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Key Messages

• Theprovisionofwaterandsanitationservicesneedstobebasedonaholisticview,inordertoreflectthemultifac-etednatureofinadequatewateraccess.

• Theresilienceandfunctioningofecosystemsmustbeensuredinordertosecurethehumanrighttowaterforpresentandfuturegenerations.

• Incorporatingthehumanrighttowaterinnationallegisla-tionisanimportanttoolespeciallyincountrieswithacertainlevelofruleoflawandinstitutionalcapacity.

• Institutionalcapacitymustbeapriorityforsuccessfulplanningandimplementationofthehumanrighttowaterandsanitation.Measurestoimproveaccountabilityandtransparencyinthewatersectormustbepromoted,andcapacity-buildingonwatergovernancemustbepursuedatalllevelsofsociety.

• Women’sknowledgeandexperiencemustbecentraltoallprojectsandplanstoaddressalackofsafeaccesstowaterandsanitation.Becauseofwomen’scentralroleaswaterprovidersforhouseholdsinmanydevelopingcountries,theirknowledgeandexperiencearecriticalto

anysuccessfulmeasuretoaddressthelackofaccesstowater.

• Landlawandpoliciesmustbereviewedtoensurethattheysupporttherealisationoftherighttowaterandsanitation.Thisincludesmandatingtheprovisionofwaterandsanitationtoallpersons,irrespectiveoftheirhousingandlandstatus,ensuringtheallocationofpubliclandfortheconstructionofwaterandsanitationinfrastructure,providingforsecuretenure,andguaranteeingaccesstotraditionalsourcesofwaterforindigenouspeople.

• Subsidyandtariffpoliciesmustberevisedtoremoveanyinconsistencieswiththehumanrighttowaterandsanita-tion.Itisparticularlyimportantthatthepricepaidbythepoorisnotdisproportionatetothepricepaidbythewealthy.

• Subsidiesmustreachtherighttargetgroupsandtariffregulationsmustapplytoallsuppliers,whetherpublic,private,community-based,small-scaleorlarge-scale.Na-tionalregulationauthoritiesmustfindthemeanstooverseethefeesleviedonthepoorest.

Apolicybrief forcentralgovernments,sub-sovereignnationalbodies,aiddonors,uni-versitiesandresearchorganisations,NGOs,advocacyorganisationsandprofessionalsworkingwithwateranddevelopment

THe HuMan RIgHT To WaTeR and SanITaTIonSecuring access to water for basic needs

How to CiteBjörklund,GandSjödin,J(eds).TheHumanRighttoWaterandSanitation.SecuringAccesstoWaterforBasicNeeds.SwedishWaterHousePolicyBriefNr.8

Copyright © 2010, Swedish Water House (SWH) Design: Marie A Györi, QuadrataProduction: Britt-Louise Andersson, SIWICover Photo: Erik Forhammar

Table of ContentsTheHumanRighttoWaterandSanitation 3BasicsAbouttheRighttoWater 5PracticalChallengestoImplementingtheRighttoWater 7InstitutionalCapacityandtheRoleofCourts 12KeyMessagesandRecommendations 14References 15

Printed by Trosa Tryckeri, Trosa, Sweden. The printing process has been certified according to the Nordic Swan label for environmental quality. For electronic versions of this and other SWH publications, visit www.swedishwaterhouse.se.

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Millionsof livesarestillclaimedeveryyear,andhumande-velopmentisheldbackonamassivescalebyunsafewater,inadequatesanitationandthelackofhygiene.RecentestimatesbytheWorldHealthOrganizationandUN-Waterindicatethatimprovementsinsanitationanddrinkingwatercouldreducethenumberofchildrenwhodieeachyearby2.2million(WHOandUN-Water,2010).Itisurgenttochangetheperceptionofthesefoundationsforhumanlife,frombasicneedstoentitlements.Accesstowaterandsanitation–ashumanrights–hasgainedgrowingattentionover the last fewyearsataglobal level,increasinglyengagingthewatersectorandtheinternationalcom-munityindiscussionsregardingitscontentandimplications.

In2007theSwedishWaterHouseputtogetheraClusterGrouponWaterandRights,comprisingavarietyofactorsinterestedinunderstandingtheimplicationsforpolicyandprac-ticeoftherighttowater.ThispolicybriefhasbeenpreparedbytheClusterGroup,consistingofmembersfromtheChurchofSweden,KTHRoyalUniversityofTechnology,theSwedishSociety forNatureConservation, theSwedishUniversityofAgriculturalSciences,ÅlandIslandsPeaceResearchInstitute,GeWaConsulting,andtheSwedishWomen’sLobby.Thebriefaimstoidentifybasicchallengesinimplementingthehumanrighttowaterandsanitation,andtoguidedecision-makersinsomeoftheprioritiesthatneedtobeagreedtosecuresafe,accept-ableandaccessiblewaterfordomesticpurposesforeveryone,notablyformarginalisedandvulnerablegroupsinsociety.

note to the Reader:

In2008theUNHumanRightsCouncilappointedanInde-pendentExpert,CatarinadeAlbuquerque,withamandatetofurtherclarifyanddefinetheobligationsofstatesrelatedtotherightbothtowaterandtosanitation.Furthermore,anewmilestonewasrecentlyreachedastheUNGeneralAssemblyadoptedaresolutionrecognisingaccesstocleanwaterandsanitationasahumanrightessentialforthefullenjoymentoflifeandallhumanrights.Arecenttrendhasevolvedtowardsrecognitionofsanitationasadistinctright.Safewater isnotpossiblewithoutfunctioningandsustainablesolutionsforsanita-tion.Inthissense,waterandsanitationareinextricablylinked.Butsanitation issues reach farbeyond its linkages towater.Wewanttoemphasisethatthispolicybriefwaspreparedtodealmainlywithaccesstowater,andthereforeitscoverageofsanitationissuesislimitedtocaseswheretheyrelatedirectlytowateraccess.

Thehumanrighttowaterentitleseveryonetosufficient,safe,acceptable,physicallyaccessibleandaffordablewater forpersonalanddomesticuses.(…)Therightofindividualsandgroupstoparticipateindecision-makingprocessesthatmayaffecttheirexerciseoftherighttowatermustbeanintegralpartofanypolicy,programmeorstrategyconcerningwater.

