Key Issues in International Survey Research

8/8/2019 Key Issues in International Survey Research

1/17

Key Issues in International SurveyResearchB. Sebastian Reiche, IESE Business School, University of Navarra

Prof. Anne-Wil Harzing, University of Melbourne

Copyright 2007 B. Sebastian Reiche and Anne-Wil Harzing. All rights reserved.

Second version, 26 June 2007

Print this page

Introduction

In contrast to what the wealth of textbooks on conducting empirical research

seem to indicate, the actual research process is quite messy in nature. In fact, it

can be viewed as a set of dilemmas to be lived with; and [] as an effort to

keep from becoming impaled on one or another horn of one or more of these

dilemmas (McGrath, 1982: 69). From this perspective, embarking on a cross-

national research project introduces many additional dilemmas. In this paper, we

make an attempt to explore these issues in more detail and offer possible

solutions to address them. While cross-cultural investigation is not limited to

survey research but includes a range of qualitative methods of data collection(see Marschan-Piekkari & Welch, 2004 for a good overview), we focus our

discussion on the collection of international and cross-cultural data through

questionnaires. We begin by identifying key methodological challenges in cross-

cultural survey research. Subsequently, we describe several research practices to

cope with these challenges, structuring our discussion along the various stages of

the research process.

Methodological Challenges in Cross-Cultural

Research

Compared with domestic research, international cross-cultural research faces

additional methodological challenges that, if not properly addressed, may

considerably increase the risk of inferential errors (Singh, 1995). Indeed, the

literature emphasizes that constructs and concepts may entail culture-specific


2/17

attributes and meanings which need to be explicitly taken into account to ensure

sound interpretation of cross-cultural data (Peng, Peterson, & Shyi, 1991). In a

similar vein, there is evidence that the language of the questionnaire affects the

way respondents answer the same question which argues against the use of

single-language surveying (Harzing, Maznevski, & country collaborators, 2002).These arguments require cross-cultural researchers to systematically establish

equivalence in terms of their adopted constructs, measures and samples (Mullen,

1995; Sekaran, 1983; Singh, 1995).

To determine which methodological issues are most relevant, it is crucial to

characterize a given research project in terms of its approach to cross-cultural

research. In this regard, Adler (1983) distinguishes between six orientations to

investigating cross-cultural management issues parochial, ethnocentric,

polycentric, comparative, geocentric and synergistic research. The approachesand their main characteristics are compiled in Table 1.

Title Culture Type of

Study

Approach

to

Similarity

and

Differenc

e

Primary

Question

Main

Methodologic

al Issues

Parochial

Research

Single

culture

studies

Domestic

managemen

t studies

Assumed

similarity

What is the

behaviour of

people like in

organizations

? Study is

only

applicable to

management

in one

culture and

yet it is

assumed to

be applicable

to

management

in many

cultures.

Traditional

methodologies:

All of the

traditional

methodological

issues

concerning

design,

sampling,

instrumentation

, analysis and

interpretation

without

reference to

culture.


3/17

Ethnocentri

c Research

Second

culture

studies

Replication

in foreign

cultures of

domestic

management studies

Search for

similarity

Can we use

home

country

theories

abroad? Canthis theory

which is

applicable to

organizations

in Culture A

be extended

to

organizations

in Culture B?

Standardization

and translation:

How can

management

research bestandardized

across culture?

How can

instruments be

literally

translated?

Replication

should be

identical to

original studywith the

exception of

language.

Polycentric

Research

Studies in

many

cultures

Individual

studies of

organization

s in specific

foreign

cultures

Search for

difference

How do

managers

manage and

employees

behave in

country X?What is the

pattern of

organizationa

l

relationships

in country X?

Description:

How can

country Xs

organizations

be studied

without eitherusing home

country

theories or

models and

without using

obtrusive

measures?

Focus is on

inductive

methods and

unobtrusive

measures.

Comparativ

e Research

Studies

contrasting

many

Studies

comparing

organization

Search for

both

similarity

How are the

management

and

Equivalence: Is

the

methodology


4/17

cultures s in many

foreign

cultures

and

difference

employee

styles similar

and different

across

cultures?

Which

theories hold

across

cultures and

which do

not?

equivalent at

each stage in

the research

process? Are

the meanings

of key concepts

defined

equivalently?

Has the

research been

designed such

that the

samples,

instrumentation

,

administration,analysis and

interpretation

are equivalent

with reference

to the cultures

included?

