KEY TERMS & DEFINITIONS

Theory Theoretical Assumptions (incl. ontological, epistemological and axiological) Paradigms Models Methodology Methods

Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

Professor of Public Communication

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57022 – Managing CommunicationProfessor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMECU

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Uh oh … theory!

Theory = “An organised set of concepts, explanations and

principles of some aspect of human experience” (Littlejohn & Foss 2008, p. 14)

A set of concepts used to define and/or explain some phenomenon (Silverman 2000)

“Theory consists of plausible relationships produced among concepts and sets of concepts (Strauss & Corbin 1994, p. 278)

“Theories are explanations of phenomena” (Balnaves, Donald & Shoesmith 2009, p. 278)

57022 – Managing CommunicationProfessor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMECU

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Key terms Concept

Terms and definitions that classify and label variables being studied according to perceived patterns (eg. symmetric communication)

Explanation The “logical force” behind a theory, answering the

question “why?” Can be causal or practical Principles

The final dimension of theories – guidelines that enable interpretation of an event and aid interpretation and decisions on how to act

Taxonomies List of categories without explanation of how they

relate (taxonomies generally fall short of theory as they lack explanation and principles)

57022 – Managing CommunicationProfessor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMECU

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Key terms

Ontology Branch of philosophy that studies the nature of

existence Key questions:

• What is truth? Is there ‘one truth’ waiting to be discovered – or multiple truths (i.e. valid perspectives, views, beliefs)?

• What is reality? Scientific realism or social constructed – i.e. realist or relativist?

• Are humans agentic (pragmatist) or determined by external conditions (determinist)

• Is human behaviour mainly traits or states?

57022 – Managing CommunicationProfessor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMECU

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Key terms

Epistemology Branch of philosophy that studies how knowledge is

created – how people know what they know “the nature and status of knowledge” (Silverman 2000) Key questions asked:

• Is knowledge immutable and absolute (universalist) or constructed through perceptions, experiences, etc (relativist)

• Can we be ‘objective’ or are we subjective – or intersubjective (sharing subjectivities)?

• Can we be independent in our assessments or interdependent?

• Does knowledge arise through rationalism, empiricism or constructivism?

57022 – Managing CommunicationProfessor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMECU

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Key terms

Axiology Branch of philosophy that studies values – what values

guide or influence thinking and action and the implications of those values

• Can we be value free – or are we value-laden (i.e. biased) in various ways?

• Do we conduct value-conscious scholarship – or value-free scholarship?

• To what extent does the process of inquiry itself affect what is being seen?

57022 – Managing CommunicationProfessor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMECU

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Positivist v Naturalistic/Interpretative Paradigms ASSUMPTION KEY

QUESTIONSPOSITIVIST PARADIGM

INTERPRETATIVE PARADIGM

Ontological Assumption

What is the nature of reality?

Singular (one reality)One truthRealist

Multiple realities Multiple truthsRelativist

Epistemological Assumption

What is the relationship of the researcher to that being researched? (How do we acquire knowledge?)

IndependentObjectivist

InterdependentSubjectivistConstructionist (Constructionism denies any access to reality other than representations)1

Axiological Assumption

What is the role of values in the research process?

Value-freeUnbiased

Value-ladenBiased

Rhetorical Assumption

What is the language used?

FormalImpersonal Voice

InformalPersonal voice

Based on Creswell, J. 1994 cited in Frey, et al. 2000, p. 18. (1) Grossberg, et al. 2006, p. 205.

57022 – Managing CommunicationProfessor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMECU

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OASSUMPTION QUESTION POSITIVIST

PARADIGMINTERPRETATIVE PARADIGM

Methodological Assumption

What is the process of inquiry or research?

DeductionSearch for cause an effect relationships between variablesStatic designResearcher controlled settingQuantitative methodsContext-free generalisationsGoals of explanation, prediction and control

InductionHolistic understanding of patterns/behaviourEmergent designNatural setting

Qualitative methods

Context-bound findingsGoals of understanding and social change

Positivist v Naturalistic/Interpretative Paradigms

Based on Creswell, J. 1994 cited in Frey, et al. 2000, p. 18.

