Kamtekar Paper (How to Read a Platonic Dialogue)

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1 What Plato thought? How to read a Platonic dialogue 1 1. Introduction When we study the history of philosophy we want to understand what historical philosophers thought about various topics of philosophical interest, and why they thought what they did—and not just, as when we are studying philosophy nonhistorically, what are the good reasons for thinking something or the other. Plato frustrates this historian’s interest. It is a wellknown problem that Plato writes in dialogues, 2 putting every view in the voice of some character or the other, none of them named ‘Plato,’ and the solution of taking the main speaker in each dialogue, usually Socrates (but in some dialogues Parmenides, Timaeus, an Eleatic or Athenian Visitor) to be expressing Plato’s views is not fully satisfactory. Another wellknown problem is that in many dialogues, the main speaker ends up in aporia (e.g. in the Protagoras , Socrates argues first that virtue is not teachable, for if it were virtuous men would teach it to their sons but they do not, later that since virtue is knowledge it is teachable, and ends by noting that these views conflict). A less well known problem, and the focus of my paper, is that the dialogues depict a dialectical process, in which conclusions are dependent on starting points, but the starting point may be an interlocutor’s answer to the main speaker’s question (e.g. Theaetetus’ ‘it appears to me that knowledge is perception’), or, if it is the main speaker’s answer, the way the interlocutor asks the question may constrain what the main speaker can say in response (e.g. in Socrates’ defense of justice in the Republic , which I’ll discuss in detail in this paper). Even if we somehow surmount these difficulties and come to a conclusion about what views are endorsed in a given dialogue, exporting a view from a dialogue to the mind of Plato requires considering how that view fits into the views endorsed by all the dialogues, but different dialogues seem to adopt contrary views (e.g. in the Timaeus the tripartite soul is the result of embodiment, but in the Phaedrus it is a cause of embodiment). The historian of philosophy naturally wants to seek out intellectual reasons for such changes in view, but Plato’s texts present the further problem that except for the stylistic conformity of a few dialogues to late 4 th century fashions (e.g. the avoidance of hiatus and the preference for certain particles, such as ‘en’ instead of ‘kata’) and the report that the Laws was Plato’s last work (Aristotle Politics III.1264b26), on the basis of which we can identify some dialogues as written late in Plato’s career and others, by their stylistic differences from these as written earlier, we know so little about the order in which Plato composed his dialogues that it is 1 DRAFT; please don’t circulate without permission; but comments very welcome, to: [email protected] . Footnotes and references incomplete. 2 There is a generic explanation for why Plato wrote dialogues: the followers of Socrates wrote dialogues memorializing Socrates’ way of life (Aristotle named them Sokratikoi logoi). The Socrateses that emerge from these dialogues are so diverse that it seems more plausible to suppose that they are ‘experiments . . . directed towards capturing the potentialities rather than the realities of individual lives’ (Momigliano 1984, 46; cf. Vanderwaerdt 1994 for the legacy of this approach in antiquity) rather than accounts that aim to be historically accurate. In other words, a fictionalized conversation could reveal the type of person Socrates was (in the author’s eyes) or Socrates’ way of life (as the author understood it) by showing what he would say in various conversational circumstances. We may safely suppose that Plato used his Socratic conversations to depict the philosophical way of life as he conceived it (initially, later he would introduce other exemplary figures). For if the Socratics in general wrote dialogues, our question really shouldn’t be, ‘why did Plato write dialogues?’ but rather, ‘why do Plato’s dialogues look the way they do by contrast with the dialogues other Socratics wrote?’

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Transcript of Kamtekar Paper (How to Read a Platonic Dialogue)

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What  Plato  thought?    How  to  read  a  Platonic  dialogue1    1.  Introduction        

