Key Concept 2.1 The Development and Codification of ...
Transcript of Key Concept 2.1 The Development and Codification of ...
Key Concept 2.1 The Development and Codification of Religious and Cultural Traditions "As states and empires increased in size and contacts between regions multiplied, religious and cultural systems were transformed. Religions and belief systems provided a bond among the people and an ethical code to live by. These shared beliefs also influenced and reinforced political, economic, and occupational stratification. Religious and political authority often merged as rulers (some of whom were considered divine) used religion, along with military and legal structures, to justify their rule and ensure its continuation. Religions and belief systems could also generate conflict, partly because beliefs and practices varied greatly within and among societies." [1]
I. Codifications and further developments of existing religious traditions provided a bond among
people and an ethical code to live by.
A. We saw previously that the Hebrews developed a monotheistic faith. As their numbers grew and they
became a more organized society, their beliefs, ceremonial laws, history, and hymns became codified into a
common body of scripture. This collection of scripture is called the Torah (or Tanakh) and corresponds with
what non-Jews call the Old Testament of the Bible. Torah prescribes detailed guidelines covering ethics,
social and civil relations, and even rules about diet and personal hygene. Taken together, the beliefs and
practices codified in the Torah formed the religion of Judaism, a monotheistic religion inexorably connected
with a specific ethnic group, the Hebrews (or Jews). Central to this religion is the belief that the Hebrews
entered into a special covenantal relation with their God through the patriarch Abraham.
These guidelines, compounded with the belief that the creator God had chosen them as a special ethnic
group, endowed the Jewish people with a well defined sense of identity. This sense of identity would follow
them as foreign empires conquered the Hebrews and led them into captivity (see map at right). As captives
of foreign empires, some cultural influence from their host civilizations was inevitable; nevertheless, even
as diasporic communities the Hebrews attempted to preserve their identity through ceremonial and
cultural traditions. This struggle to avoid assimilation helped maintain their identity but also sometimes
brought them into conflict with their host cultures.
B. Around this same time (600-500 B.C.E.) the Vedic Period in South Asia was coming to a close. In Key
Concept 1.3 we saw that as the Aryans settled down and took up agriculture the system of priestly sacrifices
outlined in the Vedas were not as relevant to their sedentary way of life. The reaction against the stale
formalism of the Vedic Period begins with the a body of writings known as the Upanishads. The name
Upanishads implies one who sits at the feet of a master; we see the shift away from the official priests to an
emphasis on wandering mystic teachers or gurus. The Upanishads have less to do with formal rituals and
focus instead on reflections about life's meaning and how man is related to the universe. Although the
influence of the Vedas would remain strong in South Asia, the Upanishads added ideas about
reincarnation, karma, and the imperishable atman that resides in every living thing. From the foundations of
the Vedas and the philosophical musings of the Upanishads arose the religion of Hinduism.
The beginnings of Hinduism are difficult to trace, but the religion originated with the polytheism that the
Aryans brought as they began invading the Indian subcontinent sometime after 2000 BCE. Aryan priests
recited hymns that told stories and taught values and were eventually written down in The Vedas, the sacred
texts of Hinduism. One famous story is The Ramayana that tells about the life and love of Prince Rama and
his wife Sita. Another epic story is The Mahabharata, which focuses on a war between cousins. Its most
famous part is called The Bhagavad Gita, which tells how one cousin, Arjuna, overcomes his hesitations to
fight his own kin. The stories embody important Hindu values that still guide modern day India.
Hinduism assumes the eternal existence of a universal spirit that guides all life on earth. A piece of the spirit
called the atman is trapped inside humans and other living creatures. The most important desire of the
atman is to be reunited with the universal spirit, and every aspect of an individual's life is governed by it.
When someone dies, their atman may be reunited, but most usually is reborn in a new body. A person's
caste membership is a clear indication of how close he or she is to the desired reunion. Some basic tenets
of Hinduism are:
Reincarnation - Atman spirits are reborn in different people after one body dies. This rebirth has no
beginning and no end, and is part of the larger universal spirit that pervades all of life.
Karma - This widely used word actually refers to the pattern of cause and effect that transcends
individual human lives. Whether or not an individual fulfills his/her duties in one life determines what
happens in the next.
Dharma - Duties called dharma are attached to each caste position. For example, a warrior's
dharma is to fight honorably, and a wife's duty is to serve her husband faithfully. Even the lowliest caste has
dharma attached to it. If one fulfills this dharma, the reward is for the atman to be reborn into a higher caste.
Only the atman of a member of the highest caste (originally the priests) has the opportunity to be reunited
with the universal spirit.
The universal spirit is represented by Brahman, a god that takes many different shapes. Two of Brahman's
forms are Vishnu the Creator, and Shiva the Destroyer. Hinduism is very difficult to categorize as either
polytheistic or monotheistic because of the central belief in the universal spirit. Do each of Brahman's forms
represent a different god, or are they all the same? Brahman's forms almost certainly represent different
Aryan gods from the religion's early days, but Hinduism eventually unites them all in the belief in Brahman.
II. New belief systems and cultural traditions emerged and spread, often asserting universal truths.
A. A new major world religion began in this time period as an offshoot of Hinduism. Buddhism began in
India in the Ganges River area during the 6th century BCE. Its founder was Siddhartha Guatama, who later
became known as the Buddha, or the "Enlightened One." Siddhartha was the son of a wealthy Hindu prince
who grew up with many advantages in life. However, as a young man he did not find answers to the
meaning of life in Hinduism, so he left home to become an ascetic, or wandering holy man. His
Enlightenment came while sitting under a tree in a Deerfield, and the revelations of that day form the basic
tenets of Buddhism:
The Four Noble Truths - 1) All of life is suffering; 2) Suffering is caused by false desires for things
that do not bring satisfaction; 3) Suffering may be relieved by removing the desire; 4) Desire may be
removed by following the Eightfold Path.
The Eightfold Path to Enlightenment - The ultimate goal is to follow the path to nirvana, or a state
of contentment that occurs when the individual's soul unites with the universal spirit. The eight steps must be
achieved one by one, starting with a change in thoughts and intentions, followed by changes in life style and
actions, that prelude a higher thought process through meditation. Eventually, a "breakthrough" occurs when
nirvana is achieved that gives the person a whole new understanding of life.
Note that Hinduism supported the continuation of the caste system in India, since castes were an outer
reflection of inner purity. For example, placement in a lower caste happened because a person did not fulfill
his/her dharma in a previous life. Higher status was a "reward" for good behavior in the past. Although
Buddhism, like Hinduism, emphasizes the soul's yearning for understandings on a higher plane, it generally
supported the notion that anyone of any social position could follow the Eightfold Path successfully.
Buddhists believed that changes in thought processes and life styles brought enlightenment, not the powers
of one's caste. Although the Buddha actively spread the new beliefs during his long lifetime, the new religion
faced oppression after his death from Hindus who saw it as a threat to the basic social and religious
structure that held India together. Buddhism probably survived only because the Mauryan emperor Ashoka
converted to it and promoted its practice. However, in the long run, Buddhism did much better in areas
where it spread through cultural diffusion, such as Southeast Asia, China, and Japan.
B. Three important belief systems (Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism) emerged in China during the
Warring States Period (403-221 BCE) between the Zhou and Han Dynasties. Although the period was
politically chaotic, it hosted a cultural flowering that left a permanent mark on Chinese history.
Confucius contemplated why China had fallen into chaos, and concluded that the Mandate of Heaven had
been lost because of poor behavior of not only the Chinese emperor, but all his subjects as well. His plan for
reestablishing Chinese society profoundly affected the course of Chinese history and eventually spread to
many other areas of Asia as well. He emphasized the importance of harmony, order, and obedience and
believed that if five basic relationships were sound, all of society would be, too:
Emperor/subject - the emperor has the responsibility to take care of his subjects, and subjects must
obey the emperor
Father/son - the father takes care of the son, and the son obeys the father
Older brother/younger brother - the older brother takes care of the younger brother, who in turn
obeys him
Husband/wife - the husband takes care of the wife, who in turn obeys him
Friend/friend -The only relationship that does not assume inequality should be characterized by
mutual care and obedience.
Confucius also defined the "superior man" - one who exhibits ren (kindness), li (sense of propriety), and Xiao
(filial piety, or loyalty to the family). Confucianism accepted and endorsed inequality as an important part of
an ordered society. It confirmed the power of the emperor, but held him responsible for his people, and it
reinforced the patriarchal family structure that was already in place in China. Because Confucianism focused
on social order and political organization, it is generally seen as a philosophy rather than a religion.
Religions are more likely to emphasize spiritual topics, not society and politics.
C. The founder of Daoism is believed to have been Laozi, a spiritualist who probably lived in the 4th century
BCE. The religion centers on the Dao (sometimes referred to as the "Way" or "Path"), the original force of
the cosmos that is an eternal and unchanging principle that governs all the workings of the world. The Dao is
passive - not active, good nor bad - but it just is. It cannot be changed, so humans must learn to live with it.
According to Daoism, human strivings have brought the world to chaos because they resist the Dao. A chief
characteristic is wuwei, or a disengagement from the affairs of the world, including government. The less
government, the better. Live simply, in harmony with nature. Daoism encourages introspection, development
of inner contentment, and no ambition to change the Dao.
Both Confucianism and Daoism encourage self knowledge and acceptance of the ways things are.
However, Confucianism is activist and extroverted, and Daoism is reflective and introspective. The same
individual may believe in the importance of both belief systems, unlike many people in western societies who
think that a person may only adhere to one belief system or another.