United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2002). General Comment No. 15: The right to water

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Livingwithoutaccesstosafeandreliablewaterisarealitysharedbyalmostonebillionpeoplearoundtheworld,mainlyinruralandperi-urbanareasandinformalsettlementsofdevelopingcountries(WHO&UNICEF,2008).Itisknownthatthissituationreduceslifeexpectancy,addsextraburdenstodomesticwork(mostlyundertakenbywomen),anddeniespeoplea lifeofdignity,especiallywheresanitationisalsopoor(UN,2005).Infact,theimpactofdiarrhoealdiseaseonchildrenisgreaterthanthecombinedimpactofHIV/AIDS,tuberculosisandmalaria(WHO&UNICEF,2010).

TheeffortstoreachthetargetsoftheMillenniumDevelopmentGoaltoincreasethenumberofpeoplewithaccesstowaterandsanitationhavebeenmoresuccessfulinsomepartsoftheworldthaninothers.ThemainprogresstowardstheMDGwatertargethasoccurredinAsia,LatinAmerica,theCaribbeanandEuroperatherthaninSub-SaharanAfrica,andinmanyruralareastherehasbeennoprogress,orconditionshaveactuallyworsened(UN,2008andGleicketal.,2009,p65),implyingthatitisnotthepoorestthathavebeenfavoured.

Humanrightsstandardshelporientpolicy-makingtowardsfocusingonthepoorestandmostmarginalisedgroupsinsociety

andtowardsensuringfairandequalaccesstowater.Thehumanrighttowaterentitleseveryonetosufficient,safe,acceptable,physicallyaccessibleandaffordablewaterforpersonalanddomesticuses.Byestablishingalegalframework,definingwhoisresponsibleforfulfillingtheright,andpromotingpro-poorandnon-discriminatoryserviceprovision,humanrightsstandardscaneffectivelystrengthenpovertyreductionefforts.Insituationsofcompetitionforwaterresources,humanrightsstandardsgiveprioritytothebasicneedsofallhumans.Acrucialaspectofthehumanrighttowaterandsanitationisthatnotonlydoesitentitlepeopletothewateritself,butalsotoaccountableinstitu-tions,accesstoinformation,non-discrimination,andmeaningfulparticipationindecision-makingoverwaterandsanitation.

Weknowthataccesstowaterisprimarilydeterminedbygovernanceandthewaywaterismanaged,notbynaturalrunoffpatterns.Technicallyandphysically there issufficientwatertohandlemostofthepresentandforeseenproblems.Theproblemisaccess.Accessinvolvespoliticalandeconomicissues:equity,affordability,andtheroleofthestateineitherprovidingservicesorensuringservicesareprovided.Inshortitrequirespoliticalwill.Sotoensurethattherighttowateris

The Human Right to Water and Sanitation

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implementeditneedsalegalinstrument,supportivenationalpolicies,andactionsatnationalaswellas local level–allpartsareequallyimportant. Wealsoknow that inglobalaverage terms,water forhouseholdconsumptiononlyaccounts for less than10percentof theoverallhumanwateruse.Therefore itdoesnotposeanymajorthreattonaturalfreshwateravailability.Asa

comparison,agricultureandindustryaccountsforacombined90percentofhumanwateruse(UNESCO,2009,p99).How-ever,ultimatelythestateoftheecosystemsreplenishingandpurifyingtheplanet’swaterwillalsodetermineourpossibilitiesforrealisingtherighttowater.Inthelongrun,protectingtherighttowaterforfuturegenerationsrequiressustainablewaterresources.

Box 1: Definitions of “sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water”.Ph

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Sufficient:Whiletheamountofwaterrequiredfortherighttowatertobemetvariesaccordingtodifferentconditions,20litrespercapitaperday(lcd)isconsideredaminimumquantitybytheWorldHealthOrganizationandinthe2006UNDPHumanDevelopmentReport,althoughitwillnotallowlaundryand/orbathingon-site.50lcdisaquantitywheremostbasiccon-sumptionandhygienerequirementsaremet.Someindividualsandgroupsmayalsorequireadditionalwaterduetohealth,climate,andworkconditions.TheUNIndependentExpertdeAlbuquerqueurgesstatestoaimforatleast50to100litrespercapitaperdaytoensurethefullrealisationoftheright.Safe:Freefrommicro-organisms,chemicalsubstancesandradio-logicalhazardsthatconstituteathreattoaperson’shealth.

Acceptable:Ofanacceptablecolour,odourandtasteforeachpersonalordomesticuse.Physically accessible:Sufficient,safeandacceptablewatermustbeaccessiblewithin,orintheimmediatevicinity,ofeachhousehold,educationalinstitutionandworkplace.Itmustbewithinsafephysicalreachforallsectionsofthepopulation.Affordable:Thedirectandindirectcostsandchargesassociatedwithsecuringwatermustbeaffordable,andmustnotcompromiseorthreatentherealisationofotherCovenantrights.

Source: UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment no. 15, para. 12 a-c; WHO, UNDP, OHCHR

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Basics about the Right to Waterare we entitled to piped water supply and water for free?Theanswertothesequestionsisno.TheUnitedNationsCom-mittee forEconomical,SocialandCulturalRightsstates in itsGeneralCommentNo.15thatthehumanrighttowaterentitleseveryonetosufficient,safe,acceptable,physicallyaccessibleandaffordablewaterforpersonalanddomesticuses.Theseusesincludedrinking(consumptionthroughbeveragesandfoodstuffs),personalsanitation(removalofhumanexcretawhenwater-basedsanitationisused),clotheswashing,foodpreparation(includingfoodhygiene),andpersonalandhouseholdhygiene(CESCR,2002,para12a).Itisnotsaidthatanyspecificservicelevel,suchashouseholdconnections,isrequiredtofulfiltheright.Infact,lowcosttechnicalsolutionsarerecommendedasameasuretokeeptheserviceaffordableforthepoor(CESCR,2002,para37h).Solutionsneedtobecontext-specific.