Geocentric

Research

Internationa

l

management studies

Studies of

multinationa

lorganization

s

Search for

similarity

How do

MNCs

function?

Geographic

dispersion: All

of thetraditional

methodological

questions are

relevant with

the added

complexity of

geographical

distance.

Translation is

often less of a

problem since

most MNCs

have a

common

language

across all

countries in


5/17

which they

operate. The

primary

question is to

develop an

approach for

studying the

complexity of

large

organizations.

Culture is often

ignored.

Synergistic

Research

Intercultural

managemen

t studies

Studies of

intercultural

interaction

within work

settings

Use of

similaritie

s and

difference

s as a

resource

How can the

intercultural

interaction

within a

domestic or

international

organization

be managed?

How can

organizations

create

structures

andprocesses

which will be

effective in

working with

members of

all cultures?

Interaction

models and

integrating

processes:

What are

effective ways

to study cross-

cultural

interaction

within

organizational

settings? How

can universaland culturally

specific

patterns of

management

be

distinguished?

What is the

appropriate

balance

between

culturally

specific and

universal

processes

within one

organization?

How can the


6/17

proactive use of

cultural

differences to

create

universally

accepted

organizational

patterns be

studied?

The six approaches to cross-cultural research vary in terms of their

methodological issues and thus require different measures to cope with the

underlying research process. Whereas parochial research reflects what we would

consider a domestic research setting, ethnocentric research replicates domestic

studies in another culture. In the latter approach, a key methodological challengeinvolves the translation of questionnaire items into the language of the research

setting. Polycentric research concerns the study of the particularities of certain

cultures or those of organizations operating in these specific cultures. Implicit to

this approach is the need to use measures that have been developed in the given

culture and reflect its idiosyncrasies. In many cases, especially in less researched

settings such as developing countries (Bulmer & Warwick, 1983), such measures

are not readily available, thus requiring the researcher to develop new scales. This

may involve close collaboration with local researchers who can serve as cultural

mediators.

Comparative research aims at contrasting two or more cultures, or organizations

operating in these cultures. For example, a researcher may be interested in

examining to which extent feelings of organizational identification vary across

cultures. In order to draw meaningful inferences from the study, the researcher

needs to ensure equivalence throughout the entire research process. Most

importantly, the construct of interest, in the current example organizational

identification, requires equivalent treatment in all cultures under study. This will

only be the case if (1) the construct serves the same function (functionalequivalence), (2) is expressed in similar attitudes or behaviours (conceptual

equivalence), and (3) entails identical interpretation of the scale items, response

categories and questionnaire stimuli across the respective cultures as shown by

similar patterns of item-to-measure correlation (metric or instrumental

equivalence) (Harpaz, 2003; Singh, 1995). In addition, the survey administration

may require different channels. For example, online surveys may be an


7/17

inadequate means of data collection in less developed countries or rural areas

where broadband access is not as widely available.

Geocentric research is primarily concerned with the study of multinational

companies (MNCs) that are dispersed across different locations and maintain

complex interrelationships. The current interest in studying how knowledge that

resides in different geographically dispersed company units is diffused within a

MNC (Foss & Pedersen, 2004) provides an example for this approach.

Accordingly, the geographical dispersion of the different social entities under

study poses a main methodological challenge. While this is a central concern in

qualitative methods of data collection, the use of surveys, especially web-based

surveys, can alleviate this concern. Although cultural differences and

idiosyncrasies are often secondary to this line of research, they form an integral

part of any geocentric research project and, if not adequately controlled for, canlead to biased interpretations. In the previous example, it is likely that knowledge

sharing processes are contingent upon how individuals across cultures process

and make sense of new information (Bhaghat, Kedia, Harveston, & Triandis, 2002)

and the extent to which they interact with one another (Wang & Kanungo, 2004).

Finally, synergistic research deals with cross-cultural interactions in organizations.

International assignment research serves as a prime example for this approach as

international assignees directly interact with individuals from different cultural

backgrounds during their assignment. In contrast to the other types of cross-cultural research, synergistic research concentrates on understanding the

interaction between individuals from different cultures rather than describing

specific cultures (Adler, 1983). This involves an identification of particular MNC

structures and processes that are effective for the cross-cultural collaboration

between organizational members. Given the large number of different cultural

groups in MNCs, these research aims substantially increase the level of

complexity involved in the research project. Depending on which cultural groups

are included in the analysis, the researcher may draw different conclusions

concerning the universality or culture-specificity of certain behaviours andprocesses. In the case of international assignment research, this problem may, for

example, be alleviated by holding the assignment culture constant, thus focusing

on the cultural particularities of the individual actor with regard to a given

cultural context. This facilitates the assessment of where cultural influences occur

and where such influence does not exist. In the following sections, we will discuss

in more detail the various methodological challenges identified above.