When  we  study  the  history  of  philosophy  we  want  to  understand  what  historical  philosophers  thought  about  various  topics  of  philosophical  interest,  and  why  they  thought  what  they  did—and  not  just,  as  when  we  are  studying  philosophy  non-­‐historically,  what  are  the  good  reasons  for  thinking  something  or  the  other.  Plato  frustrates  this  historian’s  interest.    It  is  a  well-­‐known  problem  that  Plato  writes  in  dialogues,2  putting  every  view  in  the  voice  of  some  character  or  the  other,  none  of  them  named  ‘Plato,’  and  the  solution  of  taking  the  main  speaker  in  each  dialogue,  usually  Socrates  (but  in  some  dialogues  Parmenides,  Timaeus,  an  Eleatic  or  Athenian  Visitor)  to  be  expressing  Plato’s  views  is  not  fully  satisfactory.      Another  well-­‐known  problem  is  that  in  many  dialogues,  the  main  speaker  ends  up  in  aporia  (e.g.  in  the  Protagoras,  Socrates  argues  first  that  virtue  is  not  teachable,  for  if  it  were  virtuous  men  would  teach  it  to  their  sons  but  they  do  not,  later  that  since  virtue  is  knowledge  it  is  teachable,  and  ends  by  noting  that  these  views  conflict).    A  less  well-­‐known  problem,  and  the  focus  of  my  paper,  is  that  the  dialogues  depict  a  dialectical  process,  in  which  conclusions  are  dependent  on  starting  points,  but  the  starting  point  may  be  an  interlocutor’s  answer  to  the  main  speaker’s  question  (e.g.  Theaetetus’    ‘it  appears  to  me  that  knowledge  is  perception’),  or,  if  it  is  the  main  speaker’s  answer,  the  way  the  interlocutor  asks  the  question  may  constrain  what  the  main  speaker  can  say  in  response  (e.g.  in  Socrates’  defense  of  justice  in  the  Republic,  which  I’ll  discuss  in  detail  in  this  paper).    

Even  if  we  somehow  surmount  these  difficulties  and  come  to  a  conclusion  about  what  views  are  endorsed  in  a  given  dialogue,  exporting  a  view  from  a  dialogue  to  the  mind  of  Plato  requires  considering  how  that  view  fits  into  the  views  endorsed  by  all  the  dialogues,  but  different  dialogues  seem  to  adopt  contrary  views  (e.g.  in  the  Timaeus  the  tripartite  soul  is  the  result  of  embodiment,  but  in  the  Phaedrus  it  is  a  cause  of  embodiment).    The  historian  of  philosophy  naturally  wants  to  seek  out  intellectual  reasons  for  such  changes  in  view,  but  Plato’s  texts  present  the  further  problem  that  except  for  the  stylistic  conformity  of  a  few  dialogues  to  late  4th  century  fashions  (e.g.  the  avoidance  of  hiatus  and  the  preference  for  certain  particles,  such  as  ‘en’  instead  of  ‘kata’)  and  the  report  that  the  Laws  was  Plato’s  last  work  (Aristotle  Politics  III.1264b26),  on  the  basis  of  which  we  can  identify  some  dialogues  as  written  late  in  Plato’s  career  and  others,  by  their  stylistic  differences  from  these  as  written  earlier,  we  know  so  little  about  the  order  in  which  Plato  composed  his  dialogues  that  it  is  

                                                                                                               1  DRAFT;  please  don’t  circulate  without  permission;  but  comments  very  welcome,  to:    [email protected].    Footnotes  and  references  incomplete.  2  There  is  a  generic  explanation  for  why  Plato  wrote  dialogues:    the  followers  of  Socrates  wrote  dialogues  memorializing  Socrates’  way  of  life  (Aristotle  named  them  Sokratikoi  logoi).    The  Socrateses  that  emerge  from  these  dialogues  are  so  diverse  that  it  seems  more  plausible  to  suppose  that  they  are  ‘experiments  .  .  .  directed  towards  capturing  the  potentialities  rather  than  the  realities  of  individual  lives’  (Momigliano  1984,  46;  cf.  Vanderwaerdt  1994  for  the  legacy  of  this  approach  in  antiquity)  rather  than  accounts  that  aim  to  be  historically  accurate.    In  other  words,  a  fictionalized  conversation  could  reveal  the  type  of  person  Socrates  was  (in  the  author’s  eyes)  or  Socrates’  way  of  life  (as  the  author  understood  it)  by  showing  what  he  would  say  in  various  conversational  circumstances.    We  may  safely  suppose  that  Plato  used  his  Socratic  conversations  to  depict  the  philosophical  way  of  life  as  he  conceived  it  (initially,  later  he  would  introduce  other  exemplary  figures).    For  if  the  Socratics  in  general  wrote  dialogues,  our  question  really  shouldn’t  be,  ‘why  did  Plato  write  dialogues?’  but  rather,  ‘why  do  Plato’s  dialogues  look  the  way  they  do  by  contrast  with  the  dialogues  other  Socratics  wrote?’  

