Knowing Pt. 2:

Schemata &

Categorization

Example

Need paper & writing instrument!

Follow along as I read the following paragraph

Recall after reading

The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange things into

different groups depending on their makeup. Of course, one pile

may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you

have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities that is the next

step, otherwise you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo

any particular endeavor. That is, it is better to do too few things at

once than too many. In the short run this may not seem important,

but complications from doing too many can easily arise. A mistake

can be expensive as well. The manipulation of the appropriate

mechanisms should be self-explanatory, and we need not dwell on

it here. At first the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon,

however, it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult to

foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate

future, but then one never can tell.

How to Wash Your Clothes

The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange things into different groups depending on their makeup. Of course, one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities that is the next step, otherwise you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo any particular endeavor. That is, it is better to do too few things at once than too many. In the short run this may not seem important, but complications from doing too many can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well. The manipulation of the appropriate mechanisms should be self-explanatory, and we need not dwell on it here. At first the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then one never can tell.

Laundry Example

Why was this a difficult task?

What effect did the title have (based on what you know about memory)?

In our own world…

We use our semantic knowledge to understand the world Attempt to activate related information for use

Activate group/structure of related information for a particular situation

What happens when you go to…

Schemas

Restaurants

Auto shops

Barber shops

Bars

Classrooms

Academic offices

We have generic knowledge stored that fit with normal

situations

Schemata

Schema:

A stored framework or body of knowledge about some

topic.

Schematic Knowledge

Allows us to pay attention

Guides our understanding by focusing on what is

important

Allows for a coherent re-creation of an event

Gaps in our memory could be filled

Although…

Schematic Knowledge

Going to read list, then ID if items were in list

OK!

Yes or no, items in list?

snooze

yawn

dress

sleep

wine

blanket

Schematic Knowledge

Allows for a coherent re-creation of an event

Gaps in our memory could be filled

Although this could also lead to errors of intrusion

List fits with schema of sleep

Strategies to avoid recalling false information (false

positives)?

Warning about intrusions ahead of time! (Gallo,

Roberts, & Seamon, 1997)

OK!

Yes or no, items in list?

temper

doctor

sick

slice

enrage

clinic

Warning strategies

Schemata

Reconstruction versus Episodic Recall

What we already know exerts a strong influence on what

we remember about new material.

How many animals of each kind did Moses take onto

the Ark?

Semantic illusions – relatedness of information between

concepts

Scripts

Different types of schemata Example…

Please read the following

If the balloons popped, the sound wouldn’t be able to carry since everything would be too far away from the correct floor. A closed window would also prevent the sound from carrying, since most buildings tend to be well insulated. Since the whole operation depends on a steady flow of electricity, a break in the middle of the wire would also cause problems. Of course, the fellow could shout, but the human voice is not loud enough to carry that far. An additional problem is that a string could break on the instrument. Then there could be no accompaniment to the message. It is clear that the best situation would involve less distance. Then there would be fewer potential problems. With face to face contact, the least number of things could go wrong.

Please read the following If the balloons popped, the sound wouldn’t

be able to carry since everything would be too far away from the correct floor. A closed window would also prevent the sound from carrying, since most buildings tend to be well insulated. Since the whole operation depends on a steady flow of electricity, a break in the middle of the wire would also cause problems. Of course, the fellow could shout, but the human voice is not loud enough to carry that far. An additional problem is that a string could break on the instrument. Then there could be no accompaniment to the message. It is clear that the best situation would involve less distance. Then there would be fewer potential problems. With face to face contact, the least number of things could go wrong.

Scripts

Why does the picture help you understand the passage better?

What do you think a script is?

Scripts Scripts: Temporally ordered schemata (special type of schema).

Frames (or slots) define the basic structure of scripts Details about some specific event

Default values fill the frames unless other information is provided.

Sometimes, frames influence interpretation

The “Soap Opera Effect”

Owens, Bower, & Black (1979)

Nancy arrived at the lecture hall and decided to sit in the front row. She walked down the aisle and sat down in a seat. The professor went to the podium and began the lecture immediately. All through the talk Nancy could not concentrate on the lecture. The talk seemed especially long but finally the speaker finished. The professor was surrounded by people so Nancy quickly left the building.

What is going on in the situation?

The “Soap Opera Effect”

Owens, Bower, & Black (1979)

Group 1: read the description

Group 2: read extra paragraph first…

The “Soap Opera Effect”

Nancy woke up feeling sick again and wondered if she was really pregnant. How would she tell the professor that she had been seeing? And the money was another problem.