All rightscomewithduties.Whilestriving foruniversalaccess towaterandsanitation,everyoneshouldusewaterresponsiblyandbemindfuloftheneedtoprotectthispreciousresourcebyavoidingoveruseandpollution.Beyondthat,inordertosecuretheeconomicviabilityofwaterandsanitationservices,everyonewho isable toshouldcontribute to thefinancingofwaterservices.Statesarenotobligedtoprovideaccesstowaterandsanitationfreeofcharge–butitshouldbeaffordableforall.Thismeansthattheymayneedtobefreeofchargeforthoseunabletopay.

Waterisalsocrucialfortherealisationofmanyotherrights.Examplesarefoodproduction(therighttoadequatefood);ensuringenvironmentalhygiene(therighttohealth);securinglivelihoods(therighttoearnalivingbyworking);andenjoyingculturalactivities(therighttotakepartinculturallife)(CESCR,

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Box 2: The legal basis for the right to water

Variousinternationallegaldocumentsrecognisethehumanrighttowater,eitherexplicitlyorimplicitly.Waterismen-tionedexplicitlyasahumanrightinthreemaintreaties:• ConventionontheRightsoftheChild(1979)• ConventionontheEliminationofallformsofDiscrimi-

nationAgainstWomen(1979)• ConventionontheRightsofPersonswithDisabilities(2008)

Someofthebest-knownlegallybindingtreatiesonhumanrightsmakeimplicitmentionofthehumanrighttowaterwhenstatingtherighttolifeortherighttoanadequatestandardofliving:• CharteroftheUnitedNations(1945)• InternationalCovenantonEconomic,Socialand

CulturalRights(1966)(ICESCR)• InternationalCovenantonPoliticalandCivilRights

(1966)

UNGeneralAssembly:• In2010,althoughnotlegallybinding,theUNGeneral

Assemblyadoptedaresolutionrecognisingaccesstocleanwaterandsanitationasahumanrightessentialforthefullenjoymentoflifeandallhumanrights.

The followingareexamplesof regional instruments thatcontainexplicitmentionofthehumanrighttowater:• AfricanCharterontheRightsandWelfareofthe

Child(1990)• ProtocolonWaterandHealth7(1999)totheCon-

ventionontheProtectionandUseofTransboundaryWatercoursesandInternationalLakes(1992)

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2002,para6).Whileitisimportanttotakeallusesofwaterintoaccountwhenplanningforsustainability,ahumanrights-basedapproachtowatergovernancewillassistinprioritisingthesmallamountsofwaterneededforpersonalandhouseholdusesoverallotheruses.

Focus on the most vulnerable and marginalised“Water and water facilities and services must be accessible to all, including the most vulnerable or marginalised sections of the population.”CommitteeonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(2002),

GeneralNo.15,para.12ciii

Non-discriminationisaninherentfeatureofhumanrightsthinkingandthusalsoofthehumanrighttowater.Althoughallhumanbeingsareentitledtosafewateratareasonabledistancefromtheirhome,specialattentionshouldbegiventomarginalisedandvulnerablegroupswhoaremostoften thosewho lackaccesstoimprovedwaterandsanitationorwhoareaffectedworstbyaninadequatewatersupply.

Provision of water – by whom?StatespartiestotheInternationalCovenantonEconomicSocialandCulturalRights(ICESCR)haveobligationstorespect,protectandfulfiltherightssetoutintheCovenant.Themaindutytorealisethehumanrighttowaterthereforelieswithnationalgovernments.Respect referstogovernments’responsibilitytoensurethatexistingaccesstowaterisnotobstructed;protect meansthatgovernmentshaveanobligationtomakesurethatnoactors,includinglocal,national, international,privateorpubliccompaniesengageinactivitiesthatinfluencewaterresources,orinterferewiththerighttowater; fulfil meansthatgovernmentshaveadutytogradually

ensurethateveryonehasaccesstowater,forinstancebyensur-ingthatsufficientfundsareallocatedtothewaterandsanitationsectorandthroughpolicyreformsregardingwatersupplyandsanitationandwaterresourcesmanagement.Formanygovernments,providingwater,sanitationandothereconomic,socialandculturalrightsisasubstantialchallenge.ThisiswhytheICESCRacceptsaprogressiveimplementationoftherights.Thismeansthatastateisnotviolatingthehumanrighttowaterifonlypartofitspopulationhasadequateaccesstowater,as long asitismakingeveryeffortandusingitsmaximumavailableresourcestoprogressivelyrealisetheright.

Otheractorsalsohavearesponsibilitytoatleastnothamperorobstructtherealisationofrightsinothercountries.Companiessmallorlargeandwhetherlocal,nationalorinternationalmustensurethattheiractivitiesdonotharmwaterresourcesandim-pedeaccesstowaterforlocalpopulations.Theextra-territorialobligationsfortheinternationalcommunity,donors,theUN,andinternationalfinancialinstitutionsinrelationtotherighttowaterincludeensuringthatsufficientfinancing(includingaid)isprovidedforprojectsaimedatmeetingbasicneedstowater,andthattheirprojectsdonotviolatetherighttowater.

Transboundary water Theobligationofgovernmentstofulfiltherighttowaterappliesonly to theirowncitizens,butwatermovesacrossnationalborders. Ifanupstreamcountrymanagesa transboundaryriverinawaywhichdecreasestheflowdownstream,itcancreateconditionsunderwhich it isdifficult fordownstreamcountries tofulfil theright towaterof theircitizens.Citizensofonecountrycannotclaimthewaterresourcesofanothercountrytofulfiltheirrighttowater,butequitableandreason-ableuseare importantprinciplesof transboundarywaterconventions(UN,1992b,Art.2,para2(c)UN1997,Art.6,andILA,1966,Art.4and5).

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Box 3: The right as part of the Internatioal Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Right

TheUnitedNationsCommitteeonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(CESCR)isthebodyofindependentexpertsthatmonitorsimplementationoftheInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(ICESCR)byitsStatesparties.Thehumanright towaterhasbeen increasinglyrecognisedinmanycountriesaftertheadoptionbytheCom-mitteeoftheGeneral Comment No. 15: The right to waterin2002.AlthoughGeneralCommentNo.15isnotitselflegallybinding,itisanauthoritativeinterpretationoftheprovisions

oftheICESCR.In2006,theSub-CommissiononthePromo-tionandProtectionofHumanRightsadoptedGuidelines for the Realisation of the Right to Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation. AlsoplacingtherightssquarelyundertheICESCRisCatarinadeAlbuquerque,thefirstIndependent Expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to access to safe drinking water and sanitationappointedbytheUNHumanRightsCouncilin2008.