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difficult  to  determine  the  direction  of  any  changes  in  view.3    Because  Plato  sets  his  dialogues  in  the  5th  century,  there  are  few  references  to  contemporary  events  by  which  we  might  date  them—the  Menexenus  does  refer  to  the  King’s  Peace  of  386  BCE,  so  must  have  been  composed  after  that  date,  but  this  isolated  bit  of  information  does  not  help  us  establish  a  chronology  when  we  do  not  know  what  Plato  wrote  before  or  after.    Our  conceptions  of  philosophical  progress  are  unreliable  insofar  as  they  are  likely  to  be  shaped  by  the  philosophical  sensibilities  of  our  time.4      

Given  this  litany  of  difficulties  for  attributing  views  to  Plato,  it  may  seem  that  we  should  give  up  on  that  (historian’s)  project  and  simply  follow  the  argument  wherever  it  leads  us.    Some  interpreters  maintain  that  Plato  deliberately  left  himself  out  of  his  dialogues  in  order  to  make  his  readers  rely  on  reason  and  not  the  authority  of  his  name  to  come  to  conclusions.5    But  once  reading,  or  even  beginning,  a  dialogue  has  stimulated  us  to  think  for  ourselves  about  a  given  topic,  what  motivation  do  we  have  to  go  back  to  the  dialogue  and  follow  Plato’s  argument  wherever  it  goes?    It  is  hard  to  go  along  with  Socrates’  assumption  that  a  cause  cannot  bring  about  an  effect  whose  nature  is  contrary  to  its  own,  given  that  this  conception  of  a  cause  as  a  power  to  bring  about  something  like  itself  has  been  banished  from  our  scientific  thinking  since  the  17th  century;  it  is  hard  not  to  conclude  than  an  important  intellectual  position  has  been  rushed  past  when  Socrates  and  his  interlocutor  agree  that  a  virtue  is  ‘something’  (Protagoras  329c)  without  establishing  that  the  referents  of  the  virtue  terms  are  not  conventionally  determined.    Surely  the  prospect  of  retrieving  what  Plato  (and  indeed  Protagoras,  Parmenides,  and  others)  thought,  or  at  least  what  was  thought  by  philosophers  in  Plato’s  time,  is  what  gives  readers  a  reason  to  stay  with  the  thought-­‐world  of  the  dialogues.    

Plato  seems  at  least  sometimes  to  write  in  the  spirit  of  exploring  rather  than  establishing  promising  views,  even  though  there  seem  to  be  certain  views  to  which  he  has  a  life-­‐long  commitment  (e.g.  that  goodness  is  not  determined  by  convention,  and  that  practical  intelligibility  is  achieved  by  showing  the  good-­‐directedness  of  an  activity).    We  can  make  progress  if  in  ‘what  Plato  thought’  we  include  more  than  Plato’s  opinions  or  even  his  opinions  and  his  reasons  for  holding  them.    We  should  include  the  views  he  elaborates  given  a  hypothesis  and  the  reasons  he  provides  for  considering  this  hypothesis  plausible.    These  are  views  he  clearly  thinks  are  worth  taking  seriously,  whether  because  he  thinks  they  may  be  true,  or  because  they  are  

                                                                                                               3  Kahn,  ‘On  Platonic  Chronology’  summarizes  the  findings  of  the  best  stylometric  research.    4  Schleiermacher  (1973),  writing  in  the  early  19th  century,  grouped  the  dialogues  into  3,  beginning  with  the  investigative  (e.g.  Phaedrus,  Protagoras,  Parmenides),  continuing  with  dialogues  treating  knowledge  (e.g.  Theaetetus,  Sophist,  Phaedo,  Philebus)  and    ending  with  the  constructive  (Republic,  Timaeus,  Critias).    He  argued  that  this  order  was  confirmed  by  its  movement  from  myth  to  science.    Schleiermacher  found  this  philosophical  development  so  obvious  that  he  wrote  ‘.  .  .  if  well-­‐grounded  historical  traces  were  to  be  found  of  an  earlier  composition  of  the  Republic  prior  to  any  one  of  those  preparatory  dialogues,  though  none  such  has  yet  been  found,  and,  what  is  more,  will  not  be  found,  we  could  not  avoid  falling  into  the  most  serious  contradiction  with  our  judgement  upon  Plato,  and  we  should  be  much  embarrassed  how  to  reconcile  this  instance  of  unreason  with  his  vast  intelligence.’  (p.  44)  *Owen-­‐Cherniss  on  ordering  of  Timaeus,  Theaetetus  5  Ruby  Blondell  adds  that  putting  views  in  the  voices  of  characters  who  believe  them  or  at  least  are  willing  to  defend  them  encourages  us  as  readers  to  become  participants  in  the  dialogue  while  at  the  same  time  allowing  us  enough  distance  to  be  critical  (Plato  and  the  Play  of  Character  pp.  39  &  ff.).  

