KENYA CASE STUDY...KENYA CASE STUDY Learning Opportunities for Children at the Bottom of the...

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KENYA CASE STUDY

Transcript of KENYA CASE STUDY...KENYA CASE STUDY Learning Opportunities for Children at the Bottom of the...

Page 1: KENYA CASE STUDY...KENYA CASE STUDY Learning Opportunities for Children at the Bottom of the Pyramid: Policy Framing in Kenya By Sara Ruto, Ann Gachoya & Virginia Ngindiru Introduction

KENYA CASE STUDY

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Learning Opportunities for Children at the Bottom of the Pyramid: Policy Framing in Kenya

By Sara Ruto, Ann Gachoya & Virginia Ngindiru

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Introduction

• Education Visioning and planning is articulated in a series of government instruments– Sessional Papers– Development Papers– Sector specific plans

• Augmented by Political directives (eg free schooling, examination fee) and targeted effort to support vulnerable groups and expand social safety nets

• Vulnerable groups are identified and named in the Constitution of Kenya– ethnic minorities, persons with disability, vulnerable children including those in arid districts, or 

facing cultural negative practices (like early marriage)

• Analysis of key policy documents in independent Kenya, affirm a consistence in the policy intent for social justice, equity and fairness. 

• An inclusive and equitable education for each child in Kenya remains elusive

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Analysis Framework

1. UNESCO’s 4 ‘A’ (for historical analysis)• Availability  (eg of schools, teachers)• Accessibility includes physical accessibility (such as distance to school, safety) and financial 

accessibility (eg free schooling, school types)• Acceptability (eg repositioning services for minority communities)• Adaptability (all barriers removed to allow full participation, language of education)

2. UNESCO (2019) ‐ Leaving no Child Behind. Beyond Commitment• Beyond averages to equality and inclusion• Beyond access to quality and learning• Beyond basics to content fit for sustainable development• Beyond schooling to lifelong education• Beyond education to cross sector collaboration, and • Beyond countries to regional and global collaboration

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Regulatory Framework

1. Access to education is a basic human right, enshrined in the bill of rights of the Constitution of Kenya (2010)

– 43(1): Every person has the right to (f) education– 53 (1) Every child has a right to (b) free and compulsory basic education– 54 (1): A person with disability is entitled (b) to access educational institutions and facilities…that 

are integrated into society– 56: The state shall put in place affirmative action programmes designed to ensure that minorities 

and marginalised groups (b) are provided special opportunities in education2. The imperatives in the constitution are domesticated in the Education Act (2013)

– protection of every child against discrimination– advancement and protection of every child…to be instructed in a language of his or her choice 

where this is reasonably practicable– provision of adequate equipment, infrastructure and resources that meet the needs of every 

child in basic education

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Gaps & Suggestions

1. National data in Key statistical documents often not disaggregated to lower administrative zones, or to regions and populations of policy interest to allow proper monitoring. 

– The policy intent to address the educational disadvantage in ASAL areas has always existed, data reporting in national documents such as the Economic Survey do not offer ASAL specific data. 

– policy documents have improved in their recognition that vulnerable communities must be reached, data capture fails to consistently report education participation against their disability and socio‐economic status

• Important to go ‘beyond averages’: report on smaller administrative units especially in areas of policy focus. 

• Flip the reporting to focus on the 15% for instance who do not complete primary schooling (rather than the 85% who complete). 

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2. Current data capture and monitoring tends to focus on numbers closely related to ‘availability’ and ‘access’. It is now time to move ‘beyond access’• Reporting should include 

– learning assessment results, not just summative examinations. – adaptations that have been made to address the learning needs of children with 

disabilities who at the moment are covered under blanket access numbers. • Reporting will need to address the more qualitative indicators related to learning.3. The Ministry of Education shares comprehensive data via a Statistical Booklet. There are three issues to date: 2014, 2016 and 2020.• A more regular rhythm in publishing the data will enable the users to plan accordingly and 

articulating an open data policy and operationalising an online data platform would help.• Thriving research on equity and learning outcomes that can inform and give clarity on policy 

issues. 

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Looking Ahead

Policy making has matured with multi‐sectoral planning and execution. Three suggestions:

1. Policy Dialogues: in mutual respect, avoid ‘telling’ policy makers what to do. Appreciate the relationships between people, policies, politics (World Bank) 

2. Data Monitoring on areas of policy interest (flip the reporting, beyond average)3. Moving Beyond access. More prominence to learning outcomes, adaptations; 

embrace evidence from studies, research

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How are Kenya’s Free Primary and Day Secondary Education Policies Contributing to 

Learning at the Bottom of the Pyramid

By Emmanuel Manyasa

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Introduction

• Learning is essential to help disrupt intergenerational transmission of illiteracy, marginalization and poverty.