Nancy arrived at the lecture hall and decided to sit in the front row. She walked down the aisle and sat down in a seat. The professor went to the podium and began the lecture immediately. All through the talk Nancy could not concentrate on the lecture. The talk seemed especially long but finally the speaker finished. The professor was surrounded by people so Nancy quickly left the building.

The “Soap Opera Effect”

Owens, Bower, & Black (1979) “Problem” condition: recalled more of the story than the

control condition. Also, included more information than what was there.

Scripts help us organize info for recall

Consequence: other script related info intrudes

Scripts

Frames allow us to make inferences E.g., restaurant script - mention of waiter associated

with menu

Scripts and frames allow us to understand and predict various events in the sequence

Driven by experience

What if information violates script (atypical information)?

Evidence of Scripts

Smith and Graesser (1981)

People remember script atypical information better

than script consistent information

Jack took his dog to the vet.

While waiting for the vet, he dropped his car keys.

Evidence of Scripts

Jack took his dog to the vet.

While waiting for the vet, he dropped his car keys.

We can use our scripts to fill in information

i.e., led the dog into the waiting room

More likely that guessing occurs due to scripted info and

better memory for unscripted info

Concepts and Categorization

Concept Formation

Objects we encounter vary from ones we’ve seen in

the past – how do we know what to do?

E.g., squirrel

Rely on categorized concepts and categories

Semantic relatedness

Squirrels in general, or NIU squirrels vs. squirrels

elsewhere

Theories of Categorization There are three general theories about categorization

Classic view

Probabilistic views:

Prototype view

Exemplar view

Explanation-based theories

1. Classic View of Categorization

People create and use categories based on a system

of rules:

Necessary and sufficient features: must satisfy a set of rules

to be a member of a category

E.g., BACHELOR:

an unmarried adult male

A married male is not a bachelor (necessary)

Nothing more is needed to identify (sufficient)

Rules to be a bird?

1. Classic View of Categorization

People can create categories on criteria

However, many human categories do not seem to follow this

process.

What birds are considered more “bird-like”?

Robin, sparrow, cardinal

What birds are considered less “bird-like”?

Flamingo, chicken

Characteristics of Human Categories

Graded membership:

Some category members are rated as being better members

than others.

Robin is a better bird than penguin.

Loosely speaking, a tomato is considered a vegetable, although

technically, it is a fruit.

4 is a better even number than 526

Follows rules of necessity and sufficiency

Also found that people prefer 4 to 28 as an even number

Characteristics of Human Categories

Other principle related to graded membership

Related concepts:

Central tendency: some mental core or center to a

category where the best members will be found

...is related to…

Typicality effects: the degree to which items are viewed a

typical, central members of a category

Remember Smith model & modified network model?

2. Probabilistic Theories

Where does semantic information come from again?

Probabilistic theories:

Assume that categories in semantic memory are created by taking

into account likelihoods across a person’s experience

Prototype theories:

Category decisions made based on an idealized average – a

prototype

All of your experiences of one category (i.e., a squirrel)

Doesn’t capture variations, just average

2. Probabilistic Theories

Probabilistic theories:

Assume that categories in semantic memory are created by taking into

account likelihoods across a person’s experience

Exemplar theories:

An alternative (but similar) to prototype theory.

Category decisions are made based on all of the “exemplars” (examples)

stored in semantic memory.

We make judgments based on comparing something to our stored

examples

A robin is an example of a “bird” category, every exposure to squirrel

Characteristics of Human Categories

Typicality depends on the number of attributes a member

shares with other members of that category

Family resemblance:

Category members typically share a set of common

features.

Correlated attributes:

Certain features tend to go together.

Feathers and wings

Scales and fins

3. Explanation-Based Theories

How does the memory know which experiences to average

across to form a category without knowing the category

ahead of time?

Categories are theories of the world people use to explain

why things are the way they are.

Categories reflect both the actual structure of the world, as

well as the structure people impose upon it.

Explanation-Based Theories We are active problem solvers!

Ad hoc categories – based on situational circumstances

Categories that can be created on the fly.

Things that you could use to pound a nail with if you don’t

have a hammer

shoe, brick, sock

Demitri Martin – sames and opposites

Have many of the same characteristics as standard

categories.

Schemas and Categorization Memory structures created based on our experiences

Used to understand new experiences

Can be helpful, make understanding and remembering easier

Recall is not exact memory of situation, but reconstruction

Fill in information not there can be helpful or harmful (intrusion)

Knowing how these systems work help avoid errors!

Categorization can have negative effects - stereotyping