual relationships of mutual engagement that build engagement that build relationship and trust.relationship and trust.

PracticePractice

They build capacity by They build capacity by building a shared building a shared repertoire of resources, repertoire of resources, tools, and artifacts that tools, and artifacts that support future learning.support future learning.

3 Important Dimensions

Verna Allee

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Communities of practice

are self-organising systems cannot be started arbitrarily thrive under the right conditions

“As communities of practice generate knowledge, they renew themselves. They give you both the golden eggs and the goose that lays them” (Wenger and Snyder, 2001, p. 9)

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Nurturing communities of practice requires paying attention to:

Knowledge strategy Organisational orientation Organisational systems Organisational resources

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Communities of practice add value to organisations by

Helping drive strategy Starting new lines of business Solving problems quickly Transferring best practice Developing professional skills Helping recruit and train new talent

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Virtual Research Communities

Geographically distributed, work across time, dynamic, etc.Benefits (Lewis, 1998):

Reduction in costs and risksAccess to expertise and knowledge especially tacit knowledgePersonal motivations• Enter new areas, be part of something

bigger than otherwise possible

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

ICT- The driving factor in Virtual KS

ICT links people across functions, divisions, and organizations, as well as distance, time and culture. ICT supports the use of virtual teams, CoP’s and research communities

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

ICT Task /Communication-Mode Matrix

Types of TasksCommunication Mode

Audio

Video

Data only

Gen ideas/coll data

Routine Problems

Complex Problems

Negotiating complex sits

Marginal fit

Marginal fit

Marginal fit

Good fit

Marginal fit

Good fit

Poor fit

Poor fit Poor fit

Poor fitGood fit

Good fit

F2F Marginal fit Marginal fit Good fit Good fit

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Any-time Any-Place Matrix

(Johansen, 1991)

Same Time

Different Place

Different Time

Different Place

Same Time

Same Place

Different Time

Same Place

E-mail, Voice Mail, Usenet, Fax, Computer conferencing

Desktop computers, Blackboards, Group rooms

Application Sharing, Audio and Video conferencing,

Electronic Whiteboards, Electronic Meeting Rooms, Voting Tools

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Sharing and Distributing Knowledge – Key Questions

Who needs to know?

What do they need to know?

How much do they need to know?

How can we facilitate that?

How to share across cultures?

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

In Teams

How to deal with issues? From a practitioner perspective How to research these issues? From a researcher perspectiveHow to set up collaborative virtual research?

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Four Premises

The most valuable knowledge is tacit“Show me” and “explain it to me” are the best ways to share knowledgeIt’s not always in a person’s best interest to share knowledgeOrganizations do not support this kind of sharing

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

The Challenges to Creating Successful Virtual knowledge Sharing Communities

Creating social interaction, building trust. Aligning and maintaining motivationSharing tacit knowledge to maintain common understandingChoosing appropriate group management structuresMaking community and member expectations explicit

World Bank

Case study

Knowledgemanager

Present

Helpdesk

Staff

Clients

Briefingmaterials

Relevantknowledge is

made availablejust-in-time

What the client also needs .....Relevant

best practice

Relevant bibliography

reference materials

Relevant polices,

guidelines, procedures

Most frequently

asked questions

Country conditions,

correspondence personae,

issues

Most frequently made mistakes

in the past

Relevant country,

sector data

Text of previous

similar task outputs

Most knowledgeable gurus on key

issues

Best analytical tools, e.g. economic,

financial analyses

Past

Sea of paper

Electronic knowledge

Tacit Knowledge

Information isoften lowquality andhard to find

Knowledge Sharing at the World BankKnowledge Sharing at the World Bank

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

AFR ECA LCR MNA SAREAP

Thematic Groups

EAP

FSI

ESSD

HD

OPS

PREM

Task TeamsTask Teams

Knowledge Sharing: OrganizationKnowledge Sharing: OrganizationTask Teams and Thematic Groups

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Thematic Groups (communities of practice)

Advisory Services (help desk facilities)

Sector Knowledge Collections (Web)

Sector Statistics and Indicators

Project Databases - Directories of Expertise

Knowledge Packs (synthesis of experience)

Dissemination (formal/informal learning)

Knowledge Sharing: Network Activities

David J. Pauleen

Victoria University of Wellington

Tax policy and administration Thematic Group

Public expenditure review Mission Madagascar

Indonesia

field office

MNA Region

ECA Region

DEC

Retired

University of Toronto

Knowledge Sharing: Knowledge Sharing: PracticePractice