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Practical Challenges to Implementing the Right to WaterThe many faces of inadequate water accessManypeopledeprivedof theirhumanright towaterdoinfacthavesomekindofaccesstowater.Theiraccessmaybeinequitable,ineffective,unsustainableorrestrictedtoinsufficientorunsafewater,astheresultofanumberofcircumstances.Thissectionwillprovideanoverviewofsuchcircumstances,withtheaimofhighlightingthevarietyofobstaclesthatmayneedtobedealtwithforthefullimplementationoftherighttowater.Thelessontobelearntisthataccesstowaterdependsonarangeofeconomic,political,technical,cultural,financial,organisational,socialandmanagerialissues.Becauseofthemulti-facetednatureoftheproblemaholisticviewonwaterserviceprovisionisimperative.

Lackofaccesstosufficientwatercanbeduebothtonon-availabilityofwaterandtonon-coverageofservices.Waterscarcitycausedbyseasonalfluctuations,withnaturalshort-agesindryseasons,maybefurtherexacerbatedbyclimatechangeaspredictedbytheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimate

Change(IPCC).However,themainproblemofwateraccessisnotthephysicallackofwaterresources.AstheUNDPpointsoutinthe2006HumanDevelopmentReport:“Thereismorethanenoughwaterintheworldfordomesticuse,agricultureandforindustry.Theproblemisthatsomepeople–notablythepoor–aresystematicallyexcludedfromaccessbytheirpoverty,bytheirlimitedlegalrightsorbypublicpoliciesthatlimitaccesstotheinfrastructuresthatprovidewaterforlivesandforlivelihoods.”(UNDP,2006b,p11)Flawed water man-agement policiesexacerbatescarcity.Insomeareasaccesstosufficientdrinkingwateriscurrentlyhamperedbyanover-exploitationofgroundwaterresourcesforotheruses,suchasirrigationandindustry.Also,illegalconnectionsandunrestrictedusemayleavelesswaterforthoseatthe“endofthepipe”.Corruptionaffectsallaspectsofthewatersectorwithdirectandprofoundeffectsonthelivesandlivelihoodsofbillionsofpeople(TransparencyInternational,2008).Non-coverageofservicescanbeduetocorruption,lackofresourcesorinsomecases,theexclusionofmarginalisedgroupsfromthejurisdictionofpublicutilities.Non-existenttariffregulationcanalsoleadto

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inequitableaccess,ashasbeenthecaseinmanycountrieswherethepoorarechargedhigherwaterpricesthantherich(seesectiononfinancebelow).

Lackofaccesstosafewatercanbeduetoproblemsofwater quality.Theprimaryhealthriskisfrompathogenicorgan-isms,whichcannormallybeeliminatedquitesimply(COHRE,2007,p92).Butinanumberofareaslargepopulationsarenowexposedtotherisksofconsuminggroundwaterwithhighlevelsofnaturally-occurringcontaminants,posingconsiderablehealthrisks.Forexample,inIndiaaloneasmanyas77mil-lionareatriskofeitherfluorosisorarsenicosiscausedbyhighlevelsoffluorideandarsenicingroundwater(Meinzen-Dick&Rosegrant,eds.,2001;WorldBank/WSP,2005).Also,inmanyareassurfacewaterisbecomingincreasinglypollutedbydischargesofuntreatedsewage,agriculturalandindustrialeffluents.Whileitisimperativetosafeguardfuturewaterqual-ity,itisimportanttonotethatwaterforbasicneedsconstituteslessthan10%ofoverallwaterconsumptionandsocausesaverysmallpartofthetotalwastewaterproduced.

Inequitableaccesscanbeduetosocialfeaturesofasocietysuchasdiscriminatory practicesandtheconsequentexclusionofvulnerableandmarginalisedgroupsfromsharedsafewatersources(Singhetal.,2005).Culturally assigned gender roles alsodetermineaccesstowaterandsanitation.Womenandgirlsfaceparticularlysevereobstaclestotheirhumandevelop-mentanddignityasaconsequenceofthelackofimprovedsanitationfacilities.However,manytimes,programmesandstrategiestoaddressthelackofwaterandsanitationdonotconsidertheparticularknowledgeandexperienceofwomenderivedfromtheircentralroleasdomesticwatermanagersinmanycountries.Itisurgenttoaddressthisinadequacy.Becauseofwomen’scentralroleaswaterprovidersforhouseholdsinmanydevelopingcountries,notonlyistheirknowledgeandexperiencecriticaltoanysuccessfulmeasuretoaddressthelackofaccesstowater,buttheyarealsoneededtodesignprogrammesthatareeffective,equitableandsustainableinlocalcommunitycontexts.

Ineffectiveaccesscanbeduetocultural beliefs.Culturallydefinedattributesof“good-quality”watercandeterminethewater-fetchingbehaviourofwomeninlocalcommunities,evenwhenthewaterinfactisnotsafe.Consequently,theymaynotusewaterfromimprovedsourcesfordrinkingandcooking(Singh,2006).Thereforeexcludingwomenfromprogrammedesignandimplementationmayincreasetheriskofcontinueduseofunsafewaterevenafterimprovedwatersourceshavebeeninstalled.Waternotonlyneedstobesafe,itneedstoberegardedassuch.

Unsustainableaccesscanbeduetomismanagementlead-ingtobreakdowns.Ensuringsustainedaccesstowaterrequiresinstitutional,financialand technicalcapacitiesandagoodcoordinationbetweenthem.Experiencehasalsoshownthatunlesswaterservicesaredemandedandsupportedbytheend-users,theyarenotlikelytofunctioninthelongrun.This

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canberemediedtoalargeextentbyinformationsharingandtrueparticipationbytheend-usersinplanning,managementandevaluationofwaterservices.Strengtheningwatergovern-ancebyclarifyingtherolesofgovernment,civilsocietyandtheprivatesectorandtheirresponsibilitiesregardingowner-ship,managementandadministrationofwaterresourcesandservicesiscrucialtoensuresustainedandequitableaccesstowater.

degrading ecosystems“We need to recognise that water belongs to the earth and all its species and that we are only the trustees of this precious resource.”