8/17

Data Access and Study Population

Any research project is dependent on access to sufficient data in order to address

the research questions of interest. In an international research context, data

access concerns not only securing an appropriate sample but also ensuring that

all data can be feasibly collected given the additional cost that are involved in

cross-border mail, telephone and fax correspondence. The survey population is a

crucial concept in empirical research as it determines the set of entities from

which the sample can be drawn and affects both the internal and external validity

of a studys results (Reynolds, Simintiras, & Diamantopoulos, 2003). Internal

validity refers to the extent to which the manipulation of an independent variable

is the sole cause of change in a dependent variable. In contrast, external validity

concerns the generalizability of the results to the external environment (Zikmund,

2003). Internal validity is threatened if the observed results are influenced by theconfounding effects of extraneous variables. To control for possible extraneous

variation, it is important to select a homogenous population (Reynolds et al.,

2003). In this vein, Sekaran (1983) highlights the use of matched samples that are

functionally equivalent across the countries of interest but not necessarily

identical. In the earlier example of international assignment research, this may

entail the focus on one particular group of assignees (e.g., inpatriates or short-

term assignees) from different countries-of-origin. At the organizational level, this

may involve limiting the analysis to MNCs of comparable size, industry affiliation

or internationalization experience.

A systematic way to identify all organizations that form part of the target

population is the use of data bases with information on company profiles and

respective contact details (e.g., Hoovers Handbook of World Business) in

combination with local address books. In most cases it is appropriate to address a

request letter or email to either the managing director or, if individual employees

serve as the primary unit of analysis, the HR director. As managing directors

rotate frequently and address data bases may not be regularly updated, it is

advisable to confirm the personal details prior to sending out the request(Harzing, 1999).

Given that response rates from cold calls tend to be low, other strategies are

necessary to gain data access. For example, it is beneficial to contact international

professional organizations (e.g., IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics

Engineers), attend international academic conferences that place a strong focus


9/17

on practitioner issues (e.g., Conference of the International Council for Small

Business) or participate in conferences hosted by business schools (e.g., FuBuTec

conference at INSEAD). Another strategy is to contact consultancies specializing

in specific services that are relevant to a given research project. Consulting firms

maintain a comprehensive client data base and may be willing to share thisinformation in return for access to the research results.

The inclusion of local collaborators in the specific countries of interest not only

serves as an additional means to gain access to local companies but, importantly,

also helps to manage the international data collection process (Harzing & 32

country collaborators, 2005; Harzing et al., 2002; House, Hanges, Javidan,

Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004). Indeed, local collaborators can collect the data on-site

and return the responses in one batch, thereby facilitating the data transmission.

Also, they provide additional credibility to the research project in the localcontext which may help to increase response rates and local collaborators may

help with the interpretation of culture-specific findings (Harpaz, 2003). Finally,

research that involves developing countries is plagued by additional challenges

of data access such as lack of communication infrastructure and literacy problems

(see Bulmer & Warwick, 1983 for an overview).

Survey Development

When developing a survey, three methodological issues require special attentionin an international research context: (1) choice of survey type, (2) the use of

measurement scales that capture equivalent concepts across cultures, and (3)

survey language(s). We will discuss each separately in the following sections.

Survey type

Different methods of survey administration exist, namely surveying by face-to-

face interview, telephone, fax, mail and internet (Fowler, 2002). In the case of

large-scale international survey research, both face-to-face and telephone

interviews are usually not feasible in terms of the costs involved. Additionally,

substantial time-zone differences between the researchers and the respondents

location limit the available time frame for scheduling and conducting telephone

conversations. In a similar vein, the scarce research assessing the effectiveness of

fax surveys indicates that their response rates tend to be lower than traditional

mail surveys (Tse & Ching, 1994). These limitations have led the majority of


10/17

international researchers to rely on paper-and-pencil surveys administered by

postal mail.