D. Christianity grew directly out of Judaism, with its founder Jesus of Nazareth born and raised as a Jew in
the area just east of the Mediterranean Sea. During his lifetime, the area was controlled by Rome as a
province in the empire. Christianity originated partly from a long-standing Jewish belief in the coming of a
Messiah, or a leader who would restore the Jewish kingdom to its former glory days. Jesus' followers saw
him as the Messiah who would cleanse the Jewish religion of its rigid and haughty priests and assure life
after death to all that followed Christian precepts. In this way, its appeal to ordinary people may be
compared to that of Buddhism, as it struggled to emerge from the Hindu caste system. Christianity's broad
appeal of the masses, as well as deliberate conversion efforts by its early apostles, meant that the religion
grew steadily and eventually became the religion with the most followers in the modern world.
Jesus was a prophet and teacher whose followers came to believe that he was the son of God. He
advocated a moral code based on love, charity, and humility. His disciples predicted a final judgment day
when God would reward the righteous with immortality and condemn sinners to eternal hell. Jesus was
arrested and executed by Roman officials because he aroused suspicions among Jewish leaders, and he
was seen by many as a dangerous rebel rouser. After his death, his apostles spread the faith. Especially
important was Paul, a Jew who was familiar with Greco-Roman culture. He explained Christian principles in
ways that Greeks and Romans understood, and he established churches all over the eastern end of the
Mediterranean, and even as far away as Rome.
Christianity grew steadily in the Roman Empire, but not without clashes with Roman authorities. Eventually
in the 4th century CE, the Emperor Constantine was converted to Christianity and established a new capital
in the eastern city of Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. As a result, the religion grew west and
north from Rome, and also east from Constantinople, greatly extending its reach.
By the end of the classical era, these major belief systems had expanded to many areas of the world, and
with the fall of empires in the late classical era, came to be major forces in shaping world history. One major
religion - Islam - remained to be established in the 7th century as part of the next great period that extended
from 600 to 1450 CE.
E. Hellenism is the culture of ancient Greece as spread across the ancient world by Alexander of
Macedonia (the Great). Alexander’s father, Phillip of Macedonia, sent his son to Greece where he was a
student of Aristotle. There he learned the Hellenistic culture. Although there was much religion in Athens,
there was generally no religious caste or priestly order to decide what the official version of any body of
knowledge was.
As a result, Athens placed a higher premium on individual inquiry than any of the other classical civilizations.
Because they believed the world to be rational and symmetrical, the Greeks stressed logic and systematic
thinking; western philosophy was born. They were curious about the nature of the world and were not
hindered in their attempt to formulate theories about it. The Greeks never did establish a veritable science;
they placed too much emphasis on theories without ever subjecting those theories to physical experiments.
In other words, they would hold to a hypothesis about the physical world if no logical argument could be
found to contradict it; they would never test the hypothesis experimentally. They came up with half of the
scientific method.
This culture placed a high regard on symmetry, proportion, and the pursuit of the ideal. Greek statues do not
so much depict an individual person as they do celebrate an ideal. (See an excellent video on this HERE.)
Most all Greek statues have identical proportions (the height six times the length of the foot; hence our
modern measurements). The Parthenon is a model of symmetry and proportionality. For more about the
nature of Greek Architecture click HERE.
As these elements of Greek culture became more cosmopolitan with the expanding empire of Alexander the
Greek, the resulting culture was called Hellenism. Alexander purposefully attempted to spread this culture
(after defeating Persia he ordered ten thousand of his troops to remain in Persia and marry Persian women
in order to establish Greek families there.) Hellenism influenced India for a short time as well. But when
cultural contact with India ceased, the Greek influence soon disappeared.
III. Belief systems generally reinforced existing social structures while also offering new roles and status to some men and women. For example, Confucianism emphasized filial piety, and some Buddhists and Christians practiced a monastic life.
In the previous time period, the surpluses created by agricultural production first led to social and gender
inequalities which in turn were reinforced by laws and codes. Belief systems too affected gender roles in
society, and each of the major world religions that was codified during this period had an impact on gender
relations. Hinduism, Confucianism and Christianity all encouraged patriarchy (although at differing levels of
severity.) The Hindu Laws of Manu taught that a woman is not independent of men at any point in her life:
In childhood a female must be subject to her father, in youth to her husband, when her lord is dead to her
sons; a woman must never be independent. She must not seek to separate herself from her father,
husband, or sons; by leaving them she would make both (her own and her husband's) families contemptible.
She must always be cheerful, clever in (the management of her) household affairs, careful in cleaning her
utensils, and economical in expenditure.
--Laws of Manu
The writings of St. Paul in the New Testament of the Christian Bible also reinforced patriarchy, but hold up a
husband's obligation to love his wife "as Christ loves the church."
Wives, be subject to your own husbands, as to the Lord. For the husband is the head of the wife, as Christ
also is the head of the church. . . Husbands, love your wives, just as Christ also loved the church and gave
Himself up for her.
--Ephesians 5:22,25
Confucianism teaches a heirarchal family structure and endows the husband with authority over the wife.
But like Christianity, this is a soft patriarchy with reciprocal obligations for the hustband, namely that he show
respect and be a model of proper behavior in the family. The deep respect for parents and ancestors,
called filial piety, was also a central tenent of Confucianism.
In its original form Buddhism was unique in this regard. It rejected the caste system on which social
inequality was based and taught that both genders had equal access to enlightenment. Thus it was a rare
exception to the wide practice of patriarchy in the ancient world. As it spread into east Asia, however,
Buddhism absorbed many cultural values of China. In many areas Confucian patriarchy remained the
dominant family model.
Some followers of Buddhism and Christianity had tendencies toward asceticism, an extreme rejection of the
materialistic values of the world, its luxuries, anything extravagant or unnecessary, and all sexual pleasure.
Such people avoided all material things except the bare necessities and simplest food. In their attempt to
separate themselves from the sensual temptations of the world, some Buddhists and Christians
developed monasticism, the lifestyle of living as monks in a monastery. Christian monks lived without
worldly goods and worked to feed the poor and care for orphans and widows. Buddhist monks purged
themselves of desire and aided the weak or poor while striving to attain enlightenment. Although the reality
of monasticism could be quite different--the lust for power and wealth can infect every human institution--
ideally, monasteries gave opportunities for both men and women to provide charitable services to the less
fortunate.
IV. Other religious and cultural traditions, including shamanism, animism, and ancestor veneration,
persisted.
A. As the foundations were being laid for what would become the major world religions, other less codified
beliefs thrived. Some of these beliefs were not religions per se, but rather orientations and practices
concerned with spiritual things. Shamanism, for example, is not a religion, but a set of practices geared
toward manipulating the natural world through rites and ceremonies performed by a shaman, an individual
thought to have connections with the supernatural forces of the universe.
Closely related to Shamanism is Animism which holds that objects in the material world are inhabited by
spirits. In actuality, animism does not generally make a distinction between the physical and spiritual realms.
The practice of animism varies widely in different parts of the world.
Both Shamanism and Animism were primarily found outside the areas in which religious traditions were
being codified, However, elements of both could be found in major civilizations, particularly among those
who did not learn to read.
B. Another belief system that existed outside the official codified religions of core civilizations was ancestor
worship. In many cultures there is a profound sense of respect given to the elderly. Their many years of life
have endowed them with wisdom which they model and transmit to those less experienced. The movement
from this practice to the veneration of dead ancestors is only natural given the belief that their spirits live on
after death.
The practice of ancestor worship, like that of shamanism and animism, varied widely across locations but
largely focused on receiving advice from the ancestors about everyday practical matters. In China the
ancestors communicated with the living through oracle bones. This process was relatively simple. Possible
answers to important questions were written on large bones or turtle plastrons. The cracks that ran through
these answers when heat was applied to the bone provided advice from the ancestors, providing they were
properly interpreted by a shaman or specially gifted person.
The use of oracle bones had several important results. First of all, they raised the importance of having a
written script and having people who could read and write. Secondly, the thousands of oracle bones that
survive today (see picture on the left) provide imporant information about early Chinese civilization. The
entire dynastic succession of the Shang Dynasty, China's river valley civilization, can be constructed through
information found on extant oracle bones.
V. Artistic expressions, including literature and drama, architecture, and sculpture, show distinctive
cultural developments.
A. As major religions solidified and matured during this classical age, so did forms of artistic expression.
Literary traditions continued to be codified. Some areas developed distinctive forms of art, such as drama.
Indeed, for the gift of theater we owe a debt to the ancient Greeks. Today's spectator based activities, from
modern Broadway shows, to stadium sports, to religious services, illustrate the influence of Greek theater.
Theater was born out of the religious festivals of the Greek god Dionysus. The worship of Dionysus, which
involved erratic, intoxicated dancing under the influence of wine, seems to have been influenced by Central
Asian shamanism. The festivals became so sensational that they later drew spectators, and the participants-
-soon to be called actors--began consciously performing for their audiences. The performances evolved into
dramatic recreations of historical situations, comedic portrayals of the human condition, satires of current
politicians, and explorations of the tragedies of fate.
Theatrical competitions--probably created to bring cultural unity to the city-states of ancient Greece--
reinforced this form of art across the region of Attica (a region of Greece that included Athens.) Even when
the cult of Dionysus was made illegal, this form of art continued and produced many well known actors and
playwrights. Amphitheaters across the Greco-Roman world attest to the popularity of drama.
B. As literature and other forms of artistic expression were forming, architectural styles were being codified.
The Greeks produced distinctive forms of architecture which reflected their values of symmetry, rationalism,
and proportionality (See activity on Greek Architecture HERE.)