KoïchiroMatsuura,Director-GeneralofUNESCO(2008)

Naturalecosystemsprovideservicesthathelphumansmain-tainabalancewith theearth’senvironmentandprotectusfromharm.Preservingtheseecosystemsaidspopulationswithfloodcontrol,filteringnutrientsandpollutants,mitigatingtheeffectsofclimatechange,sustainingbiodiversity,andprovidingpeoplelivingdownstreamwithwater.Protectingandrestoringtheecosystemsthatnaturallycapture,filter,storeandreleasewateriscrucialtoincreasingtheavailabilityofwaterofgoodquality(UNWater,2006).Thedamagetosuchecosystemsisinsomecasesverysevereduetohumans’inabilitytoreplicatetheservices theecosystemsprovide.Asweareanintegralpartofecosystems,andtheirfunctioningprovidesaresourcebasethatamongotherthingshelpsustomeetourbasicneeds,theirsustainablemanagementshouldensurethefoundationson

whichtobuildahumanrighttowater(UNESCO,2006).Whenmanagingcompetingdemandsforwater,ecosystemsas“waterusers”alsoneedtobeconsidered(UNESCO,2003,p295;MA,2005,p177).Howeverthereisnogreatconflictbetweenwaterforbasichumanneedsandforecosystems.Ingeneralwateruse fordomesticpurposesconstitutes thesmallestshareoftotalextractivewateruseanditsconflictwithecosystemwateruseisthereforealsosmall.Globally,waterforhouseholduseaccountsforlessthan10percentofoverallhumanwateruse,comparedwith20percentforindustryandbetween70–80percentforagriculture(UNESCO,2009,p99).However,inecosystemsthatareconsideredvulnerable,itwouldbeusefultoestablishtheir“sustainabilityboundaries”,beyondwhichhumanuseofwaterwouldbeinconflictwiththeenvironmentalflows(Kingetal.,2000;Postel&Richter,2003;MA,2005).

Itisnotarguedherethatprotectionofecosystemswillau-tomaticallyresultintherealisationofthehumanrighttowater.Issuesofgovernance,financingand technicalsolutionsaremoredirectdeterminantsofsomeone’saccesstowater.Also,waterasanaturalresourceandwatersuppliedtousersaregovernedbydifferentlawsandinstitutions.However,inthelongrun,healthyecosystemsareafundamentalprerequisiteformakingtherealisationofthehumanrighttowaterpossible.Ifecosystemsarenottakencareof,waterqualitywilldeteriorateandtreatmentcostsincrease.Inotherwords,ensuringasafeandaffordablewatersupplywillbecomeevenmoredifficult.Therefore,whilesafeguardingtherighttowaterforall,engag-ingbothrights-holdersandwaterprovidersinenvironmentalsustainabilityiscrucial.

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Land tenure and water rightsTherealisationofthehumanrighttowatercanbecomplicatedbydomesticlawsgoverninglandtenureandwaterrights.Thispertainsparticularlytoruralareasandurbaninformalsettlements.Butitisimportanttonotethateveryoneisentitledtowaterfortheirbasicneedsregardlessoftheirownershiporlandstatus.

Waterrightsunderdomesticlawconcernspecificsourcesofwater,oftenadjacenttoapieceoflandunderthetenureofsomebodywhohas the right touse thewater from thissource.Waterrightsmayconflictwiththehumanrighttowaterifholdersofwaterrightsdonotsharetheirwatersourcewiththeirneighbours,sincethismayforcethemtofetchwaterfromfurtherawaythantheimmediatevicinity.Inmanycountriespoli-cieshaveprotectedsuchwaterrightsfortheuseofwaterinagriculture(Appleton&Smout2003,p41).Further,incultureswheremen traditionallyare the landownerswomenmayconsequentlyfacerestrictedaccesstowater.

Ininformalsettlements,serviceprovidersareoftenreluctanttoextend theirservices into thesettlements,eitherbecausetheyseedifficultiesinchargingpeoplewhoarenotformallyregisteredresidents,orasaresultofgovernmentpolicythatprohibitsserviceprovision in theseareas,since itcouldbe

consideredaslegitimisingthem(COHRE,2006,p125).Itisalsocommonfornationalpoliciesestablishingdomesticwateruseasthehighestprioritytofailtoincludeinformalwaysofaccessingthiswater(inruralandslumareas)(Subramanian,Jagannathan,&Meinzen-Dick,1997,p139).

Statesmustpreventthirdpartieswhocontrolrivers,wellsetc.fromhinderingwateraccessforpersonalanddomesticuses(CESCR,2002,para24).Nohouseholdshouldbedeniedtherighttowaterbecausesomeoneelseownsthelandwherethewatersourceislocatedorwherewaterfacilitiesneedtobeinstalled.Thisisespeciallyrelevantforpeoplelivingininformalsettlements,wheretheydonothaveformallandtenure–theirrighttowaterexistsnevertheless(CESCR,2002,para16c).

GeneralCommentNo.15alsoacknowledgestheneedtoprotectwaterresourcesontheancestrallandsofindigenousgroups.Indigenouspeopleshaveauniquespiritualandcul-turalrelationshiptothelandtheyhavetraditionallyinhabitedandknowhowtomanagelandandwatersustainably.Thisisacknowledgedandshouldbetakenintoaccount,accord-ingtotheUNConventiononBiologicalDiversity(Art.8j).AnexampleofhowthehumanrighttowaterofanindigenousgroupwasdefendedincourtisfoundinBox4.

