Knowing More than One Language: The Psycholinguistics of Bilingualism
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Knowing More than One Language: The Psycholinguistics of
Bilingualism
Marina BlekherDepartment of Linguistics
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What does it mean to be ‘bilingual’?
Bilingualism a variety of definitions:
- a person who is equally proficient in 2 languages
- a person with minimal competence in L2
- a person with a functional command of 2 languages (and whose linguistic competence is in a stable state)
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Co-ordinate & Compound Bilinguals
(Weinreich, 1953; Ervin & Osgood, 1954)
Compound bilingualism
church église
Coordinate bilingualism
church église
Subordinate bilingualism
church église
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Coordinate bilinguals:have separate, language-specific meanings associated with L1 & L2(2 sets of meaning + 2 linguistic systems)
Compound bilinguals:have one meaning system for L1 & L2 (fused representations) but 2 different means of expression(1 meaning set + 2 linguistic systems)
*Subordinate bilinguals:low-proficiency: the weaker language is interpreted through the stronger language
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Context of Acquisition may lead to differences in cognitive organization:
coordinate: L1 & L2 used separately in childhoode.g.,‘Mommy/Daddy language’,home/school language etc.
compound: mixing L1 & L2, using them in the same environment/with the same person
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Some things bilinguals commonly do:
- mix L1 & L2
- keep L1 & L2 separate
- translate
- in many cases, experience interference
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Bilingual processing: the Switch Hypothesis (early proposal)
a language switch (on/off): accounts for the bilingual’s ability to switch between L1 & L2 based on the situation (e.g., MacNamara & Kushnir, 1971)
substantial evidence against such a switch: both languages can be activated at the same time e.g. chat pain coin (both meanings are activated)
also, orthographic neighbours in both languages of a bilingual are activated during word recognition (Van Heuven et al., 1998):e.g. English target doom English neighbours: room, dorm, door Dutch neighbours: boom, drom, doos
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More recent proposals:
language-taggingeach word bears a ‘language tag’ (info about its language), e.g., ‘English’
activation & control (Green, 1986, 1993, 1998)
- a bilingual’s language systems may take on different levels of activation (selected/active/dormant)
- a bilingual can suppress activation & output from one of the languages (i.e., items with particular language tags)
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3 levels of language activation:
1) Selected: currently being spoken
2) Active: plays a role in ongoing processing (works parallel to ‘selected’)
3) Dormant: stored in long-term memory, no role in ongoing processing
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Some techniques used to investigate bilingual representation and processing:
Bilingual version of the priming task: examines connections between words of L1 & L2
e.g. apple (preceded by pomme)
vs. apple (preceded by livre)
(repetition priming: apple & pomme are translation equivalents)
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livre
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apple
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pomme
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apple
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carafe
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frim
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Bilingual version of the priming task (cont.)
1) repetition priming: apple & pomme are translation equivalents.apple (preceded by pomme) vs. apple (preceded by livre)
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2) semantic priming: peach & pomme are semantically related words
e.g. peach (preceded by pomme)
vs.
peach (preceded by livre)
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livre
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peach
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loi
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neep
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pomme
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peach
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Bilingual Version of the Stroop Experimental Task
What happens on the monolingual task?
e.g., name the colour of the ink
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Stroop Task (cont.)
name the colour of the ink:
e.g. red bluegreen (congruent)red bluegreen (incongruent)
Stroop effect: interference from the word meaning in the incongruent condition, processor cannot be shut off
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Bilingual version of the Stroop task (cross-language colour naming):
Can you shut off your other language?
name the colour of the ink:e.g. rouge bleu vert (congruent) rougebleu vert (incongruent)
Stroop effect: same as with monolinguals, processor cannot be shut off
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The Bilingual Lexicon: How are words of the 2 languages represented in the mind of bilinguals?
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The Bilingual Lexicon: Common or Separate Storage?
1) Two separate storesL1 & L2 words stored separately (in language-specific lexicons)
2) One common store L1 & L2 words stored together (in a language-independent lexicon)
L1 L2
L1 + L2
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Perhaps common at one level of representation but separate at another?
Conceptual Store (language-independent) and Lexical Store (language-specific)
OK but how are the two linked?
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The Bilingual Lexicon:
Concept-Mediation or Word-Association?
Conceptual Store
L1
WordsL2
Words
Concept Mediation
Conceptual Store
Word Association
L1
WordsL2
Words
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Concept-mediation:- no direct links between L1 & L2 items- L1 & L2 words are connected via a language-independent conceptual store
Word- association:- there are direct links between equivalent L1 & L2 words- L2 word meaning is always retrieved via L1
A later revision: A developmental shift from Word-Association to Concept-Mediation?
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More recently:Distributed models of bilingual representation(recall connectionism?)
- each word is represented as a collection of interconnected nodes
- some nodes are shared across L1 & L2
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Conceptual features(meaning)
Lexical features(form)
L1: tulipe
(Cognates) (Non-Cognates)
L2: tulip L1: pont L2: bridge
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So what do we learn from all this?
- there is probably one language system but individual languages show ‘reality’
- how languages are represented and processed depends on the characteristics of the bilingual as well as on the properties of linguistic units
- languages can be activated to varying extents depending on the linguistic context & nature of the task* (please see note below)
*note for this last point that I had meant to mention in class:the statement contained in it concerns, e.g., producing speech in L1 or L2 depending on the linguistic context/task demands; suppressing speech output from a particular language based on the situation. However, as far as, e.g., word recognition is concerned, there has been much debate about the degree to which a bilingual can exercise control over the activation of words from L1 or L2. There seems to be a substantial body of evidence that bilingual lexical access is non-selective and automatic in nature (for instance, even in tasks that are monolingual in nature, i.e., those that do not require explicitly the use of both L1 & L2, words from both languages are activated in bilinguals).
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Thank you