Classical Indian architecture reflected the religious and cultural values of Hindu society. The plan of the
temple was representative of the order of the cosmos. Although the entire temple is a sacred place, not all
rooms are afforded the same level of reverence. The temple complex usually has a courtyard or anteroom
though which worshipers first enter. Then, as one enters the temple itself, there are small congregational
rooms. Finally,the center, or "womb chamber", is almost always a square and houses the image or
representation of the god. This main chamber is the holiest place in the temple and requires quiet reverence
and prayer. Thus the temple design reflects spacial hierarchies similar to the hierarchies of the Hindu caste
system.
C. There were key interactions during the classical age between societies and these contacts brought
significant cultural exchanges. Many of these occurred on the trade routes between civilizations, as seen
in Key Concept 2.3 Emergence of Transregional Networks of Communication and Exchange. But invasion
also brought cultures in contact and blended important styles and beliefs. After Alexander the
Great invaded and then withdrew from Central Asia, Greek and Buddhist cultures blended into a unique
mixture. In the Hellenistic kingdoms Alexander established in present day Afghanistan and Pakistan (such
as Bactria), this hybrid culture can be seen clearly.
Note the Greco-Roman influences in this Buddhist Artwork from Central Asia: the clothing, the wine drinking,
and the musical instruments are all elements of Greco-Roman culture that merged with the Buddhist
civilization of Central Asia . This syncretism began in the Hellenistic kingdom of Bactria and diffused south to
other people, such as the Kushans. However, as contact between the Greek world and Central Asia
declined, the influence of Greco-Roman culture began to wane. Much of it did not survive the coming of
Islam to this region in subsequent centuries.
Key Concept 2.2 The Development of States and Empires
In the pre-classical age (8000 B.C.E. to 600 B.C.E.) the first states developed in core civilizations. Then, powerful cities imposed their rule on surrounding areas through conquest and the first empires were born. In the classical age (600 B.C.E. to 600 C.E.) empires grew on a massive scale through territorial conquest with large armies. The growing scale of these empires, along with their increased ethnic and cultural diversity, required more sophisticated methods of governance. They served as major hubs of transregional networks of trade, and they diffused culture, religion, technologies and disease. As empires acquired massive wealth, the unequal distribution of this wealth across social classes placed enormous pressure on the political and social order. Eventually, all of the classical civilizations could not deal with the problems created by their own internal or external crises. In most cases, the belief systems spawned in these empires left enduring cultural footprints even as the empires' political structures disintegrated.
I. The number and size of key states and empires grew dramatically by imposing political
unity on areas where previously there had been competing states.
You must know the location of all the following key states and empires for this time period.
Persian Empire
Qin and Han Empire
Mauryan and Gupta Empires
Mediterranean region (Phoenicia, Greek city-states, Hellenistic and Roman Empires)
Mayan civilization
Moche
To see these on maps go to Maps of Classical Civilizations.
There is more complexity in these empires than the above maps show. The Roman Empire,
under Diocletian, was divided into several administrative zones, which led to the establishment of a western
Latin empire and an eastern Greek portion (see map on the right). The later would continue as
the Byzantine Empire for another thousand years after the western side fell in 476 C.E..
The Persian Empire is even more complex as it went through several permutations. The first Persian Empire
was the Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BCE) which reached its height under Cyrus the Great. At its peak it
encompassed present day Iraq and Iran, Syria, Israel, Anatolia, parts of Egypt, the Arabian peninsula, much
of Central Asia, and Macedonia to the north of classical Greece. The antagonism between the Persians and
Greek civilization would provoke the wrath of Alexander the Great, whose conquest of Persia ended the
Achaemenid Empire.
Much smaller than its predecessor was the Parthian Empire (247 BCE–224 CE). The Partians were the
arch rivals of the Roman Empire and defeated them in Rome's early attempts at eastward expansion. This
conflict evoked the most famous political propaganda in Roman history, the Augustus of Prima Porta (on the
left). Brazened on the breastplate of Augustus is the Parthian general returning the battle standards lost to
the Romans in earlier defeats, a great diplomatic triumph for Caesar Augustus.
The last of the Persian Empires was the Sassanid Empire, or Neo-Persian Empire (224–651 CE). The
collapse of the Sassanid Empire in 651 C.E. was one of the primary factors in the rapid spread of Islam in
the next unit of study. One result of these Persian Empires was the diffusion of religious ideas associated
with Zoarastrianism.
II. Empires and states developed new techniques of imperial administration based, in part, on the
success of earlier political forms.
A. Empires are large and diverse. As they expanded duing the classical age, ruling them became more
difficult. Governments had to implement methods to project power over large areas, something that
presented a challenge in the age before modern transportation and communication. Drawing from the
successes of earlier civilizations, empires in the classical age were able to centralize their power and rule
over vast domains.
A centralized government is one in which most decisions for the entire state are made by one executive
power. This usually involves one leader, or a small group of individuals, having authority over all regions of a
state from a single location, such as a capital city. Although all states are necessarily centralized to some
degree, some governments can lean more toward decentralization. A decentralized government allows
more control and decision making to be made at the level of local provinces or counties. An illustration would
be a school in which the administration allows teachers to create many of the rules and procedures for their
own classrooms, as opposed to a more centralized system in which an administrator micro-manages every
aspect of the classroom from an administrative office. Examples of centralized states in the classical age are
Han China, Mauryan India, and the Byzantine Empire. More decentralized states were Gupta India and the
Zhou Dynasty of China.
Each of these models of government has its own pattern of strengths and weaknesses. Although
decentralized governments put people more in touch with the powers that govern them, they often find it
difficult to unite for the common good in times of crises. Centralized states can be efficient, but require some
apparatus to project power and hold distance provinces together. They can also can be the target of blame
when people become discontented.
Centralized Governments: Case Studies
EAST ASIA
After the fall of the Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC–256 BC) China fell into a period of chaos known as the Period
of the Warring States. Although a time of conflict and strife, this period was one of the most fruitful in terms
of intellectual output. In the quest to understand how China could have fallen into a period of instability, great
thinkers pondered questions such as "What is the best form of governance?" and, related to that question,
"What is the nature of man?" The differing answers to these questions formed the basis
of Confucianism, Legalism, and Daoism. See more about these Chinese Belief Systems from Key
Concept 2.1.
The Period of Warring States ended when the warrior Qin Shi Huang centralized power and destroyed
regional opposition. Although it lasted only 14 years, the Qin Dynasty set in place many important aspects
of Chinese civilization.
One of the most important things the Qin did was create a bureaucracy. Bureaucrats are employees of the
state whose position in society, unlike nobles or aristocrats, does not rest on an independent source of
wealth. Members of the bureaucracy only had positions and power as granted by the emperor. Generally
speaking, the bureaucrat's high status and wealth is based on his obedience to his superior. Land owning
aristocrats, on the other hand, have large estates and personal fortunes to fall back on; they have a vested
interest in influencing the government in their personal favor. Aristocrats also tend to make decisions based
on what is best for their location, thus becoming a decentralizing force. By assigning bureaucrats to regions,
the Qin bypassed the powerful aristocracy and governed through those whose position depended on loyal
obedience to the state. Additionally, the practice of Legalism reinforced the bonds of obligation between
bureaucrat and superior. In this manner, the bureaucracy became a tool of centralization for China and
placed the entire empire under the leadership of the Qin emperor.
In order to bring unity to China, the Qin also built roads and bridges, constructed defensive walls,
standardized units of weight and measurement, created a standard currency, and made one common form
of Chinese writing. The harsh Legalism of the Qin allowed it to do much during its short reign of 14 years,
but this same strict political philosophy also generated much resentment among the common people. As
soon as the emperor died, the people revolted and slaughtered many of the remaining Qin officials.
Unlike previous eras, Chinese civilization did not regress into chaos for long. The Han dynasty came to
power and ruled China for about 400 years, roughly 200 B.C.E. to 200 C.E. The ability of the Han to
maintain a strong central government over such a vast area was greatly facilitated by the Qin reforms under
Legalism.
Under the leadership of emperor Han Wudi, the Han Dynasty is responsible for some very important
innovations that would have a lasting effect on China: the official adoption of Confucianism and the rise of
the civil service examinations.
The Han adopted Confucianism because it was the most organized educational network from which they
could draw people for the bureaucracy. To make certain new recruits were educated well, they began testing
them through a rigorous system of civil service examinations; to be in the Han bureaucracy, one had to
demonstrate a mastery of Confucian ideas on these tests. One effect of this was that the Han bureaucracy
was filled with people profoundly influenced by Confucian thought. They were taught to model good behavior
for those under them and to respect and submit to those in authority over them. Thus Confucianism not only
became deeply embedded in Chinese culture, it also came to re-enforce the political bureaucracy by
advocating obedience and benevolent rule. A synthesis was forged between China's political structure and a
belief system.
SOUTH ASIA
The classical age of India’s history was comprised of two important dynasties, the Mauryan and the Gupta.
The rise of the Mauryan Dynasty was precipitated by the invasion of Alexander of Macedonia in 327 B.C.
Although Alexander left no lasting impression on India, he did clear out several small Aryan states and
create the power vacuum which allowed Chandragupta Mauryan to establish his namesake dynasty.
Under Mauryan rule much of the Indian subcontinent was united for the first time under one central
government. They were able to rule such a large area by using a well organized bureaucracy. Chandragupta
maintained his bureaucracy with a systematic use of spying, brutality and intimidation. The most important
ruler of the Mauryan dynasty was Ashoka. He retained the bureaucracy created by this grandfather
Chandragupta, but imposed a system of law across his empire known as the Edicts of Ashoka. These rules
brought cohesion and legal consistency across the empire, as the Code of Hammurabi did for the
Babylonians. Thus Ashoka relied on both a bureaucracy and a codified legal system to centralize his rule.