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plausible,  or  even  just  because  they  are  widely  held.    One  of  Plato’s  great  contributions  to  philosophy  is  his  insight  into  how  views  are  connected  to  one  another.    Taking  this  approach  means  that  the  dialectical  dependence  of  the  views  arrived  at  in  the  dialogues  is  no  longer  an  obstacle  to  determining  what  Plato  thought,  but  a  resource.    And  in  fact,  when  we  start  to  pay  attention  to  dialectical  dependence,  we  find  that  Plato  provides  readers  with  very  explicit  sign-­‐posts  about  the  correct  attitude  to  take  to  the  views  he  discusses.    I  do  not  claim  that  we  are  always  to  take  the  same  attitude,  only  that  we  should  pay  attention  to  the  explicit  sign-­‐posts,  and  that  these  should  take  interpretive  priority  over    attention  to  character  and  drama,  on  the  one  hand,  and  a  purely  analytic  approach  to  the  arguments  on  the  other.      After  decades  of  militantly  ‘caring  only  for  the  arguments’,  mainstream  Anglo-­‐American  scholars  have  begun  to  integrate  considerations  about  the  suitability  of  speech  for  different  soul-­‐types  into  their  scholarship.    To  take  a  couple  examples:  (A)    In  his  2006  book  on  the  Meno,  Dominic  Scott  argues  that  Socrates  carefully  tailors  what  he  says  to  Meno’s  moral  and  intellectual  state.    Scott  argues  that  the  Meno  displays  moral  education  in  practice:    Meno  starts  out  intellectually  lazy,  shallow  and  combative  in  conversation;  sometimes  Socrates  gives  him  the  sorts  of  showy  answers  he  wants  even  though  he  knows  them  to  be  inadequate,  e.g.  that  the  priests  say  that  inquiry  is  guided  by  the  truths  we  implicitly  know  and  must  only  recollect6;  after  Socrates  “shows”  recollection  at  work  in  Meno’s  slave,  Meno  becomes  more  cooperative  in  inquiry;  however,  the  facts  about  Meno’s  treasonous  life  known  to  Plato’s  readers  show  how  fragile  is  Socratic  moral  education.  Plato’s  answer  to  the  question  of  the  Meno,  ‘is  virtue  teachable?’  is  two-­‐fold:    (1)  the  kind  of  virtue  that  is  knowledge  can  only  be  gained  by  the  student  recollecting  for  himself;  (2)  there  is  an  inferior  kind  of  virtue,  based  on  true  opinion,  that  may  be  acquired  by  divine  dispensation  but  is  unstable.    In  both  cases,  the  odds  are  against  moral  education.       As  far  as  I  can  tell,  Scott’s  only  evidence  that  Socrates  privately  believes  that  recollection  will  not  help  to  guide  inquiry  (even  though  he  says  it  will)  is  his  own  philosophical  conviction:    it’s  obvious  that  there  are  partial  cognitive  grasps  in  between  knowing  a  thing  fully  and  drawing  a  blank  about  it,  so  Plato  must  be  up  to  something  when  he  has  Socrates  ignores  these  intermediate  states.7  But  given  that  Socrates  is  a  character  in  a  dialogue,  we  should  base  what  we  attribute  to  him  on  