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Box 4: Yakye Axa v. Paraguay

Thecaseof the indigenouscommunityofYakyeAxav.ParaguayattheInter-AmericanCourtofHumanRightscon-cernstheindigenouspeoples’propertyrightsoverancestralland.TheYakyeAxa indigenouscommunityhadbeendeniedaccess to their traditional lands, forcing them toliveoutsidethefenceoftheirterritory,onaroadsideunderextremeconditions.Asaresultofthis16membersofthecommunitydied. Withoutaccesstoland,theindigenouscommunitywerealsodeprivedofaccesstotraditionalmeansoflivelihood,whichinturnledto,amongotherthings,ascarcityofwater.Forbiddentousethewatersourcesontheirancestralterritory,thecommunitymemberswereforcedtocollectrainwater,whichledtoserioushealthproblemsduringdrought.Initssentence in favourof thecommunity, theCourt referredtotheGeneralCommentontherighttowater.TheCourtestablishedthat“theStatedidnotguaranteetherightofthemembersoftheYakyeAxaCommunitytocommunalprop-erty.TheCourtdeemsthatthisfacthashadanegativeeffectontherightofthemembersoftheCommunitytoadecentlife,“(…)toobtaincleanwaterandtopracticetraditionalmedicinetopreventandcureillnesses.”“Furthermore,theStatehasnottakenthenecessarypositivemeasurestoensurethatthemembersoftheYakyeAxaCommunity,duringtheperiodinwhichtheyhavebeenwithoutterritory,havelivingconditionsthatarecompatiblewiththeirdignity(…)”

Source: Inter-American Court of Human Rights (2005)

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Pricing and financing of water servicesInstallingandmanagingwaterservicesinvolvessubstantialcosts.Althoughstatesorgovernments,under the “obliga-tion to fulfil” in theCESCR,are toensurewater services,whetherprivatelyorpubliclyowned,thisdoesnotmeanthatgovernmentalbodiesshouldfullycoverthecostsofwatersupplyandsanitationservices.Infact,inallcountries,waterservicesarefinancedthroughacombinationoftariffs,taxesand transfers (grantsand loans fromothergovernments)(OECD,2009).

Thechallengetogovernmentsistofindthecombinationofthesesourcesoffinancethatworksbestintheircountryandtomanagethemsothatthepoordonotbearadisproportionatelylargeburdenofwaterandsanitationcosts (CESCR,2002,para27).Itisalsoachallengetoensurethesustainabilityoffinances,meaningthatthereshouldbeenoughmoneytocoverthecostsofconstruction,operation,maintenance,extension,rehabilitation,capacitybuildingandwaterresourcesmanage-ment.Unsustainablefinancesarelikelytoleadtounsustainableaccesstoservices.

Important instruments in thework towardsequitablepric-ingofwateraresubsidiesandtariffregulation.Unfortunately,neitherofthesehassofarshownitselftobeveryeffectiveinreachingthemarginalisedandvulnerablegroupsthatarethecentreofattentionforthehumanrighttowater(seebox5).One important reason for this is thatbothsubsidyschemesandregulationpracticesoftenfocusonutilities thatprovideservicesthroughlarge-scalenetworksystems.Sincealargepartofthepoorestaresuppliedbysmall-scalewatervendors,wells,communaltapsorsmall,community-managedsystems,theseinstrumentsmostoftenfailtoincludethem.

SouthAfricaprovidesinterestingexamplesofthebalancebetweenaffordabilityandsustainablefinancing.Itisacountrythathastakenboldstepstowardstherealisationofwaterforall,butitsexperiencealsoshowsthecomplexityoftheissue.ThefreebasicwaterpolicyinSouthAfricahasnotcompletelysucceededinreachingallthepoorestandonlythepoorest,butitmustbedeemedrelativelysuccessful,consideringthatitalsopromotesenvironmentalandfinancialobjectives(Muller,2008).In2001,whenthepolicywasintroduced,29percentof thepopulationdidnothaveadequateaccess towater,whilein2008thisnumberwasonly12percent(DepartmentofWaterandEnvironmentalAffairs,SouthAfrica,2009).ArecentcaseintheConstitutionalCourtsupportedtheuseofprepaidwatersupplyinJohannesburg,acontestedmeasurefordistributingabasic,freeamountofwaterandatthesametimeensuringrevenuesforwatervolumesabovethatamount(box6). Inconclusion, it is important tohighlight innovativenewpracticestoensuresubsidiesandtariffregulationreachthepoor.

Box 5: Do current water subsidies reach the poor in south Asian countries? A study in Bangalore, India and Kathmandu, Nepal

Largesubsidies for thewatersectorare typical inSouthAsiancountries.Still,ahighproportionofpoorpeopledoesnothaveprivatewaterconnectionsandarethusunabletobenefitfromtheextensivesubsidies.Ananalysisbasedontwocity-levelhouseholdsurveysconductedinKathmandu(Nepal)andBangalore(India),showsthataboutthreequar-tersofthesubsidiesavailabletowaterutilitiesinthecitiesaredeliveredinawaythatcompletely fails toreach thepoor.ThevastmajorityofsubsidyresourcesarespentonloweringtariffsforprivateconnectionsthroughanIncreas-ingBlockTariff,eventhoughmanypoorpeopledonotusewaterfromthesetypesofconnections.Subsidisedpublictapswouldbeamoreeffectivewaytochannelresourcesbutalsosufferedfromseriousdisadvantages.Barelyhalfofthepoorhaveprivatetaps,somostareexcludedaltogetherfromthistypeofsubsidy.Andduetothelowvolumedeliveredbythepublictapnetwork,theimplicitsubsidyreceivedbyeachpoorhouseholdisverylow.Theaveragenon-poorhouseholdreceives44%moresubsidythantheaveragepoorhouseholdinKathmandu,and15%moreinBangalore.Foster, Pattanayak and Stalker Prokopy (2003)

Box 6: Mazibuko et al. v. City of Johannesburg et al. in the Constitutional Court of South Africa

FiveresidentsofPhiri township,Soweto, Johannesburg,broughtbeforetheConstitutionalCourtthewaterinstitutionsofJohannesburg,claiminga)thattheamountoffreebasicwaterprovidedtoeachhouseholdpermonth(6000litres)was inappropriate,since itdidnot takeaccountof thenumberofpersonslivingineachhouseholdandb)thatitwasunlawfultoinstallpre-paidwatermetersinthisarea.