• We define those at the bottom of the learning pyramid as those children who would not attend school without the government’s free education policies.

• These children are thus mostly found in public primary schools and day secondary schools (most of them sub‐county schools), where government pays fees.

• Implementation of FPE policy in 2003 increased Gross enrolment rate (GER) in primary school from 88.2% in 2002 to 103.21% in 2016.

• Implementation of FDSE policy in 2008 increased GER in secondary school from 41.9% in 2009 to 58.2% in 2014.

• Implementation of 100% transition policy in 2018 pushed up the primary to secondary transition rate from 76.1% in 2014 to 83.3% in 2018 (Republic of Kenya 2019). 

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Objectives of this study

• We note the improvement in access to school at both levels courtesy of the government’s interventions.

• Ask the question if this access is yielding the learning benefits that this children need.• We analyse:

1) the relationship between the type of primary school attended and the category of publicsecondary school attended by learners;

2) the relationship between the category of secondary school attended and theperformance of learners in the national examinations at the secondary school level; and

3) determine the equity implications of FPE as currently implemented in Kenya for thechildren at the bottom of the learning pyramid.

• We used the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) examination results for 2017 ‐2019 data (bottom 25% & top 25% performers).

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What we found

Sample distribution by type of primary and category of secondary schools attended

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Learners’ KCSE examinations mean grade by category of secondary school attended KCSE Mean grade  National Extra‐county County Sub‐county

A 1.3 0.1 0 0.0A‐ 9.9 2.1 0.2 0.1B+ 15.8 6.9 1.4 0.6B 18.2 12.9 4.6 1.9B‐ 17.1 17.8 9.2 4.1C+ 15.8 22.1 14.5 6.5

Sub‐total 78.1 61.9 29.9 13.2C 13.6 23.7 19.8 8.4C‐ 5.4 10.3 13.8 5.6

Sub‐total 19.0 34.0 33.6 14.0D‐ 2.2 3.8 32.8 60.5E 0.7 0.3 3.7 12.3

Sub‐total 2.9 4.1 36.5 72.8Total 100 100 100 100

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Regression Model Results based on Poisson Regression Model 

• Boys have a 4% probability of scoring a grade higher than the girls at 95% degrees of confidence. 

• Attending a private primary school increases one’s chances of scoring a grade higher his/her public rural primary school counterpart by 9%. 

• Attending an urban public primary school increases one’s chances of scoring a grade higher his/her public rural primary school counterpart by 8%.

• Attending an extra‐county school increases one’s chances of scoring a grade higher than his/her county school counterpart by 2%. 

• Attending a national school increases one’s chances of scoring a grade higher than his/her county school counterpart by 4%.

• Attending a sub‐county and a private secondary school increases one’s chances of scoring a grade lower than their county school counterpart by 5% and 9% respectively.   

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Summary

• More children are in school courtesy to FPE and FSDE policies;• Most of them attend rural public primary schools and achieve less learning than their 

private school counterparts;• Most of them attend sub‐county secondary schools, most of which have inadequate 

facilities and staff numbers;• Failure to qualify for university education, which is highly subsidized by the state, augments 

the initial disadvantage by tightening the households’ borrowing constraints to deny the children of the poor college education. 

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Inequality Perspective of Education in Kenya

By Joyce Kinyanjui

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Unpacking Marginalization

National Average (GER)

ECDE109.40%

Primary99.63%

Secondary71.19%

ECDE

Primary

Secondary

Key

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Methodology

Secondary data review from varieties of sources:i. Policies from Ministry of 

Education, National gender and equality Commission and National Council for Nomadic Education in Kenya

ii. International documents (UNESCO and UNICEF)

iii. Grey literature

Key Stepsi. Identification of potential 

documents for review. ii. Examination for relevance and 

credibilityiii. Selection for review

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Comparing Access to Primary and Secondary Education (GER)

• ASAL counties record lowest GER in primary education (national average: 99.63%)

• GER is much lower in secondary than in Primary (national average: 71.19%)

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Factors contributing to education marginalization

Other factors• Socio‐cultural barrier (preference of 

boys over girls)• Teen pregnancy and early marriages• Fertility rate• HIV and AIDS• Geographical location (ASALs)• Locust invasion (livelihood)• Impact of COVID• Refugee crisis

Poverty*Access is lowest in counties with high poverty levels. 