                                                                                                               6  In  particular,  Scott  argues  that  Meno’s  question  about  how  we  can  inquire  in  the  absence  of  knowledge  is  a  non-­‐issue,  presuming  that  one  either  knows  or  is  a  cognitive  blank,  and  that  what  lies  behind  it  is  the  (possibly  Gorgianic)  eristic  dilemma  Socrates  introduces  at  80e:      either  you  know  something  and  don’t  need  to  inquire,  or  you  don’t  know  it,  and  don’t  know  what  to  inquire  into  (pp.  77-­‐79).    Further,  recollection  is  not  necessary  to  solve  the  problem-­‐-­‐hearsay  or  perception  would  do  as  well—nor  is  it  sufficient—for  recollection  of  latent  knowledge  requires  some  sort  of  partial  explicit  cognition  of  the  object  of  inquiry,  but  that  is  ruled  out  by  the  ‘cognitive  blank’  presupposition  of  Meno’s  question.    Finally,  Socrates’  association  of  Meno’s  question  with  eristic  and  with  idleness  and  intellectual  cowardice  (81d)  suggest  that  he  tries  to  shame  him  by  uncovering  the  motivation  behind  Meno’s  question  rather  than  that  he  answers  it  by  the  doctrine  of  recollection  (pp.  81-­‐82).  7  But  NB  the  Theaetetus  entertains  the  same  all-­‐  or  nothing-­‐  strategy  (REF*)  

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what  he  says  in  that  dialogue  rather  than  on  what  we  think  is  philosophically  sound—especially  if  the  latter  contradicts  what  he  says.    (B)    Roslyn  Weiss’s  (2012)  Philosophers  in  the  Republic:    Plato’s  two  paradigms  begins,      

[the  dialogues’]  aim  is  to  put  the  philosophic  life  on  display.    The  characters  in  them,  though  fictionalized,  are  real  enough:    there  were—and  are—such  types.    And  within  their  respective  types,  the  characters  are  each  unique—as  real  people  are.    Socrates  tailors  his  therapeutic  method  to  the  needs  of  his  varied  interlocutors,  making  the  necessary  concessions  to  their  moral  and  intellectual  limitations.    By  presenting  images  of  philosophy  in  action,  Plato’s  dialogues  speak  to  us,  his  readers.    One  might  say  that  they  contain  two  messages:    .  .  .  Socrates’  message  is  in  the  first  instance  for  his  interlocutors—not  for  us.    It  is  driven  by  his  interlocutors’  moral  character  and  by  the  quirks  of  their  personalities,  by  their  good  intentions  and  bad,  by  their  interests,  by  their  desires,  by  the  level  of  their  understanding,  and  by  their  willingness  or  reluctance  to  inquire  further.    But  Plato’s  message  is  for  us;  he  invariably  finds  a  way  to  remind  us—by  inserting  some  glaring  peculiarity  in  the  text—that  we  are  not  Socrates’  interlocutors  but  his.’    (pp.  1-­‐2)        

Weiss  uses  the  idea  that  what  Socrates  says  responds  to  his  interlocutor’s  particular  moral  and  intellectual  condition  to  argue  for  two  radical  conclusions:    (1)  the  philosopher-­‐ruler  whose  education  is  described  in  Republic  VII  is  not  Socrates’  or  Plato’s  ideal  philosopher  but  an  appetitive  ‘approximation’  of  that  ideal  that  can  win  Glaucon  and  Adeimantus’  approval  given  their  concern  with  manliness  and  political  efficacy;  (2)  the  justice  defined  as  reason’s  rule  in  the  soul  and  as  each  class’s  doing  its  own  work  in  the  city  is  really  moderation,  substituted  for  justice  in  Socrates’  defense  because  Glaucon  and  Adeimantus  require  him  to  show  that  justice  is  profitable,  and  the  other-­‐regarding  disposition  that  really  is  justice  is  not  defensible  for  its  profitability,  but  rather  for  its  nobility.         Again,  the  linchpin  of  this  argument  is  a  philosophical  conviction  that  justice  is  an  other-­‐regarding  disposition  distinct  from  (although  dependent  on)  moderation,  and  that  the  quiet  philosophical  life  is  admirable.    Plato’s  readers  should  see  that  the  account  of  justice  and  of  the  philosopher  Socrates  provides  for  Glaucon  and  Adeimantus  is  distorted.    Among  the  ‘glaring  textual  peculiarities’  that  alert  the  reader  are  Socrates’  offer  of  a  shortcut  skipping  the  account  of  moderation  straight  to  the  account  of  justice,  and  the  great  difficulty  Socrates  has  in  saying  what  justice  in  the  city  is,  even  though  he  constructed  the  city  because  it  would  be  easier  to  find  justice  in  it.         Now  of  course  Plato  speaks  to  his  readers  over  his  characters’  heads—as  a  formal  matter,  any  writer  who  uses  characters  does  (NB  in  Republic  Socrates  is  not  only  a  character  but  also  a  first-­‐person  narrator).    The  question  is  how  to  discipline  our  procedure  for  determining  what  he  is  saying  to  us.    In  general,  if  you  know  nothing  about  someone’s  beliefs,  you  can  do  no  better  than  attribute  to  him  what  you  believe  (whether  because  this  reduces  cognitive  load  or  because  of  some  norm  of  believing).    But  in  Plato’s  Republic  Socrates  does  offer  reasons  why  we  should  not  