Under Ashoka's rule the empire expanded and the bureaucracy became more organized. He created central
organizations to ensure that his edicts and policies were carried out across his empire. An important event
during Ashoka’s rule was his conversion to Buddhism, a change that moderated the harsh precedents set by
his grandfather. Ashoka today is remembered as one of ancient India's most influential and benevolent
leaders.
When Ashoka died the Mauryan empire soon crumbled. After a period of disorder and regional kingdoms,
the Gupta Dynasty emerged and once again united India under a single government. The Gupta empire
never grew to the size of the Mauryan. The organization of their empire was considerably different as well.
Ashoka used the bureaucracy to manage most details of the empire. The Gutpas, on the other hand, let
most decisions and policy making up to local leaders. They also preferred to negotiate or intermarry with
local rulers to keep the peace. Although they ruled over a smaller area than the Mauryans, the Gupta era
was the greatest period of political stability in classical India. However, this lack of centralized rule came with
an eventual price. The various regions of India had their own distinctions and were never integrated into the
whole as they were under Ashoka. In fact, the Gupta empire would break along these regional divisions as
the empire was threatened by internal corruption and nomadic invaders. After the fall of the Gupta dynasty,
the Indian subcontinent would remain fragmented into regions for over 1500 years. Thus the pattern of rule
in classical India alternated between large but decentralized empires and networks of disjointed regional
kingdoms.
THE ROMAN EMPIRE
The diversity of east and south Asian empires did not compare with that of Rome. At its peak, the Roman
Empire included areas as diverse as Egypt, Spain, Britain, Palestine, and the Caucasus Mountain region. As
its territory expanded it grew from a monarchy, to a Republic, and finally became an Empire. Although its
political innovations were impressive, Rome's greatest legacy was its system of law through which they
forged a way to incorporate diverse cultures into a single political state without stripping localities of their
individual identities.
The first laws implemented in Rome were the Twelve Tables. These laws were produced early in Roman
history (449 BCE) in order to relieve tensions between the upper classes (the patricians) and the common
classes (the plebeians) of citizens. The plebeians used their position as Rome's labor force as leverage to
get the patricians to create these laws. The Twelve Tables, which guaranteed procedural equality and
consistency in courts of law, was the first major concession won by the plebeians on their road to political
equality and republican government.
Roman laws became more complex as the empire grew. The genius of Rome's response to the increased
diversity of an expanding empire was the division of law into two types, jus gentium and jus civile. Jus
gentium, or law of all nations, refers to universal principles that are true of all people. These are fundamental
to being human and all societies have some version of them. They embody principles such as: harm done to
another person without cause is wrong, and false dealing or fraud is wrong. The Romans thought these
basic precepts were universal to all people; without them different cultures could not even engage in trade.
Because they are universal, a foreigner in Rome could be charged for breaking one of these principles even
if that person did not see them written down. Ignorance can never be an excuse for violating jus gentium. By
the second century C.E. the jus gentium was called Natural Law.
After recognizing the general principles (jus gentium) that make society possible, the Romans realized that
these general principles do not look the same within different societies; specific cultural norms and practices
vary widely across civilizations. Thus the Romans came up with the idea of jus civile, or civil law. This
codified system of law is what the jus gentium looks like inside a specific culture. They differ from place to
place, but always manifest the general principles common to all people. For example, in all cultures it is
wrong to cheat in trade. But in one civilization it may be more disruptive to cheat someone from one's own
clan or tribe, so the punishment would be more severe in that case. In another civilization it might be worse
to cheat someone from an higher social class than someone from one's own class. In both cultures cheating
is wrong, but the written law concerning this principle looks different in both places. In short, general
principles of right and wrong (jus gentium) are customized to fit the specific circumstances of local
conditions; at the local level they become civil law (jus civile).
This system of law had coherence because it was based on principles thought to be universal to all men,
and it had flexibility in that it allowed for local variances. Thus rendered, this system of law allowed Rome to
administrate its massive empire with all its diverse cultures and local customs.
After the Visgoths laid waste to Rome in 410 C.E., a Roman poet mourned his city with the following words:
You made of foreign realms one fatherland,
the lawless found their gain beneath your sway;
sharing your laws with them you have subdued,
you have made a city of the once wide world.[1]
Roman law turned the diversity of the empire into a single civilization, making a "city of the world."
B. The extension of empire across large areas was dependent upon a government's ability to marshal and
project military power. This took place through a variety of techniques:
Diplomacy There is more to winning a battle than military strategy and advanced weapons.
Diplomacy, or the negotiation with allies and foes, was crucial for imperial conquest. For example, when
the Han Dynasty pushed westward they came into conflict with the powerful confederation of nomadic
tribes called the Xiongnu. In the ensuing war, the Han Emperor Wu sought alliances with small
countries on his western border, offering a Han princess in marriage to the king of Wusun to secure him
as an ally. Thus obtained, these allies helped the Chinese defeat the Xiongnu. Such matrimonial
alliances were common with the empires of the classical ages. Another form of diplomacy is the
creation of tributary states. Emporer Samudragupta of the Gupta Dynasty used this method on
several occasions to bring stability to his empire. After defeating rival kingdoms he would allow a
defeated king to retain his rule providing he paid the Gupta a determined price, called a tribute. This
was often a more practical alternative than trying to rule remote kingdoms directly. In a tributary system,
defeated kings basically purchase the right to rule from the victors, making them indirect subjects of the
conquering power.
Supply Lines The armies of ancient empires required complex logistical operations, especially
when they were on the move. The minimum daily rations for a soldier was 3 pounds of grain and 2
quarts of water. Thus an army of 65,000 men required at least 195,000 lbs of grain and 325,000 lbs of
water each day.[2] It seems almost miraculous that ancient armies were able to provide for themselves
without modern vehicles and paved roads. Armies of the classical age created supply trains of animals
and wheeled carts. This increased the provisions that could be carried but also introduced new
impediments: the average pack animal required 10 lbs of grain per day thereby increasing the necessary
provisions, and carts pulled by some animals slowed the movement of an army to a crawl (most terrain
was rough and had no roads). For this reason, Alexander the Great limited pack animals to horses and
camels and eliminated carts completely from his supply line.[3] Travelling with his army was a significant
number of non-combatants whose job it was to manage the movement of supplies across the ranks of
soldiers. All of this required tedious centralized planning. And given the fact that the average army could
only carry enough supplies to last them for 10 days, sustaining supply lines was very important for
armies. These lifelines were also vulnerable to enemy attacks that could bring devastation by cutting an
army from its provisions.
Forts, Walls and Roads Effective armies also need engineers. To ease the role of defense, armies
were aided by defensive walls. The famous Great Wall of China was first constructed by the Qin
Dynasty to protect them from nomadic tribes on their northwestern frontier. The Qin constructed miles of
walls and connected preexisting walls. It's noteworthy that the purpose of a wall was not to establish a
permanent defensive boundary for the empire. They were made to secure conquered areas with an eye
to expansion. "Build and move on was the principle of the wall, not setting up a fixed border for all
time. [4] These earthen walls were later fortified with stone by the Ming Dynasty, and this is the wall most
familiar with tourists today. The Romans likewise constructed Hadrian's Wall to divide their territory of
Britain from the Scottish Pics whose raids became problematic for them. In any case, walls were not
effective without being manned by soldiers; both the Chinese and the Romans built fortifications and
garrisons at points along their walls. As empires expanded beyond their resources, the thinning of
armies on the boundaries of an empire allowed defensive walls to be easily breached.
Defensive walls were not the only places where empires built fortifications. A fortress made a powerful
territorial claim for the empire who built it, and anyone challenging the territory on which the fortress was
built had to take the fortress first. The city of Rome built fortifications on the seven hills surrounding the
city. When the Mauryans took the province of Kalinga they built a fortification there to secure it as a
possession. [5] Most classical civilizations built fortresses to shore up their most vulnerable areas; only
the Gupta did not do this,[6] perhaps because as a decentralized state it was less able to garner
resources for the collective good.
Due to the size of their imperial reach, empires built roads as well. These facilitated travel and trade but
often the construction of roads was motivated by need to move armies across the empire. The Romans
excelled in roads, which they called Viae. Viae militares, or military roads, served to move troops easily
to defend or expand the empire. Indeed, for the Romans, the construction of roads was primarily
motivated by military needs.[7]
Raising armies All the classical empires needed methods to raise large armies. The Han army was
primarily made up of soldiers conscripted from the civilian population into military service.[8] Typically,
each group of 5 households was required to send 5 troops to military service. Unlike the troops, whose
service was temporary, officers in the Han army were career professionals who advanced through the
ranks by demonstrating knowledge of classic texts on military theory, such as Sun Tzu’s Art of
War. (This was not unlike Chinese politicians who gained entrance to the bureaucracy by demonstrating
knowledge of the Confucian classics.) Chinese officers communicated troop movements in battle by
sounding gongs, bells, drums and signaling with flags.
The Roman army was probably the most effective killing machine of the ancient world. After the Punic
Wars, the infantry was comprised of professional soldiers, not farmers called up for temporary service.
They expanded their war machine by "organizing the communities that they conquered in Italy into a
system that generated huge reservoirs of manpower for their army . . . Their main demand of all
defeated enemies was they provide men for the Roman army every year. "[9] But even in the face of
superior numbers and technology, the organization and flexibility of the Roman army was remarkable.