However, traditional mail surveys are not without problems. Mailing times can be

substantial, thus delaying the data collection process. Also, the use of

international prepaid postal coupons adds significant extra costs to the research

project and there is some concern about the reliability of postal services in less

developed countries (Harpaz, 2003). In this vein, researchers increasingly

emphasize the use of internet-based surveys as an effective alternative (Dillman,

2000; Hewson, Yule, Laurent, & Vogel, 2003). Generally, surveys administered via

the internet offer several advantages over paper-and-pencil surveys. For example,

internet-based questionnaire distribution involves lower cost as well as higher

transmission and response speed (Bachmann, Elfrink, & Vazzana, 1996; Mehta &

Sivadas, 1995; Sproull, 1986), which is of particular importance in an internationalresearch context. In addition, web-based surveying entails time and cost savings

with regard to data entry and reduces the risk of data entry errors as respondent

data can be automatically transformed into a format ready for analysis (Hewson

et al., 2003). Especially for studies covering a large number of different cultures

and addressing respondents that possess unrestricted access to broadband

internet connections, web-based surveys appear a fruitful approach.

Item generation

Questionnaire design involves the decision about which items will best reflect the

underlying construct the research wishes to measure. Although a wealth of

existing scales is available for measuring constructs in the management

discipline, these scales may not be easily transferable to a different cultural

context. Implicit to this argument is the issue of construct equivalence in cross-

cultural research referred to earlier.

In general, whether construct equivalence can be established is contingent upon

the type of perspective the researcher takes towards the study of culture, namely

emic or etic. Originating in a linguistic distinction between phonemics and

phonetics (Pike, 1966), the emic approach emphasizes the intrinsic cultural

distinctions that are meaningful to the members of a given society whereas the

etic perspective attempts to derive commonalities between cultures. Therefore,

when the research project aims at an emic approach, it will be restricted to uni-

cultural or polycentric inquiry (Peng et al., 1991). Ethnographic studies serve as a


11/17

key method to address such research issues. In contrast, survey research is

primarily useful for etic considerations as it allows for cross-cultural comparisons.

Even in the case of an etic research perspective, establishing construct

equivalence encompasses various difficulties. For example, Adler, Campbell and

Laurent (1989) failed to validly and reliably describe management behaviour in

China as some of their measurement items contained the Western notion of

truth not applicable to Confucian philosophy. Thus, a construct can only be

meaningfully measured across cultures if it is based on a universally applicable

concept in these cultures, that is, is conceptually equivalent. In this regard, while

questionnaire translation (see next section) is necessary to clarify construct

elements in the local language and frame of reference it is an insufficient

condition for establishing conceptual equivalence (Peng et al., 1991). Rather, in

many cases the original scale will need to be re-constructed and existing itemscomplemented with additional questions to appropriately capture the underlying

construct. Again, the use of multinational research teams whose members are

familiar with the respective local cultures may help to overcome problems related

to adapting measurement scales (Harpaz, 2003). Key to a meaningful

modification of existing measurement scales is a sound process of scale

development (see Hinkin, 1995 for a good overview on scale development

practices).

Survey language

The choice of survey language will be primarily determined by respondents

language proficiencies. In the case of surveying MNCs managerial employees

who are likely to possess a sufficient level of English and have been exposed to

similar tertiary education in business schools around the world, the use of single-

language surveys in English may be adequate. At the same time, research shows

that English-language questionnaires lead to significantly less extreme response

styles than questionnaires in a respondents native language, thus

underestimating cross-country differences (Harzing, 2006). Especially if bothnative and non-native English speakers are included in an international survey,

survey translation into the respective local language appears crucial.

As many concepts and terms entail culture-specific connotations, their mere

direct translation is unlikely to transport the intended meaning. For example, the

concept of feedback differs substantially across cultures. Whereas it is usually


12/17

viewed as a direct, open and formalized process in the U.S. or the U.K., many

Asian countries regard feedback as a more indirect, anonymous and informal

procedure (Hofstede, 1998). Without clearly specifying the intended meaning of

the concept in the translated questionnaire, the researcher risks introducing

systematic bias. A meaningful translation of the original version of thequestionnaire requires a researcher not only to ensure overall conceptual

equivalence but also to consider vocabulary, idiomatic and syntactical

equivalence (Sekaran, 1983). In this vein, Brislin (1980) has suggested to use

simple sentence structures as well as clear and familiar wording as much as

possible to facilitate translation. In addition, by adding redundancy and necessary

context for difficult phrases, the researcher is able to clarify the intended

meaning.