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Implications

Strengthen NACONEK – to manage and administer quality education, sensitive to the needs of pastoralists. Facilitate integration of merging technologies and alternative interventions in the provision of education in nomadic areas. 

Strengthen and expand education institutions at all levels for increased access and transition to higher levels of learning (low cost boarding schools, feeder schools). For higher education, implement the Borderless Higher Education for Refugees (BHER) project to ensure equal access to tertiary education by all refugees. 

Incorporate pastoral production system into the national curriculum as a strategy to foster nationalism, patriotism and national unity. 

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Disability and Learning at the Bottom of the Pyramid: Effectiveness of examination accommodations for learners 

with disabilities in Kenya  

By John Mugo, Diana Makau & David Njeng’ere

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Disability and Learning in kenya

Globally– 10 percent of world population have 

some form of disability (WHO)– 51% of the adult male and 42% of 

adult female population has completed primary (WHO, 2011)

– Global learning crisis affects children with disabilities – disproportionately 

Kenya• 31% of persons with disabilities (5‐22 

years) are out of school• In 2018, 108,221 learners with disabilities 

enrolled in 290 special primary institutions and 2,057 integrated units

• Learning outcomes low for learners with special needs

Research Questions:

1. How do learning outcomes compare across learners with and without disability? 2. How do learning outcomes compare across different disability categories, and within the same disability category 

across age and gender? 3. Which examination accommodations exist, and how adequate and effective are these in facilitating better 

outcomes for learners with disability?  

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Methodology 

Theory and Design• Exclusion in exclusion – averages often 

mask inequity at the bottom of the pyramid

• Even affirmative funding and support policies disadvantage certain minorities 

• Intersections of disadvantage (e.g. disability/female; or ) necessitate attention

Data and Analysis• Examinations data of 4 years (2016, 2017, 

2018, 2019)• Kenya Certificate of Primary Education 

(KCPE)• Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education 

(KCSE)• 14,620 students: (0.5% of all candidates) 

– 8,856 (60%) KCPE, – 5,764(40%) KCSE– . 813 (6%) – blind– 3,602 (25%) – low vision– 4,773 (33%) – deaf– 5,432 (37%) ‐ physical disabilities.

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Disability, learning and age

• Definition of right‐age:– Primary – 13‐15 at grade 8– Secondary – 17‐20 at grade 12

• 76% of students are overage, 24% of the right age

• Blind and deaf more likely to be overage

• Less overage students at secondary – lower transition among over‐age?

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Learning outcomes 

1. Learners with disabilities ‐ around 20 percentage points below their counterparts without disabilities across the four years for both primary and secondary levels. 

2. Lowest among the deaf – 19% points at primary and nearly 35% points at secondary level below the ‘disability mean’

3. Primary – male‐blind, deaf and low vision outperformed female, but female candidates with physical disabilities outperformed male

4. Secondary – female perform better than male across all categories and years

5. Students of right age perform consistently better than over‐age, both genders and all disabilities

6. Gap narrowest among the deaf, and widest among the blind

4 Exam Accommodations

30 min extension

Braille/ large print

Adapted paper for 

deaf

KSL alternate

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Conclusions

• Students face ‘disadvantage at the bottom of learning pyramid’

• Though useful, exam accommodations may be inadequate in equalizing the opportunity. – Is learning opportunity lost much earlier in time? Or 

, are accommodations inappropriate, inadequate, or both? 

• Targeted analysis and policy consultations needed to answer this question

• Fix the present, but also look to the future of competency‐based assessment

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Thoughts for 2021

• Policy dialogues around ‘review of accommodations’

• Policy dialogue around Disability in Competency‐based Assessment

Presentationformat

Response format

Exam timing

Testing environment

Length and extent

Alternate assessment

Pitionak‐Royer (2001) 

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INDIA: Case study presentationLearning at the Bottom of the Pyramid 2

LBOP2‐ Virtual Invitational ConferenceDecember 7, 2020

Learning Challenges for the Marginalized

SINGH, Udaya Narayanawith Rajarshi Singh & Padmakali Banerjee

Learning in the Margin : Reflections on Indian Policies and Programmes for Education of the Disadvantaged

GOVINDA, R

Indigenous and scalable solutions to foundational learning at the bottom of the pyramid

SINGH, Rajarshiwith Annapoorni, C & Nishant Baghel

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The 'Bottom of the pyramid’ in India and probably elsewhere is an unorganized and diverse cultural space, with a vast majority teeming with competition and aspirations. This heterogeneity is also reflected in our understanding of the BoP. 