The basic unit was 8 men, and 10 of these groups combined to form a century. Six centuries made a
cohort and 10 cohorts was a legion. Soldiers drilled to fight at each of these levels. Consequently, a
legion could fight as a whole unit or be divided and maneuvered according to the needs of battle into
fighting groups ranging from 8 to 480 men. The ability of the Roman army to divide and adapt itself to
battlefield developments was demonstrated at the Battle of Pydna, where the Romans decisively
defeated the Macedonian forces.
In the Mayan army social elites served as officers and soldiers were conscripted from the local
populations. Mesoamerican armies were typically smaller than those in Eurasia, consisting at the most
of several thousand soldiers, instead of tens of thousands like the Romans and Han. Mayan weapons
did not utilize metals. They were often wooden clubs, some of which they would embed with razor sharp
chips of obsidian. These were ideal for maiming enemies by blows to the legs or arms. The non-lethal
nature of such wounds allowed them to take live prisoners, many of which were needed for ritualistic
sacrifices. Some scholars believe warfare was common among the Mayan, and there is evidence
that low-intensity fighting occurred even between Mayan cities. However, the overall scale of warfare
was significantly less among the Mayan than it was for Han China and the Roman empire. [10]
C. It was in the best interest of classical governments to make trade more accessible. Higher profits
brought in more tax revenue to the government. Although Roman roads were built at first to move
armies, they greatly facilitated trade across the empire. When the Qin emperor centralized China after
the Period of Warring States, he constructed an infrastructure of roads and bridges to increase trade and
gather taxes from formerly isolated areas. As Silk Road and Indian Ocean trade brought wealth to Gupta
India, emperors commissioned the production of coins to ease transactions and make it easier to
compare the value of goods. All classical governments enacted policies to facilitate commercial
activities.
III. Unique social and economic dimensions developed in imperial societies in Afro-Eurasia and
the Americas.
A. Cities were extremely important to the economic, political, and cultural life of empires. Administrative
centers, or what we would call capital cities, were sometimes themselves monuments to the power of
the state. The monumental buildings of Persepolis and Rome, for example, conveyed the power and
awe of the Persian and Roman Empires, respectively. Cites were also important centers for
trade. Chang'an, the imperial capital of China (remained Xi'an during the Ming Dynasty) was an
important trade center, situated as it was on the eastern end of the Silk Roads.
B. Social hierarchies and stratification that formed in foundational civilizations became more complex in
large empires. In classical India, the caste system evolved in order to accommodate the growing
complexity of Gupta society. Castes divided into subcastes, or jati, which soon became the backbone of
Indian society. Jati formed their own courts through which Indian society was regulated in the absence of
a strong central government. Thus Indian families tended to associate closely with other families
involved in the same occupations as themselves. Although there was some variation, most classical
societies could be represented in the following way:
A notable exception would be Han society with its scholar-bureaucrats at the top, peasants, laborers and
artisans next, and artists and unskilled workers at the bottom.[11]
C. Because the production of large surpluses of agriculture was necessary for the specialization of labor
and large armies, empires developed methods to extract maximum productivity from land.
Some slavery was practiced in all classical civilizations, but the Mediterranean world clearly exceeded
Asia in the development of this institution. Slaves may have comprised as much as one third of the
Roman Empire.[12] Another common form of labor sponsored by empires was the Corvée System. In
this system, governments required subjects, usually peasants, to provide labor as a payment of tax. A
specified number of labor days had to be offered to the state as an obligatory taxation. Many large
imperial projects were completed using the corvée system. The Qin built their defensive wall using it; in
130 B.C.E. the Han built a canal to better move grain to the capital city using corvée labor.[13] Under
Jeraboam, the Hebrew kingdom of Israel used the corvée system first with conquered Cananites, then
on their own population.[14]
D. Despite changes that occurred in class, caste and labor during the classical age, all empires
continued to practice patriarchy. In some societies it was very harsh; in other societies women could
advance and engage in business. Indeed, belief systems certainly gave shape to how it was practiced in
day to day life in every society. But without exception, political, social and economic life in imperial
civilizations remained dominated by males throughout this period.
IV. The Roman, Han, Persian, Mauryan and Gupta empires created political, cultural, and
administrative difficulties that they could not manage, which eventually led to their decline,
collapse, and transformation into successor empires or states.
Between 200 and 600 C.E. all of the classical civilizations had fallen (the Han around 220, Western
Rome in 476, and the Gupta in 550). There are several elements in common to the fall of these
civilizations:
Political corruption and deterioration - The politics of all classical ages became corrupt and given
over to factions and divisions. Bribery and favoritism were rife. Provinces came under the control of local
leaders and empires decentralized.
The migration of the Huns - Droughts in central Asia forced a nomadic group called the Huns to
migrate south and west during this time period. This brought them in contact with the settled classical
civilizations. They placed pressure on the Han and Gupta, attacking their frontiers and raiding their
lands. As they pushed westward, they forced Germanic peoples to put pressure on the Roman Empire.
Over-extension of borders - All empires found that their borders had grown so large that their
military had trouble guarding them. Their imperial ambition out-stripped their resources. The Chinese
could not effectively man the Great Wall with soldiers to keep out the Huns. Rome grew so large they
could not raise the armies to protect its frontiers.
The spread of epidemics and disease - The trade routes that connected civilizations and allowed
them to prosper also spread diseases. Han China and Rome lost thousands to disease, thus depleting
their tax base just as they needed fund to protect their borders.
The Fall of Classical Civilizations: Case Studies
HAN CHINA
About 100 A.D. the Han started to decline. Bureaucrats became corrupt and bribery was wide spread.
As the supervision of the central government began to decline, local landlords stepped up to take more
control of their provinces. Political decentralization occurred. The local aristocrats added their own taxes
on to the already high tax burden of the empire. Crushing tax debts forced many peasant farmers to sell
their land to local aristocrats; some peasants sold their children into slavery to alleviate debt. This
created a situation common to most all failing states: the distribution of wealth across society became
disproportionately imbalanced, as more of the wealth fell into the hands of fewer people. Peasants hated
the merciless forces that seemed beyond their control, and their sense of helplessness led them to
revolt. A revolutionary movement emerged called the Yellow Turbans. Led by Daoists, the Yellow
Turbans attracted farmers, scholars, and even disillusioned government employees. They attacked
wealthy corrupt bureaucrats and directed their rage at the emperor himself. Hundreds of thousands
strong, they believed they would usher in a "new historical era of Great Peace as the Phase of the earth
(color yellow) gained ascendancy."[15] Although the Yellow Turbans failed, the feelings of despair that
drove them did not. The Han never recovered fully from this rebellion.
Compounding this political weakness and peasant unrest was the effect of several
devastating epidemics that wiped out nearly half the population. The death of so many peasants
diminished grain production and reduced the tax base for the government, just as the government
needed resources to deal with the invading Huns. With all this internal turmoil, the weakened Han
dynasty could not fend off the advance of the Hun invaders who easily crossed the abandoned Great
Wall. The Han fell in 220 C.E. and China temporarily fell into a period of disunity.
Even though the Han fell and initiated a period of chaos, there was not a permanent disruption of
Chinese civilization. Briefly, the Sui dynasty ruled. Then in 618 the Tang dynasty emerged as one of the
most glorious in Chinese history. They reinstated Confucian thought and revived and improved upon the
Han style of bureaucracy. After the Hun invasions and the fall of the Han dynasty, the Chinese never
had to reinvent their civilization.
ROMAN EMPIRE
The fall of the Roman Empire was very complex and is still debated among historians today. But things that
are agreed upon are the following. As the Roman Empire grew, it required more soldiers to patrol its borders
and frontiers. This brought a high tax burden on a population that was decreasing because of plague and
poverty. Likewise, Rome Emperors and the upper classes adopted increasingly luxurious and extravagant
lifestyles at the expense of the tax paying citizens. This cause not only great resentment among the lower
classes, but the upper classes became more self-centered and less concerned about social and political
responsibilities. New artistic and cultural styles were not being created. People came to view life as futile
and meaningless. Weakened politically, economically, culturally, and psychologically, the Roman Empire no
longer had the strength or the desire to fend off the Germanic invaders.
As the empire started to weaken, farmers and laborers clustered around powerful regional landowners to
whom they surrendered full allegiance in return for military protection. Thus people looked to their local
landlords rather than to the Empire for protection and stability. As this decentralization took place, the
vast Mediterranean trade routes fell out of Roman hands.
The Emperor Diocletian tried to stop this political disintegration. He divided the empire into several
administrative zones and persecuted Christians whose allegiance to their God he blamed for the
weakening of Roman civil life. Then the emperor Constantine, who converted the Christianity, used his
religion to try to unify the Empire spiritually. He created a new capital, Constantinople. However, neither
of these Emperors could save the crumbling Empire.
The last Roman Empire in the west was displaced by Germanic armies in 476. Mediterranean culture,
which had been put together by the Hellenism of Alexander and the Roman Empire itself, was
fragmented. Unlike the classical civilizations of India and China, this Mediterranean classical civilization
suffered a complete death. “For Greece and Rome had not put together the shared political culture and
bureaucratic traditions of China that could allow revival after a period of chaos. Nor had Mediterranean
civilization . . . generated a common religion that appealed deeply enough, or satisfied enough needs, to
maintain unity amid political fragmentation, as in India.”[16]
One unique thing about the fall of Rome, however, was that the eastern portion, called the Byzantine
Empire, did not really fall. But this Empire did not gain the entire inheritance of Mediterranean classical
civilization. It more accurately mirrored the political system of late imperial Rome. Thus the fall of the
Empire was more devastating in the west, while in the east a unique culture—not completely of
Mediterranean origin—thrived.