TheCourtheldthatthedecisiononhowmuchwatershouldbesuppliedforfree(“sufficient”water)isbettermadebythelegislativeandexecutivebranchesofthegovernment,ratherthanbyacourt,sincesufficiencyvarieswithcontextandshouldbeamatterofdemocraticaccountability.Further,theCourtreferredtotheelementofprogressiverealisationcontainedintherighttowaterwhenrefusingtofixtheamountoffreewaterat50litres/person/day(asdemandedbytheapplicants).[46>]

Installingpre-paidmeterswasseenasreasonablebytheCourtinviewoftheproblemswithunpaidwaterbillsinthearea,especiallysincetheresidentsalsoagreedthattheprevioussituationwasunsustainableandneededremedy-ing.Thesuspensionofthewaterservicethatoccurswhenthepre-paidcreditrunsoutwasnotconsideredanunlawfulcut-offfromthewaterservice,sinceresidentsarenevercutofffromthebasicamountof6000litrespermonth.

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Institutional Capacity and the Role of CourtsIntheprevioussectionanumberofpracticalchallengestotheimplementationoftherighttowaterwereidentified.Althoughthesechallengesarelikelytobemanifestinmanycountrieswheretherighttowaterisnotrealised,itisimportanttoac-knowledgethatthemosteffectivemeasuresforfacingthemwilldependonthelevelofgovernanceandtheinstitutionalcapacityofeachcountry.Alsotheextentoftheruleoflawintermsofformaljudiciarieswillaffectthepossiblewaysforimplementingthehumanrighttowater.Especiallyfordonorcountries,UNorganisations, INGOsandotherswhoassistdevelopingcountriesintheimplementationofthehumanrighttowater,itisimportanttoconsiderthesefactors.

Incorporationof thehumanright towater innational lawallowscitizenstoaskforcourtdecisionsiftheybelievethattheirrighthasbeenviolated.Inseveralcasesthishasbeenanavenueforensuringbetterwateraccess. Inmanyplaces,however,customarylawprevails.There,thenumberofcitizensclaimingtheirrighttowaterincourtisnotlikelytoincrease,eveniftherighttowaterisincorporatedinnationallaw(seebox7).Beyondthat,areallaspectsofthehumanrighttowaterbestset-tledincourts?TheMazibukoetal.case(seebox6)fromSouthAfricaisinterestinginthisrespect.Ontheonehand,citizenswantedtobegrantedwhattheysawasasufficientamountofwaterforfree.Ontheother,theconceptof“sufficient”ismeanttobedynamicandcontextual,sinceneedsvary,dependingfor

Box 7: Legitimacy of judiciary systems

Existingsidebysidewithmanyformal judicialsystemsareinformalandtraditional justicemechanisms.Verysimpleinoutlook,substanceandprocedure,theseinstitutionsconstitutetheonlymeansofobtainingjusticeformillionsofpeople.Theirflexibility,simplicityandcheapnessallowthemtodealwithcasesquickly,butconcernsexistovertheirrespectfornaturaljusticeandprinciplesofequity.Insomecountries,traditional/informaljusticemechanismshavebeenmadesubjecttostatutesandbroadprinciplesofhumanrightstoensuresomedegreeofcertainty,butthishasnotdealtwiththefactthatcustomaryrulesareoftenunwrittenandfluid,subjecttotheinterpretationofthepersoninchargeatanygivenmoment.

Fromahumanrightsperspective, therearehelpfulaswellasdegradingcustomaryrules.Dependingonwhichisinplayatthetime,theirapplicationmayenhanceorerodeformalguarantees.Andasthisistheonlymeansofjusticeformanypeopleintheirlifetime,therealityisthatsomemayneverknowthattheyareforinstanceentitledtomorewaterthanthetribalorvillageelderallocatedtothem.

Contributed by Sonkita Conteh, Legal Officer, Right to Water Programme, COHRE Africa Office

Box 8: Water sector reform in Kenya

In2002KenyalaunchedamajorreformofitswatersupplysectorbyadoptinganewWaterAct.Mainly, the reformseparatedthefunctionsofpolicyformulation,regulationandserviceprovision,sothatthetwolattershouldbeindepend-entfrompolitics.Italsoincludeddecentralisationofservicedelivery.Humanrightsprinciplesand theMDGswere toguidethereformprocess,accordingtotheMinistryofWaterandIrrigation.

The reformshave led to the introductionofnewfea-tures,suchasstakeholderparticipationindecision-making,informationsharing,andcomplaintsmechanisms tofightcorruption.Thesemeasuresareallpositivewhenseenfromahumanrights-basedapproach,but fewof themworkas intended inpractice. Importantpolicydocumentsareonlyavailablewhenpaidfor,andevenifpeoplemakecomplaintsaboutcorruptpractices,littlehappens(UNDP/WGF2007).

Despitethecreationofnew,autonomousbodies,politi-ciansstillhave influenceovervariousaspectsofwatersupply;fromthelocallevelserviceproviderstothenationalregulator(Nilsson&Nyanchaga,2008).

exampleonhealthstatusandwhetheryouhavewater-bornesanitationornot.TheconstitutionalcourtofSouthAfricadidnotwanttorenderthisconceptstatic.Itarguedthatitcouldonlytellthegovernmenttoreviseitspolicyregardingwhatwasasufficientamountoffreewaterifitwasdeemedunreason-able(whichitwasnotinthiscase),butheldthatitcouldnotprescribeanyspecificnewpolicy.Thispointofviewstressestheimportanceofaccountableanddemocraticpolicy-makersfortheimplementationofthehumanrighttowater.

Anotherimportantreasonforincorporatingthehumanrighttowater innational lawsis that it facilitates implementationthroughapolicyapproach.Humanrightsimposeobligationsonstates; therefore theyneedtobetranslatedintospecificnationallegalobligationsandresponsibilities.Obligationsbystatescanonlybeexecutedif there isanunderstandingoftheminthenationalcontext.Itisalsomorelikelythatthewatersectorwillgetpriorityinbudgetallocationsiftherighttowaterisstipulatedinnationallaw.