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A SNAPSHOT

• The 'Bottom of the pyramid’ is complex, and it is  heterogeneous. What binds it together is a common belief that education and learning are essential for children’s growth and development. 

• With over 705 ethnic groups (or tribes) and 1,284 castes scattered over 7,935 urban areas & 649,481 villages in 36 Indian states, speaking in 3,592 mother‐tongues‐ this heterogenous landscape is both our strength and  weakness.

• Year after year the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER)  and National Achievement Survey (NCERT) have shown low foundational learning outcome of children.

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SIX CHALLENGES 

1• Children learn in many different ways, but our curriculum is still regimented and expects conformity. 

2• Challenges arise from ‘linguistic distance’ between dialects used by children and standardized language expectations of schools.

3• The inability of the system to recruit, train and retain teachers who are able to effectively cater to the needs of students and their learning requirements. 

4• Dual control (by Central & State Governments) over education planning impact teaching‐learning quality in several ways.

5• Need to have a clear plan for remedial teaching for older children who do not meet minimum proficiency learning standards without any judgment. 

6• Unclear system‐level road map for tech‐enabled and tech‐supported education for children from the BoP. 

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CHALLENGES CONTD…

• In a diverse country with wide disparity of basic educational facilities, implementing inclusive socio‐economic growth is not easy.

• Over‐emphasis on curriculum, syllabus and enrolmentmeant greater attention to design rather than on delivery of the content in a heterogenous classroom. 

• McKinsey's 2007‐report shows that roughly five out of every six Indians, or 80% are at the Bottom of the Economic Pyramid. The members of linguistic minority groups are the weakest. 

• The languages on the margin (Singh et al 2018) are like "the forgotten man at the bottom of economic pyramid" (Roosevelt, 1932). 

Implementing programmesa face 2 problems:

[i] Diverse school populations with children andtheir guardians from varied backgrounds;

[ii] Rural‐urban immigration and displacement.

After all, "educators themselves are culturalbeings… their backgrounds may [also] be usefulin promoting multicultural learning and globalsensitivity in early childhood classrooms”(Ghiso 2013: 23).

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MITIGATION & POSSIBILITIES

IntegrationDiversity

Empowerment 6C’s

Inclusion

• Some say multicultural societies will have “inevitable clashes” (Ejele 2016: 141) but in India, it “triggered renaissance in the major Indian languages" (Annamalai 1995). 

• Technology has led to a "flattening of the world" by connecting all the knowledge centres together on a global network. But we need to ensure that the digital divide can be overcome through a system‐wide effort. 

• Rapid and inclusive socio‐economic growth can lift people out of poverty. And education is a key instrument in this scale effort in Asia and Africa. 

• Freire's Critical Pedagogical (CP) approach  (1996/2000)  promoted emancipation of students by guiding them to be responsible and hear the voices and opinions of the marginalized are also heard. So how does one mitigate the challenges?

• One possibility is that one may try out a 6 Cs approach by focusing on choice, collaboration, communication, critical thinking, creativity and change management) by promoting the use of vernacular/mother‐tongue communication to improve targeting of the marginalized and bring them into the 'Educational Mainstream’. 

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STATEMENT OF PROBLEMEnormous expansion of schooling and near universal enrolment, but surveys show that quality has not improved. 

The bulging bottom of the pyramid shows heterogeneity: There are at least a million children who are never enrolled in schools; Plus, around 30% of nearly 200 million children (in the age group 6‐14 years) as school drop outs

Many children are first generation learners, where the adults in the household never had schooling. Also, the Indian scenario is too complex – In Kerala, practically every child is attending elementary school, with adequate teachers and classrooms. But in Bihar where only one out of two children in the relevant age group is in school.

By 2000, it was estimated that three‐fourth of the out‐of‐school children lived in six states of the country, namely, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal (Govinda, 2008). 

India began its efforts to promote UEE seven decades ago, and education for 6-14 age group became a fundamental human right. We also see a three-pronged approach: (1) Area Specific Strategies, (2) Target Specific Strategies, and (3) Programmes of Early childhood Care and Development.