A. The mobilization of resources required by classical empires had vast environmental consequences.
The materials required by settled people and the need for surpluses of agriculture led to
the deforestation of enormous tracks of land. In the Mediterranean civilizations, entire forests were cut
down to provide building timbers, burning fuel, and to extend farming areas. Plato described in his
book Critias the deforestation of Attica (Greece): where there was once "an abundance of wood in the
mountains," he could now only see "the mere skeleton of the land."[17]
B. The internal problems of empires described above hampered their ability to deal with external
problems on their frontiers. All classical civilizations had to deal with migrations and invasions of
nomadic people. The Qin and Han dynasties struggled against the Xiongnu Confederacy, and we have
seen above that the invasion of the Huns was a factor in the collapse of the Han Dynasty. The white
Huns invaded the Gupta and exposed the inability of its decentralized system to coordinate a unified
defense. As the Huns migrated westward they pressed Germanic tribes of central and eastern Europe
against the frontiers of the Roman Empire. When resources were too scarce to sustain their defenses,
the Romans found these "barbarians" at the gates of their capital city.
Key Concept 2.3 Emergence of Transregional Networks of Communication and
Exchange The large empires that emerged in the classical age created massive amounts of goods and became markets for imports. Several prominent trade systems developed that linked the empires together in a complex network of exchange that greatly exceeded that of the foundational and River Valley civilizations. Luxury goods and raw materials traveled in caravans and on boats to distant markets. Traveling with them were belief systems, ideas, technology, culture and diseases. Globally, these tranregional networks were limited to Eurasia and Africa in this time period. Trade networks that developed in Oceania and the Americas remained localized for the time being.
I. Land and water routes became the basis for transregional trade, communication, and exchange
networks in the Eastern Hemisphere.
A. The major networks of trade that developed in the classical age were influenced by economic, cultural,
environmental, and geographic factors. You should be familiar with the following examples of trade
networks:
The Silk Roads
The Silk Roads were made up of an indirect chain of separate transactions through which goods crossed the
entire land area of Eurasia. Rarely did merchants themselves travel the length of these routes; in fact, few of
them knew the complexity and breadth of the Silk Roads. Merchants primarily engaged in local instances of
"relay trade" in which goods changed "hands many times before reaching their final destinations." [1] Because
the Silk Roads crossed land it was much more expensive and dangerous to move goods. Consequently,
trade focused on luxury items that would bring a nice profit making the greater risks worthwhile. Particularly
important were luxury items with a high value to weight ratio.
The Silk Roads had their origins in Asia as nomadic and settled people exchanged goods. In part, it began
because of environmental conditions. The soil in China lacks selenium, a deficiency that contributes to
muscular weakness, low fertility, and reduced growth in horses.[2] Consequently, Chinese-raised horses
were too frail to support a mounted soldier rendering the Chinese military weak in the face of the powerful
cavalries of the steppe nomads. [3] Chinese emperors needed the superior horses that pastoral nomads bred
on the steppes, and nomads desired things only agricultural societies could produce, such
as grain, alcohol and silk. Even after the construction of the Great Wall, nomads gathered at the gates of
the wall to exchange items. Soldiers sent to guard the wall were often paid in bolts of silk which they traded
with the nomads.[4] Silk was so wide spread it eventually became a currency of exchange in Central Asia.
Silk and luxury goods were not the only things that moved across the Silk Roads. Merchants became agents
of cultural diffusion. The oasis towns that connected segments of trade became nodes of cultural
exchange, especially Buddhism. Mahayana Buddhism spread rapidly, leap-frogging from oasis town to oasis
town. The process was facilitated by these towns which often built beautiful Buddhist temples to attract
Buddhist merchants abroad. Nestorian Christianity also spread across the Silk Roads into China. Not
surprisingly, silk took on a sacred meaning in Buddhist and Christian rituals. Merchants also carried disease.
The disease epidemics that devastated the classical civilizations were spread across large ecological
zones via the Silk Roads.
The volume of trade increased dramatically as the classical empires formed. The Romans, Gupta, and Han
were centers of production and huge markets for goods. Moreover, the laws and legal systems of these
empires provided security for merchants, encouraging them to take more risks. As always, the primary items
of trade were luxury goods, and nomadic people continued to play an important role; their movements
sometimes served as important connections between segments of trade, buying in one place and selling in
another. Some nomads became settled people and made their living off of trade. Nevertheless, the volume
of trade on the Silk Roads was connected to the strength of the classical civilizations during this period and
declined when they fell into ruin.
Mediterranean Sea Routes Another major trade network during the classical period developed in the
Mediterranean Sea. Maritime trade routes, unlike land-based routes such as the Silk Roads, were
better suited for heavy and bulky items. Wine, olive oil and grain were mainstays of this network. Other
items of trade included timber, marble, glassware, perfumes, silver, spices and silk.
Like the Silk Roads, the the Mediterranean trade network went through major changes during the classical
period. In its early stage, merchants trading on these sea lanes were predominately from the city states of
Phoenicia and the Greek peninsula. The Phoenicians were sea-faring people who traded widely across the
Mediterranean area, especially in the era before the classical age. They established a network of colonies
across the region, the most famous of which was Carthage. After Phoenicia was defeated by Persia,
Carthage went on to create its own empire in the Mediterranean, eventually clashing with Rome in the Punic
Wars. The most lasting legacy of the Phoenicians was the diffusion of the first truly phonetic alphabet.
As the Phoenician presence in the Mediterranean declined, the Greeks became more involved. In order to
feed their people, Greek cities created a network of colonies throughout the Mediterranean. Grain poured
into the city-states of Greece from the colonies, for which they in turn traded olive oil and wine, products
much better suited to Greek soil. A major consequence of this trade was the diffusion of Greek
culture across the Mediterranean region.
The most significant change in Mediterranean trade occurred when Carthage fell to Rome and the entire rim
of the Mediterranean Sea was controlled by the Roman government. Roman laws were now enforced
across the region, providing a consistent legal system. The wide spread use of Latin facilitated trade. Piracy
on the Mediterranean Sea was controlled by the Roman navy. During this Roman period, trade reached its
peak. Engulfed by Roman civilization, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as mare nostrum ("our
sea," Latin).[5] Like the Greeks before them, the Romans depended on massive grain imports to feed their
urban centers, while silk was imported to satisfy the demands of the upper class. The Romans exported
copper, tin, glass, wine and olive oil.
Indian Ocean Trade Although Indian Ocean trade would reach its heyday in the post-classical
period, it was an important trade network during this time, particularly for the Gupta
Dynasty. Pepper, cotton textiles, and dye became lucrative commodities on this maritime network. A
unique feature of Indian Ocean trade was its dependence on the weather. Each monsoon season brought
with it predictable patterns of winds, which reversed six months later. Merchants had to time their departures
with these cycles of winds in mind.
Trans-Saharan Trade Trans-Saharan trade was another network that would reach its peak in the
post-classical age (600 to 1450) when Islam comes to the region. Nevertheless, merchants carried goods
across these routes during the classical age, facilitated by the domestication of the camel. Many of the
items that were exchanged between Egypt and Nubia in the previous period continued across the Saraha
(slaves, gold, and ivory.) One of the most important items that merchants carried to sub-Saharan Africa from
North Africa was salt, a needed commodity before refrigeration.
II. New technologies facilitated long-distance communication and exchange.
A. Land trade increased when people learned to use the power of animals for their benefit. The camel,
originally a herd animal, was domesticated in the middle east for its use in the incense trade. Camels
extended the scope and volume of trade in the arid Arabian climate. They carried military supplies for the
Assyrian armies under the command of Sargon II.[6] These uses of the camel were made possible by the
development of a saddle which allowed the animal to be loaded with much cargo. Camels could carry up to
50 percent more cargo than other pack animals, could go longer without water, and lived longer than most of
them as well.
In Central Asia nomads domesticated the horse and became expert trainers, so much so that the Han
dynasty traded silk with them for their horses. The invention of the stirrup, a small ring or strap that holds
the feet of rider, allowed for much greater control of the animal. With new technologies such as the stirrup
and saddle, pack animals permitted humans to greatly increase their ability to trade, travel, and
communicate.
B. Advances in technology aided maritime trade as well. On the Indian Ocean merchants were recognizing
the seasonal patterns of monsoon winds and they began adapting their voyages to harness these winds.
New technologies helped them adapt more efficiently to the dynamics of this trade route. The Dhow, a long
slender boat with a lateen sail, became a common vessel for Indian Ocean trade. Although its origins are
not completely clear, the Chinese, Arabs, and Indians were certainly involved in its creation and/or
modification. The dhow was used for heavy items that were not as fit for land-based trade. One of its primary
characteristics was the lateen sail which allowed sailors to tack against the wind. The dhow and lateen sail
did for maritime trade what the saddle and stirrup did for land trade: they helped people widen networks of
trade and communication thus accelerating the diffusion of goods, ideas, and culture.
III. Alongside the trade in goods, the exchange of people, technology, religious and cultural beliefs,
food crops, domesticated animals, and disease pathogens developed across far-flung networks of
communication and exchange.