The most frequently employed translation technique is back-translation (Brislin,1970). In this procedure, the original version of the questionnaire is translated

into the target language and subsequently translated back into the source

language by a second bilingual person. The use of two independent translators

increases the chances that the original meaning has been retained, ensures literal

accuracy and helps to detect mistakes. However, given the earlier notion that

corresponding concepts may not always exist in another language, back-

translation does not guarantee overall conceptual equivalence (Peng et al., 1991).

Harpaz (2003) identifies two additional translation techniques: bilingual method

and committee procedure. The former approach involves sending the originaland the translated questionnaire to bilingual individuals and subsequently

correcting items based on inconsistencies in their responses. In contrast, in the

latter approach a committee consisting of bilingual individuals translates the

questionnaire jointly and discusses possible mistakes or difficulties. Finally, to

cross-check for possible translation mistakes and to ensure comprehension of the

translated questionnaire among respondents, pilot testing is particularly

important in international research.

Survey Process and Response RatesSimilar to survey development, the survey and data collection process is likely to

also require substantially more time than in domestic research. This is not least

due to the need to manage different language versions of the questionnaire,

coordinate with country collaborators and, in some cases, to even employ

different means of survey administration in order to accommodate respondents


13/17

different levels of technological proficiency. In addition, ideal times for

distributing the survey may vary across countries. For example, countries have

different public holidays, different peak holiday periods and even differ in terms

of their end of financial year dates, which usually correspond to an increased

workload for employees. However, the timing of data collection not only affectsits overall length but can also influence the results. Research, for instance, has

shown that the September 11 attacks had an impact on cultural values and the

level of cosmopolitanism of U.S. university students (Olivas-Lujn, Harzing, &

McCoy, 2004).

A key challenge in any survey research is to maximize the studys response rate.

Overall response rates have been found to differ significantly, both across

different professions and occupational groups as well as across countries. For

example, evidence suggests that response rates of managerial employees arelower than those of non-managerial staff (Baruch, 1999). In a recent meta-

analysis, Cycyota and Harrison (2006) identified an overall top manager response

rate of 32%. In an international research context, these rates are, on average,

likely to represent an upper boundary. In addition, research has identified

considerable cross-national differences that are partly contingent upon the

researchers origin. Harzing (2000), for instance, showed that respondents were

geographically and culturally closer to the research projects originating country,

were more internationally oriented and came from countries with a lower level of

power distance than non-respondents.

Several factors have been found to influence response rates in domestic research

and will exert differential effects across cultural research contexts. We will discuss

three categories of strategies to increase response rates: strategies related to the

questionnaire design, the survey process and offered incentives (Dillman, 2000;

Zikmund, 2003). First, survey appearance is a widely accepted determinant of

response rates. Questionnaires should be user-friendly and have a professional

layout. It is also important to personalize the correspondence with potential

respondents, by using real signatures and addressing respondents individually.However, whether a survey appears well-designed to the individual respondent is

highly subjective and may vary considerably across cultures: Certain colours and

pictures used on the cover page or throughout the survey can have culture-

specific connotations, which may require slight adaptations of the survey design.

Again, country collaborators and pre-tests with individuals from the target culture

may facilitate this process. In addition, overall questionnaire length is considered


14/17

an important predictor of response rates (e.g., Berdie, 1973; Tomaskovich-Devey,

Leiter, & Thompson, 1994), yet may vary considerably across different languages.

A questionnaire translated from its original English version into German or

Finnish can easily be one or two pages longer, thereby affecting respondents

decision whether or not to complete the survey. Before making a final decisionabout the overall survey length and thus the number of measurement scales to

include, the original version should be translated into all required languages first.

It is also important to note that due to respondents different levels of language

proficiency and general educational background, the average time to complete a

survey may vary. It is therefore recommendable to provide respondents with a

range rather than a specific estimate for the survey completion time.

Second, there are various strategies to increase response rates that concern the

actual survey process. In general, it is beneficial to follow a multi-stage surveyprocess that includes the circulation of an announcement letter and the

distribution of reminders (Dillman, 2000). In addition to the actual questionnaire,

these may also need to be translated into the local language. In the case of using

single-language surveys, it is at the very least necessary to include a note in the

local language in case the survey is forwarded by a colleague or secretary. It is

particularly important to seek sponsorship for the study given the geographical

and cultural distance between the researcher and the respondents. Sponsorship

can be provided by an international professional organization, through an

international committee of recommendations that includes local universityrepresentatives from every target country (Harzing, 1999) or, at the level of the

individual unit of analysis, of the respective participating organizations. It often

takes the form of an explicit letter of endorsement that can be attached to the

actual cover letter, expressing support for the study and asking for participation.