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THREE APPROACHES• Area Specific Strategies:Programmes were designed based on the empirical observation that chronic educational backwardness is among the socially marginalised. However, its significance was in recognition of the special status and separate identity for certain focus districts under the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) launched in 2000.

• Target specific approach Several incentive schemes were initiated since 1960s ‐ Monetary incentives/ cash support / scholarships/ Non‐monetary support and focus on girl students. 

But transforming social practices is a slow process. We see subtle forms of discrimination in schools/ classrooms plus creation of a hierarchy of schools.

• Programmes of early childhood careRealizing that children having poor nutrition and health could retard their physical and cognitive growth was focused. Two steps were taken:               [i] A massive Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) and[ii] the Mid‐Day Meal programme (MDM). 

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REGIONAL INITIATIVES• The National Policy on Education 1986 (NPE) had also flagged the 

issue of poor learning levels. Even in 1990’s ‘Minimum Levels of Learning’ by the end of each grade from 1 to 5 was proposed – but it was disbanded. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan 2000 brought it back.

• The effect of systematic surveys resulted in several state level initiatives:

• To name a few: Aadhar in Himachal  Pradesh  ‐ a  state  wide  initiative  to  improve  basic  primary literacy  and numeracy; 

• Activity  Based  Learning in Tamil  Nadu  [ABL] ‐ focusing on  the  principle  of  learning through activities in primary classes; 

• Children's Learning Acceleration Programme [CLAPS] in Andhra Pradesh – an initiative to improve learning levels in all areas of the primary school curriculum; 

• Multilingual Education [MLE] Programme in Orissa ‐ teaching tribal children in their mother tongue; 

• Gunotsav in Gujarat – a programme of assessment and feedback with a view to bridging learning gaps; 

• Nali Kali in Karnataka – an initiative to make learning joyful, child friendly, and activity based; Pratibha Parv in Madhya Pradesh.  

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BUT WHAT WENT WRONG? Problems occurred with scale up, issues with standardisation where creativity and local initiatives

were not paid attention to.

Large scale assessments (like ASER) have raised awareness and presented useful benchmarks, and they are being not used enough to redraw policies, or bridging gaps through corrective action.

Indian policy documents are very generous in extolling the instrumental value of education for reducing social and economic inequalities but education becoming the ladder for upward mobility of the marginalised presupposes two critical systemic characteristics:

The Educational Ladder is very fragile; One has ensure financial investment and quality of human resources For education to be an instrument for change is that the learning pathways be wide and accommodative

The Human Development Report of 2016 shows that educational inequality in India was as high as 39.4. Sri Lanka, an educationally advanced neighbour, with a figure of 12.8 on educational inequality and with the HDI rank of 73 presents a contrasting picture.

At one end of the spectrum there are schools that offer excellent facilities and with smooth transition, but at the other end there are schools which barely have academic support facilities.

Therefore, we must think of Indigenous and scalable solutions to foundational learning at the BoP.

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ROLE OF CIVIL SOCIETY

• Research shows that “years of learning” (Wadhwa, 2020)would not matter unless there was substantial improvement in foundational learning. 

• We investigate three critical issues here: – (1) the role of civil society in educational development– (2) inclusion of indigenous knowledge in education, – (3) the scope for contextually relevant technology‐aided 

education.

• After the 7th Five‐Year Plan (1985‐90), the government‐ CSO/ NGO partnerships helped improve quality  & access.

• District Primary Education Program (DPEP) with its area specific approach, and SSA did aim  at reducing differences in enrolment, drop‐out rates and learning achievement among gender and weaker sections. 

• SSA had a reach of 192 million children (6‐14 yrs). It helped establishing new schools & strengthening of existing ones.

• The CSO‐Government collaborations had some interesting results. 

• CSOs did help linking policies with grassroot needs. 

• The private sector has been a significant stakeholder in India’s education system. 

• Close to 50% of all school‐going children are enrolled in private schools (U‐DISE, 2019). 

• Private unaided schools constituted 75% of all the private schools in 2017, often managed by the CSOs

• An example of a successful scalable solution‐Pratham’s Read India program using the Teaching at the Right Level (TaRL) approach, where children learn foundational reading and numeracy in out‐of‐school ‘Learning Camps’. 

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INDIGENOUS TLMs

• A crucial reason for insufficient learning in schools is because the lessons fail to capture children's attention and imagination at the BoP

• We hypothesize that indigenous teaching‐learning materials can help learning standards at the bottom of the pyramid. 