57022 – Managing CommunicationProfessor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMECU

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Types of theory

Nomothetic theory Seeks universal and general laws Method is (1) develop questions; (2) form hypotheses;

(3) test hypotheses; (4) formulate answers (theory)• Deductive • Rationalist and empirical

Practical theory (ideographic) Seeks to capture differences and diversity to provide

understanding that helps people to weigh up alternatives

Recognises knowledge is created by humans, it is created socially, is historically based, and is value laden

• Inductive• Constructionist

57022 – Managing CommunicationProfessor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMECU

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Nomothetic Ideographic/Practical Objective Scientific Empirical More quantitative Effectiveness in

persuasion Systematic/logical Causal/linear The truth is out there Knowledge is

discovered through observation

Interpretive Humanist Contextual More qualitative Participation and

negotiation Free human agency Non-linear, no sequence Truth lies within – we

create our own truths Knowledge arises out of

interaction between knower and known

57022 – Managing CommunicationProfessor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMECU

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Theory and practice?

“There is nothing so practical as a good theory” (Kurt Lewin 1951, p. 169)

“Theory and practice vitally interact, and one renews the other” (Boyer 1990, p. 23)

Theory and practice can and should be integrated, each informing the other

57022 – Managing CommunicationProfessor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMECU

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O Three Approaches to Scholarship Scientific

The ‘natural sciences’ Informed by ‘The Enlightenment’ and Modernism –

rationalist, empirical The “discovered world” – objective ‘truth’ is out there

Socio-scientific Birth of the social sciences Uses elements of the scientific approach, but focuses

on humans – particularly in a social setting How they behave in creating, exchanging and

interpreting meaning Humanist

Individual subjectivity, human interpretation “The discovering person” – ‘truth’ is constructed inside

57022 – Managing CommunicationProfessor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMECU

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Some terms

Paradigm A framework within which theories are formulated, a

theoretical framework (eg. postmodernism, constructionism)

From the Greek word paradeigma meaning a pattern As well as providing a clearly articulated and

accepted framework for understanding reality, paradigms can be confining (Kuhn)

57022 – Managing CommunicationProfessor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMECU

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Some terms

Model Some such as Silverman (2000, p. 77) use ‘model’ in

the same sense as paradigm for an “overall framework for looking at reality”

A more common use is in referring to a set of procedures to follow,a mapping of an approach

A practical demonstration or visualisation or a theory or concept

“An abstract representation of a process, a description of its structure or function” (Trenholm 2008, p. 23)

Models are always incomplete because they are simplified representations of complex processes (Trenholm 2008, p 24)

57022 – Managing CommunicationProfessor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMECU

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Some terms

Methodology The overall approach to studying research topics –

often used in place of ‘method’ (see below). “Methodology is the ontological beliefs that give

shape to the process of knowing (the science of method)” (Balnaves, Donald & Shoesmith 2009, p. 278)

Usually considered to be quantitative or qualitative, or overall research approaches such as ethnographic

Method A specific research technique – eg. experiments,

surveys, interviews, case studies, observation, etc

57022 – Managing CommunicationProfessor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMECU

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ReferencesBoyer, E. 1990, Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities of the

Professoriate, Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Princeton, NJ.

Grossberg, L. Wartella, E. Whitney, D. & Macgregor Wise, J. 2006, Media Making: Mass Media in a Popular Culture, 2nd edn, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.

Frey, L. Botan, C. & Kreps, G. 2000, Investigating Communication: An Introduction to Research Methods, Allyn & Bacon, Needham Heights, MA.

Lewin, K. 1951, Field Theory in Social Science: Selected Theoretical Papers, D. Cartwright (ed.), Harper & Row, New York.

Littlejohn, S. & Foss, K. 2008, Theories of Human Communication, 9th edn, Thomson-Wadsworth, Belmont, CA.

Silverman, D. 2000, Doing Qualitative Research, Sage, London.Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. 1994, ‘Grounded theory methodology: An

overview’ in N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (eds), Handbook of Qualitative Research, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 262-72.