Third, the use of incentives is widely accepted to increase survey response rates.

In an international research context, the inclusion of financial tokens, which have

been shown to increase response rates (Dillman, 2000), is difficult to administer,

both due to currency differences as well as possible differences in ethicalperceptions. From this perspective, non-financial incentives may be preferable.

This may entail the inclusion of a Thank you note in the reminder letters, thereby

thanking those who have already completed the survey. Also, providing

respondents with a summary report of the overall research results and

recommendations of the study is beneficial. Organizations may be particularly

interested in benchmarking themselves against other firms. Other non-monetary


15/17

incentives may include the attachment of tea or instant coffee bags (Harzing,

1999). Again, local adaptation is likely to result in an increased effect.

Data Analysis and Publication

In the case of comparative and synergistic and, to a lesser extent in geocentric,

cross-cultural research, the effect of cultural differences has to be explicitly taken

into account in order to draw meaningful inferences from the survey results. In

this regard, several statistical approaches have been developed to test for and

establish cross-cultural equivalence. A first set of techniques are based on item

response theory which examines statistical relationships between item responses

and the latent attributes that are reflected by combinations of specific items. If

these statistical relationships and thus item response distributions reveal similar

patterns for constructs measured in different languages, it is assumed thatconstruct equivalence is possible (Peng et al., 1991). In a different vein, Riordan

and Vandenberg (1994) apply a covariance structure analytic procedure to test

the stability and transferability of self-report measures in cross-cultural research.

Similarly, Mullen (1995) applies Multiple Group LISREL and Optimal Scaling

techniques to the diagnosis of cross-cultural equivalence. However, a main

drawback inherent in these methods is the need to have equally-sized groups in

order to model comparisons which may be difficult to achieve when multiple

cultural groups are considered. As mentioned earlier, local collaborators and even

other local academics volunteering to peer-review the results can serve as animportant source for interpreting the findings within the scope of the local

cultural and institutional context.

When writing up the research results for publication, it is important to explicitly

discuss and convince potential reviewers and editors why the research project

warrants an international rather than domestic design, especially in the case of

targeting general management and organizational studies outlets. Whereas this

will be evident in comparative cross-cultural research, several issues related to

the study of MNCs, for example, may apply to domestic organizations as well,which is why the researcher needs to clarify the conceptual idiosyncrasy of the

research context (Roth & Kostova, 2003). Of course, a unique research

contribution should be established prior to starting data collection but an explicit

justification of conducting international survey research along with a discussion

of the distinct methodological issues provides a stronger rationale that reviewers

and editors may buy into.


16/17

Conclusion

Conducting meaningful international survey research is prone to additional

difficulties and complexities and can easily discourage researchers from initiating

cross-cultural inquiry in the first place. Given these problems, many areas in the

field of international management are still largely under-researched and provide

ample opportunities to advance our knowledge in this domain. We hope that by

identifying some of the key issues in international survey research and offering

various solutions we are able to promote such future research. Addressing the

issues raised in this paper will contribute to a more rigid and sound conduct of

research across cultures.

There are a few complexities in international marketing research. It is an easy process ifyou are using the power of the internet and know where to look. There are a lot of ways to

get the information you need. Here are 3 areas to use for a solid marking search.

1) Google - The catch-all for anything you want to know is a search engine. Google is oneof the big boys when it comes to internet searches. You can use this program to find a lot ofdifferent data, even maps to pictures. You will be able to locate information aboutinternational markets with a series of questions. Start here and you will find a lot ofanswers.

2) Articles - There is a lot of information brought forward in articles. The best thing aboutthis form of research is that the authors have already done their own research and compiledthe information for you. Just be sure to confirm the information in other ways.

3) Blogs - Blogs are another great way to find out information. No matter what you areresearching, there is a good chance the subject is blogging or being blogged about. Take alittle time to browse blogs and you will find out a lot.

The complexities in international marketing research can be simplified if you know where tolook. You will need good, solid research data to be sure you have the whole story. These arejust a few of the really great research tricks that are out there. Find a good marketing andmentoring program and learn the rest.


17/17

Key Issues in International Survey Research

Documents

Transcript of Key Issues in International Survey Research