Theparticularfeaturesofeachcountryandsocietydeter-minewhichmeasuresaremosteffectiveinthatsetting.Inasocietywithwell-establishedinstitutions,thepassingoflawsandpolicieshasbeenshowntobeauseful tooltoextendaccesstowaterandsanitation.Butinasocietywithahighlevelofcorruption,lackofgoodgovernanceandinefficientjudiciaries,theroadfromlegislationtoimplementationwillbe

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Level of government effec-tiveness and rule of law

Examples of countries

Suggested actions to ensure the right to water and sanitation (RTWS)

High BotswanaNamibiaSouthAfricaUruguayMalaysia

MakebudgetallocationsfortheimplementationofRTWSIncreasecoordinationbetweeninstitutionsStrengthenindependentregulationRevisetariffpolicyDevelopmulti-stakeholderdialogueonpolicies

Medium UgandaIndonesiaRwandaArmeniaArgentina

IdentifymarginalisedandvulnerablegroupsStartmulti-stakeholderdialogueonpoliciesCapacitydevelopmentoflocal-levelinstitutionsandserviceprovidersBroadawarenesscampaignsonRTWSSupportcommunitiesindemandingtheirRTWSCapacitydevelopmentofinstitutionsatalllevels

Low CambodiaHaitiBoliviaPakistan

BroadawarenesscampaignsonRTWSSupportcommunitiesindemandingtheirRTWSCapacitydevelopmentofinstitutionsatalllevels

Table 1: Implementation of the human right to water at different levels of institutional capacity. Source for indicators of govern-ment effectiveness and rule of law including examples of countries: World Bank Group, 2009.

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muchlonger.Insuchsituationsinstitutionalcapacity-buildingwillbeavitalingredient.Inparallel,itisimportanttoworkwithacommunityapproachandraiseawarenessofthehumanrighttowateramongpeopleatalllevelsinsociety.

In thecaseofKenya(seebox8),awatersectorreformwithahumanrights-basedapproachtookplacebeforethegovernancestructuresofthecountrywereentirelypreparedforit.Evenifhumanrightsthinkinghasstartedtospreadin

thecountry,itwilltaketimebeforeithasrealeffectsonwateraccess for thepoorest.Table1presentsoursuggestedac-tionsthatmaybeeffectiveinadvancingtheimplementationofthehumanrighttowaterincountrieswithdifferentlevelsofinstitutionalcapacity.

Finally,itshouldnotbeforgottenthat,evenifthehumanrighttowaterisnotenshrinedinnationallaw,itisnoexcusefordifferentactorsnottoworktowardstheimplementationoftheright.

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Key Messages and RecommendationsThispolicybriefstressestheimportanceofacknowledgingandimplementingeveryone’shumanrighttowaterandsanitation,andoffocussingeffortstoensureaccesstowaterandsanitationforthemostvulnerableandmarginalisedgroupsinsociety.Itmakesitclearthatthewaterquantityandservicelevelscoveredbythehumanrighttowaterareonlybasic;justenoughtocoverpersonalanddomesticneeds.Thebriefalsoconcludesthatevenifwaterfordomesticpurposesconstitutesonlyalimitedamountofthefreshwaterresource,long-termthinkingintheformofeco-systemsmanagementiscrucial,alongwithstrategiesonwaterandsanitationservicesprovisioninordertosecuresustainableaccesstowaterandsanitationforfuturegenerations.

• The provision of water and sanitation services needs to be based on a holistic view,inordertoreflectthemultifac-etednatureofinadequatewateraccess.Thereisaneedtoevaluatetheeffectivenessofexistingwaterandsanita-tionsupplyprogrammesandtodevelopcontext-specificsolutionsbyinvolvingwaterandsanitationprofessionalsfromgovernmentanddonoragencies,expertsfrommultilat-eralfinanceinstitutionsandpeopleatthelocallevel.

• The resilience and functioning of ecosystems must be ensuredinordertosecurethehumanrighttowaterforpresentandfuturegenerations.Awareness-raisingamongrightsholdersandwaterprovidersonthelinksbetweensustainableuseofecosystemsandcleanwaterisneeded.

• Incorporating the human right to water in national legislation isanimportanttoolincountrieswithacertainlevelofruleoflawandinstitutionalcapacity.Incountrieswherelegalenforcementandgovernancecapacityislow,empowermentandawareness-raisingactivities,communitysupportandcapacitydevelopmentaremoreefficienttools.

• Institutional capacity must be a priority for successful planning and implementation ofthehumanrighttowa-terandsanitation.Measurestoimproveaccountabilityandtransparencyinthewatersectormustbepromoted,andcapacity-buildingonwatergovernancemustbepursuedatalllevelsofsociety.

• Women’s knowledge and experience must be central to all projects and plans to address a lack of safe access to water and sanitation.Becauseofwomen’scentralroleaswaterprovidersforhouseholdsinmanydevelopingcountries,theirknowledgeandexperiencearecriticalnotonlytoanysuccessfulmeasuretoaddressthelackofaccesstowaterbutalsotodesignprogrammesthatareeffective,equitableandsustainableinlocalcommunitycontexts.

• Land law and policies must be reviewedtoensurethattheysupporttherealisationoftherighttowaterandsani-tation.Thisincludesmandatingtheprovisionofwaterandsanitationtoallpersons,irrespectiveoftheirhousingandlandstatus,ensuringtheallocationofpubliclandfortheconstructionofwaterandsanitationinfrastructure,providingforsecuretenure,andguaranteeingaccesstotraditionalsourcesofwaterforindigenouspeople.

• Subsidy and tariff policies must be revisedtoremoveanyinconsistencieswiththehumanrighttowaterandsanitation.Itisparticularlyimportantthatthepricepaidbythepoorisnotdisproportionatetothepricepaidbythewealthy.

• Subsidies must reach the right target groupsandtariffregulationsmustapplytoallsuppliers,whetherpublic,private,community-based,small-scaleorlarge-scale.Nationalregulationauthoritiesmustfindthemeanstooverseethefeesleviedonthepoorest.

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*COHREhasdefinedthefollowinggroupsaseithervulnerableormarginalised,orboth:women,children,inhabitantsofdeprivedareas,indigenouspeoples,nomadicandtravellercommunities,refugees,asylumseekers,internallydisplacedpersonsandreturnees,olderpersons,personswithdisabilitiesandpeoplewithseriousorchronicillnesses,victimsofnaturaldisastersandpersonslivingindisaster-proneareas,peoplelivinginwater-scarceregions,andpersonsundercustody.COHRE(2007)p55

*ApproximatedivisionofdevelopingcountriesbasedontheGovernmentEffectivenessandRuleofLawindicatorsfromtheWorldBankGroup,2009.