A. Cotton is indigenous to South Asia and has a long history of cultivation in India. The Laws of
Manu mentions cotton, and it appears in the Enquiry into Plants by the Greek writer Theophrastus, a
contemporary of Plato and Aristotle.[7] As transregional networks of exchange expanded, cotton spread out
of India into the Middle East where it placed strains on the agricultural systems there. In Persia, for example,
wheat and barley could be planted in the Fall, remain dormant over winter, and left to sprout in the Spring,
thus avoiding the terribly hot summer months of the Iranian piedmont. Cotton, on the other hand, is a
summer crop, planted in April and harvested in the Fall. Consequently, much of Persia (modern day Iran)
was initially too hot and dry to accommodate this important crop. The solution to this problem was the
introduction of a new irrigation system known as the qanat system.[8]
The Qanat used hydraulic and gravitational force to extract water from the ground without the use of any energy at all. By linking vertical shafts and gently sloping horizontal passages, water was drawn from the aquifer and released to the agricultural fields at a lower level. This system not only allowed for the cultivation of cotton, but was applied to other crops as well. The effect was profound. Qanats doubled the amount of available water for irrigation and urban use in Iran.[9] Persia was able to enjoy larger surpluses of agriculture thus increasing urbanization and social stratification.[10] The qanat system spread throughout the Middle East and as far as China.
Rice was another crop that spread during this time period. First cultivated on the southern slopes of
the Himalayas [11], it spread from China across the caravan routes of the central Asian steppes.
Because Buddhist monks were vegetarian and avoided the meat-based diets of pastoral nomads,
they would carry rice with them on their journeys across the steppes. Indeed, a Buddhist text called
the Aggañña Sutta states that "rice grows as long as Buddhism spreads." [12]
Sugarcane likewise spread during this time. It was first grown in India and probably spread through
the Khyber pass, into Afghanistan, and then diffused across the central Asian caravan routes. [13]
B. The transregional movement of people and goods also facilitated the spread of disease
pathogens. When Roman troops moved into Mesopotamia in the second century, a major epidemic
of smallpox broke out among the soldiers stationed in Parthia. By 166 B.C.E. it spread across much
of the Roman Empire, reaching the city of Rome itself. Enduring for 15 years, probably 10 percent of
the population of the Roman Empire, about 5 million people, perished from disease. [14] Worse
epidemics were to come. Merchant ships on maritime trade routes and pack animals on caravan
routes introduced the Roman Empire to devastating epidemics. Horses, upon which Roman
expansion and trade depended, were often the culprits for carrying diseases to humans. [15] Most
historians consider these devastating epidemics a key factor in the fall of the western Roman
Empire.
Disease pathogens ravished Chinese civilization as well. Smallpox probably first arrived in China
with the Huns around 250 B.C.E. [16] Contact with Roman civilization along the Silk Roads continually
reintroduced China to smallpox and in the third and fourth centuries C.E., the disease destroyed half
the population of northern China. After the fall of the Han Dynasty, bubonic plague spread from
Constantinople to China, and Buddhist monks subsequently spread the plague to Japan. [17] As with
Rome, each devastating epidemic weakened the foundations of civilization. It meant fewer men to
be called up for military service, thus decreasing security. With fewer people to work in agriculture,
food surpluses dropped, and with them, the basis for a complex society. Lastly, a sharp drop in the
population deprived the government of taxpaying peasants making it difficult to fund the basic
functions of the state.
C. Trade routes not only diffuse the things merchants carry on their animals; they also spread the
ideas and beliefs they carry in their heads. As major world religions spread from one area into
another they adapted to local circumstances and preexisting traditions. Christianity, Hinduism and
Buddhism all spread across trade routes far from their places of origin and all were modified in the
process.
The Spread and Transformation of Religions: Case Studies
Christianity From its humble origins in first century Palestine, Christianity gradually spread across
the vast domain of the Roman Empire. As with Buddhism, missionaries were instrumental in the
diffusion of the faith. Using Rome's infrastructure of roads and trade routes, missionaries like St.
Paul preached Christianity in Greece, Anatolia, and the city of Rome itself. It survived persecutions by
several Roman Emperors. Although most converts were initially from the middle classes, the religion
gained an occasional convert in the higher ranks. There were a number of reasons why it appealed to
average Romans. Unlike the polytheistic religions of the Empire, Christianity promised eternal rewards
for ethical behavior, a belief that gave meaning to everyday choices and actions. Individuals could now
participate in an unseen world of cosmic importance[18] and were taught a way to secure life beyond the
grave. Also, where Roman religions recognized social status and citizenship, Christianity taught that all
people are equal before God.[19]
Despite its early gains, by the beginning of the 4th century Christianity was still a minority belief comprising
perhaps only 5 percent of the Roman population. [20] By the end of that century it would be the official
religion of the empire. The most important event in this dramatic change was when Roman
Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity and, through the Edict of Milan, gave it official acceptance.
Later in 392, Emperor Theodosius made it the official religion of the empire; he banned pagan ceremonies,
shut down temples to Roman gods, and ordered idols destroyed. Now that Christianity was connected
officially to the state, it grew wealthy. The Church solicited donations from the rich and could own
land.[21] The empire constructed churches and dispatched missionaries. Christianity spread to new areas of
Eastern Europe, in part, because two Byzantine missionaries created the Cyrillic alphabet for the Slavic
spoken language. Christian morality was reinforced by the state through the Code of Justinian, which fused
Christian teachings with Roman law. Supported by the Roman state, Christianity was propelled into a
significant role in world history.
As it benefited from imperial patronage Christianity returned the favor by endowing the state with religious
legitimacy. The very model of Christianity--one God reigning supremely over the universe through a network
of angels and saints--was complimentary to the model of Constantine ruling the empire through a centralized
bureaucracy; the empire mirrored the hierarchical cosmology of Christianity. Constantine represented
himself as one who ruled on God's behalf, not only performing the normal functions of political rule but
making appointments to prominent church offices and intervening in doctrinal disputes.[22] This union of
political and religious authority under one ruler was called caesaropapism. The Roman Empire, now
reordered as a community of belief and union of church and state, laid claim to supernatural support.
Although the political development of the fallen western half of the Roman Empire was much different than
the eastern (Byzantine) half, Christianity became the religion of choice for kings there as well. As the Roman
Catholic Church grew in power and prestige, Germanic kings converted to Catholicism in order to reinforce
their political power. When Clovis I of the Franks converted to Catholic Christianity, it set him apart from
other kings vying for power and put him in alliance with landholding elites of the former patrician classes. [23]
In the eastern Byzantine Empire the best example of a politician using Christianity to legitimize authority was
Constantine, particularly evident in the dedication of Constantinople in 330. Forty days of ceremonies, both
Christian and pagan, surrounded this event. The Column of Constantine which was erected for this
dedication was a repository of relics both Christian and pagan. The figure of Constantine at the top (no
longer there today) held an orb containing a piece of the cross on which Jesus died. The base of the column
held the ax used by Noah to build the ark, a surviving basket of bread from when Jesus fed a crowd, and
Mary Magdaline's jar of ointment used to anoint the feet of Jesus. [24] But the figure of Constantine was
clearly a model of Apollo, complete with rays of light emanating from his head in traditional Roman fashion.
Alongside the Christian relics in the base were pagan items as well, such as the Palladium, a relic thought to
bring the protection of the Roman gods upon whatever city possessed it. This blending of pagan and
Christian symbolism made the new religion seem less threatening to traditionally minded Romans. But the
statue of Constantine towering above both pagan and Christian symbols left no doubt as to who had
absolute power.
Based as it was upon the Christian religion, the empire could not afford to tolerate alternate opinions about
important Christian doctrines. Most divisive among these doctrines was who exactly Jesus was. Was he a
man who became God, a God who became man, or a combination of the two simultaneously, and if so, how
did the divine and human natures relate to each other? To settle these theological issues Constantine called
the Council of Nicaea (325 C.E.) which outlined the empire's position on such issues. These "official"
beliefs of Christianity, called orthodoxy, were enforced by the state. Heresy--any belief that deviated from
orthodoxy--was condemned and suppressed within the boundary of the empire. This actually led to the
diffusion of Christianity, as those whose Christian beliefs were condemned sought refuge outside the
empire. For example, in 431, Nestorius--the patriarch of Constantinople--was condemned for his views
about Jesus and Mary.[25] His followers, called Nestorians, formed Christian communities in the Persian
Sassanid Empire to escape persecution in the Roman (Byzantine) lands. From Persia they made their way
to the Silk Roads which became their routes across Eurasia. Nestorian Christianity went as far as China
where they established communities in the early 7th century.[26] The famous Nestorian Stele, erected in the
Chinese capital of Chang'an in 781, documents the early Christians who took their faith to China, as well as
some basic Christian teachings.
As it traveled the Silk Roads, Christianity adopted local practices and blended with local beliefs. Such
adaptations aided its spread by "camouflaging its newness" before potential converts. [27] For example,
Turks in Central Asia converted to Christianity because the practices of the Nestorian priests were nearly
identical to that of their own shamans. The Christian cross was used as a charm to bring good weather and
ward off evil spirits and disease. There were some mass conversions which have led scholars to speculate if
the converts merely took Christianity as another form of "shamanism" that had demonstrated greater power.
Although Christianity did not have the same success in China as Buddhism did, it merged there with other
beliefs as well. A Christian monument in the Chinese capital of Xi'an included Daoist symbols of yin and
yang along with the Buddhist lotus flower. Nestorian Christians in China preached the "Eight Cardinal
Virtues," which were basically a restatement of the Buddhist Eight Fold Path. The message of Jesus
became The Way (or the Dao) and saints were referred to as buddhas. [28]
The Silk Roads were not the only trade route upon which Christianity spread. Through maritime routes, it
made its way to Egypt and Axum and formed the Coptic Church. A kingdom in northern Ethiopia converted
and retained a unique form of Christianity distinct from Catholic and Eastern Orthodox forms. Across the
English channel, monks took Christianity to the British Isles where it was prone to Celtic influences. In short,
Catholic and Orthodox forms of Christianity spread inside the borders of the Roman Empire while Nestorian
and Coptic versions went beyond them. In all areas it absorbed influences from its host culture.