• In a rural school in Unnao, Uttar Pradesh, we asked a child in grade 4 to mark New Delhi, the capital of India. The map was severely drawn, and it wasn’t obvious which big city was India's capital. He couldn’t point to New Delhi. The lesson should’ve ended there, but thankfully it went on. He asked me to point out his village, a task I couldn’t do. – It proved the irrelevance of focusing on capitals (a global approach) when teaching maps and mapping, which can be learned better by pointing out their local village.

Indigenous knowledge is phenomenological and empirical in nature

Repetition is essential to the growth of indigenous knowledge 

Indigenous knowledge is local and rooted to a geography and lived set of experiences

Its oral transmission is often person‐to‐person, through imitation and demonstration

Indigenous knowledge is shared and is the ‘people’s science’ although its dissemination could be limited to social clusters 

It is fragmented and does not exist in totality in any one location or source

Indigenous knowledge is the product of learnings from practical engagements with everyday life, improved by trial and error 

Its body of knowledge is constantly changing. It can be challenged and improved and is free of dogma

Characteristics of indigenous knowledge & TLM

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CASE 1: Citizen‐led Assessments (CLAs) An example of Scalable indigenous solutions to LBOP issues

• Beginning with ASER, CLAs were used across PAL Network ‐by 15 members across 14 countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. 

• Unlike the high‐stakes approach of measuring learning progress, CLAs deliver an alternate “home‐grown” solution to inform change at the international, national and sub‐national levels.

• CLAs (1) provide an adaptable (can be translated in many languages) assessment ‐ adopted by various local contexts, (2) broaden our understanding of foundational learning of LBOP, and (3) provide insights about monitoring education of children at all levels

• PAL Network’s multi‐country proof of concept ICAN ‐ the International Common Assessment of Numeracy assessed the foundational math competencies of more than 26,000 children from approximately 15,000 households in 779 communities.

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CASE 2: PraDigi Open Learning Program Pratham’s digital initiative for out‐of‐school learning 

• PraDigi Open Learning Program (launched by Pratham in 2015) is designed to expose children to numerous learning opportunities within their community by leveraging three pillars: – Social Structure – comprising of community stakeholders who actively participating in children’s learning – Digital Infrastructure‐ mobile devices and robust technology placed with children, for self‐organized learning and project‐

based activities – Learning Content‐ wide array of contextualized content created in the form of videos, games, and applications 

• In its pilot version across 400 villages with 26,000 children, 3,000 tablets were preloaded with 100+ resources for English, Math and Science. By 2019, it reached 300,000 children. In 2018, the program launched learning centres equipped with a Raspberry Pi, a low‐cost computer. These low‐cost computers provided access to 350 websites curated by Pratham and housed digital libraries. 

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HOW DOES IT WORK?

• How social support can be leveraged has evolved based on continuous learnings from the field. 

• On average, each self‐organized group is comprised of five‐six children. Two groups typically share one tablet. Children are responsible for manging the devices and their own learning. 

• This social infrastructure is empowered through the digital pillar. The last pillar of content aims to make learning goal‐driven, not grade‐driven. 

Social Support Pillar of PraDigiLearning Content and Progression

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Recommendations

• Promote Diversification & Localized Solutions: Despite steps to standardize and control the quality of teaching‐learning across the bottom of the pyramid, we realize that in heterogenous societies, schooling is set to diversify even more. Diversification of content and finding creative solutions to resolve local and regional issues will assume great importance for an effective education planning.

• Use Indigenous Knowledge: The solutions that work best are the ones that “speak” to the learners. Children learn well when the activities and learning exercises they participate in also reflect knowledge and realities surrounding them.  It is, therefore, important to consider including indigenous knowledge in lessons to deliver effective learning opportunities to children. 

• Use Technology & Blended Approach: It is also seen that a mere conventional approach to teaching‐learning activities fail to capture the interest and imagination of children when they cannot associate with that they are learning ‐ PraDigi being an example where a blend of approaches has catered to the needs of children’s foundational learning. 

• Encourage Civil Societies as a Link: Our explorations show that the debate on public schooling vs private education has become obsolete in a number of developing countries, the children and parents are probably interested in emulating what the top of the pyramid is engaged in. In this context, the governments would do well by involving civil society which will have. a unique role to play as a link between local demand and supply for quality learning. Its ability to harness local ethos and knowledge and merge them with global solutions to affect change on the ground. 

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Thank you.