Hinduism We saw in Key Concept 2.1 that during the Vedic era Brahmin priests rose to the top of
society in South Asia. The complex rituals and sacrifices they conducted were thought necessary to ensure
good harvests and healthy herds of animals. As a privileged elite, they paid no taxes and grew wealthy
collecting large fees for their services. [29]
In the Bhagavad Gita, the warrior Arjuna prays to Krishna to spare him the agony of killing people in battle. Krishna tells
him to carry out the duties of the warrior caste in which he belongs. This is dharma.
The writings known as the Upanishads signaled a “grassroots” reaction against the strict system of the
Brahmins and their sacrifices. The title means “one who sits at the feet of the master” and implies that
people were seeking answers to life’s deepest meaning from wandering mystics and teachers rather than
the official religious system. Even though they offered a religious path around the official priests, the ways
taught in the Upanishads were hard. According to one of them, achieving cosmic awareness is "as hard as
walking barefoot over a razor's edge." [30]
During the Mauryan Dynasty, the active role played by Ashoka in promoting Buddhism put Hinduism on the
defensive. Brahmin priests resisted his efforts, and after the fall of Ashoka's Dynasty India experience a
Hindu revival. [31] Buddhism began to recede. Further diminishing its appeal was the invasion of the Kushans
from the north. The Kushan king had converted to Buddhism, an act that decreased its popularity in India “by
associating it with foreign rule.” [32] When the Gupta brought dynastic rule back to India, they directly
supported Hinduism. The ironic result of these trends is that Buddhism did not keep a significant presence in
India, the place of its origin.
Buddhism's decline in India was accompanied by the rise of a popular and devotional form of Hinduism.
Transformed by its competition with Buddhism, popular Hinduism emphasized the teachings of
the Bhagavad Gita rather than the rituals of the Vedas or the philosophical musings of the Upanishads. As
such, the new Hinduism stressed that a deep spirituality was available to any person by "selflessly
performing the ordinary duties of their lives." [33] Hindus at at any level of society could make spiritual
progress by mechanically carrying out the dharma of their caste in a detached and emotionless way. As the
Bhagavad Gita puts it:
Action alone should be your interest,
Never its fruits.
With discipline perform actions,
Abandoning attachments,
and indifferent to success or failure.[34]
This emphasis on action meant that members of the merchant caste, for example, were performing their
religious duty by carrying on the activities of trade. Shorn of complicated rules and dependence upon sacred
rituals, religious activity--once the exclusive domain of priests--was now open to anyone. This devotional
form of Hinduism became extremely popular with the masses. To some degree, the new practice of
Hinduism took on some of the characteristics of Mahayana Buddhism. As merchants spread their Hindu faith
it became hard to tell the two apart.
This is particularly true with a branch of Hinduism called bhakti which emerged in southern India and spread
to the north.. Intensely passionate, this form of Hinduism stressed intense emotions directed at specific
Hindu gods, most popularly Vishnu and Shiva. Despite the reputation Hinduism has of being a non-
missionary religion, there is strong evidence that certain sects of Hindus actively sought to spread the
religion. Through missionaries and merchants, the bhakti faith made its way to Southeast Asia and spread
alongside Buddhism. Here the two religions blended to such an extent that believers often didn’t distinguish
between them at all. Hindu temples, Buddhist stupas and monasteries blended the symbols and practices of
both religions. [35] One attraction of Hinduism was that people did not have to give up their traditional gods to
practice it. As an inclusive religion, Hinduism readily absorbs the gods and practices of other belief systems.
It is a belief system about all belief systems. Interestingly, there is no term for the process of conversion in
the religion of Hinduism. [36]
Buddhism As we have seen, Buddhism began north of India (in Nepal) and, like Christianity, saw
limited acceptance in the first few centuries after its founder's death. The way of life originally taught by the
Buddha was not easy. Although he had rejected both the life of pleasure and the life of extreme deprivation,
the Buddha called his followers to renounce friends, family, and belongings in the quest for enlightenment.
Absolutely central to this spiritual calling was a monastic life and the rejection of all possessions, except a
modest robe and a begging bowl. [37] This call to austerity did not fit well with the values of most people,
particularly merchants on the caravan routes.
Debates raged about how literally the strict message of the Buddha was to be taken. Under the Mauryan
Emperor Ashoka, who had come to accept Buddhism, the Third Buddhist Council was held in 247 B.C.E. to
resolve some of these tensions. [38]As a result, Buddhist texts were translated to appeal to a much wider
audience. A sect of Buddhism called Mahayana (the Greater Vehicle), which was much more
accommodating of the lifestyles of ordinary people, gained wide acceptance. In this school of "easy"
Buddhism, Nirvana was state of awareness open to anyone in any walk of life. Mahayana Buddhists
elevated Buddha to the level of a god. Salvation was much easier with the help of Bodhisattvas, individuals
who postponed enlightenment to share their surplus karma with average people trying to attain nirvana. This
is to be contrasted with the Theravada sect, which maintained the strict teachings about the monastic life
and sacrificing possessions and family in the quest for nirvana.
Freed from the stricter interpretation of the Buddha’s teaching, Mahayana Buddhism permitted a new
acceptance of worldly values. This can be seen in the Jatakamala, a Buddhist text of the second century
C.E. which depicts the Buddha helping merchants with their voyages.
[The Buddha] possessed every quality desired in a ship's pilot. Knowing the course of the [stars] he was
never at loss with respect to the regions of the ship. . . . So being skilled in the art of taking a ship out and
bringing her home, he exercised the profession of one who [takes] the merchants by sea to their
destinations.
Mahayana Buddhism became identified with Silk Road trade more than any other belief system.
Monasteries and the routes between them formed the network through which valuable goods flowed. Its
close connection with trade made conversion to Buddhism an attractive option for the Hindu Vaishya caste.
This merchant caste believed that buying and selling was their dharma, or religious duty. Converting to
Buddhism and benefiting from its commercial advantages allowed them to better perform their dharma. More
generally, Buddhism delivered people from the harshness of the Hindu caste system. As a self-styled
religious practice, Mahayana Buddhism was a liberating alternative to the strict system of sacrifices presided
over by the Brahmin priestly caste.
In addition to the rise of Mahayana Buddhism, Ashoka’s rule had other direct effects on the spread of
Buddhism. He sponsored Buddhist monks and missionaries and commissioned the building of Buddhist
monasteries. He used his stone edicts to spread the word of his conversion and to diffuse Buddhist
teachings. [39] Ashoka sent one of his sons to preach Buddhism on the island of Ceylon (present day Sri
Lanka), where it today still has a major presence.
During Ashoka’s reign a cult of relics developed in Buddhism. A relic is an object connected to an important
religious person, such as the ashes or belongings of a well known Buddhist monk. The most sacred relics
were those from The Buddha, most commonly a piece of his garment, wood from the tree under which he
found enlightenment, or even a bone from his finger. For many Buddhist, those in possession of a relic were
thought to have the religious authority of the Buddha himself. Relics gave legitimacy to those in possession
of them. [40] According to legend, Ashoka divided and sent out 84,000 relics to the same number of
locations. [41] He built Stupas—houses of meditation used to hold relics—for each of them. In a religion with
no centralized bureaucracy or official priesthood, relics legitimized the status of monasteries and monks.
Managing and dispensing them was a prominent force in the spread of Buddhism after Ashoka’s rule.
Ashoka was not the only king to support Buddhism. After the fall of the Gupta, the northern plains of India
and much of Central Asia was a patchwork of small kingdoms. One of the most difficult challenges for these
kings was trying to bind people of different language and ethnic identities into a loyal group. In that regard,
kings found Buddhism a useful tool. Like Christianity, Buddhism is a universal religion. Not limited to a single
tribe or location, it describes a condition of humanity that is true in all places and times. Because Buddhism
appealed to a universal human condition it could help bridge "kinship or ethnic differences." [42] It made
sense to people no matter where they were and gave kings the ability to appeal to those outside their
domain. By funding distant monasteries and bestowing them with lavish gifts, kings could gain wide prestige.
They could also extend their influence.
After Buddhism became wide-spread in China, the political advantages it could leverage were not lost on Sui
emperors. In 583, a monk at a government sponsored monastery translated a Buddhist text to imply that
Emperor Wen was a reincarnated bodhisattva. A few years later, this emperor claimed that the Buddha
himself had entrusted him with the authority to rule China. [43] Buddha, it would seem, was now the source of
the Mandate of Heaven.
As it gained ground in China Buddhism experienced profound changes. The monastic life was particularly
offensive for Chinese because it ran contrary to Confucian notions of proper human relationships. [44] In
China, for example, filial piety--goodness and care shown to one's parents-- is central to a properly
functioning society. How was the life of the solitary monk to be reconciled with the obligations of filial piety?
Through syncretism. In Chinese Buddhism the monastic life came to be understood as a way to generate
karma for one's family and ancestors. Thus, living in a monastery could satisfy the Confucian requirement of
filial piety; it was a means to care for parents and elders by earning karma for them. Much of the
transformation of Buddhism in China occurred because Buddhist texts had to be translated. Indian terms did
not have exact equivalents in Chinese so translators chose familiar Chinese terms to take the place of
Buddhist words. For example, the Chinese word wu-wei, which means to allow events to unfold naturally,
replaced the Sanskrit word Nirvana. Likewise, the Buddhist word for Dharma was translated into the
Chinese texts as The Dao. The meanings of these important terms thus shifted into ideas already deeply
rooted in Chinese culture. Buddhism did not seem as foreign as it actually was. The transformation of
Buddhism in China (and elsewhere) allowed people to convert without having to completely reject previous
beliefs and practices.[45]