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attribute  to  him  the  view  that  justice  is  an  other-­regarding  disposition  but  rather  that  justice  in  the  soul  is  wise  reason’s  rule,  spirit’s  alliance  with  reason,  and  appetite’s  obedience  to  reason  and  spirit:    all  the  virtues  contain  an  ineliminable  reference  to  wisdom,  not  only  as  a  necessary  condition,  but  as  part  of  each  virtue;  Republic  I  represents  ‘justice  is  another’s  good’    not  as  the  conception  of  justice  that  everyone  recognizes  but  rather  as  the  value  of  the  justice  defined  by  convention.    The  interpretive  danger  here  is  the  limits  of  our  own  philosophical  horizons:    we  may  think  certain  truths  are  so  obvious  that  Plato  must  have  seen  them,  or  that  certain  claims  are  so  outlandish  that  he  could  not  endorse  them  but  must  be  using  them  in  some  special  way,  but  our  first  response,  given  our  distance  from  Plato,  ought  to  be  to  think  ourselves  into  a  perspective  from  which  these  claims  appear  true  (just  as  we  turn  to  metaphorical  interpretations  of  an  expression  only  after  the  literal  ones  have  all  failed.).     The  best  textual  authority  for  readings  like  Scott’s  and  Weiss’s  seems  to  me  a  passage  from  the  Phaedrus,  where,  having  contrasted  the  light-­‐hearted  diversion  of  writing  with  the  serious  work  of  dialectic,  which  plants  discourses  accompanied  by  knowledge  into  suitable  souls,  Socrates  says  that  in  order  to  use  speech  well    

First,  you  must  know  the  truth  concerning  everything  you  are  speaking  or  writing  about;  you  must  learn  how  to  define  each  thing  in  itself;  and,  having  defined  it,  you  must  know  how  to  divide  it  into  kinds  until  you  reach  something  indivisible.    Second,  you  must  understand  the  nature  of  the  soul,  along  the  same  lines;  you  must  determine  which  kind  of  speech  is  appropriate  to  each  kind  of  soul,  prepare  and  arrange  your  speech  accordingly,  and  offer  a  complex  and  elaborate  speech  to  a  complex  soul  and  a  simple  speech  to  a  simple  one.    Then,  and  only  then,  will  you  be  able  to  use  speech  artfully,  to  the  extent  that  its  nature  allows  it  to  be  used  that  way,  either  in  order  to  teach  or  in  order  to  persuade.    (277b-­‐c)    

If  Socrates  practices  what  he  preaches,  then,  one  might  suppose  (especially  given  the  wide  variety  of  characters  among  Socrates’  interlocutors,  from  Callicles  to  Theaetetus),  the  dialogues  represent  different  types  of  souls  being  given  speeches  suited  to  either  teach  or  persuade  them,  in  accordance  with  their  character.  

But  even  if  good  speech  takes  into  account  the  soul  of  the  interlocutor,  notice,  first  of  all,  that  good  speech  in  the  Phaedrus  passage  requires  the  kind  of  dialectical  and  psychological  knowledge  Socrates  disclaims  throughout  the  dialogues.  8    Perhaps  Socrates  approximates  such  knowledge:    he  does  seem  to  find  conversation  topics  that  his  interlocutors  have  something  to  say  about.    He  seems  sensitive  to  what  his  interlocutor  can  understand  and  accept—and  when  his  interlocutor  says  he  doesn’t  follow,  he  explains  further.    He  discovers  things  about  his  own  soul—his  beliefs—and  asks  his  interlocutors  to  do  the  same  (Gorgias  458,  further  refs*).    But  these  are  norms  of  conversation  aimed  at  inquiry  for  anyone  and  everyone  who  engages  in  it;  Socrates  may  be  better  at  observing  them  than  we  are,  and  observing  him  may  be  worth  our  while  as  we  think  about  our  own  philosophical  conversations.    Socrates                                                                                                                  8  Is  the  Philebus  an  exception?  

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nowhere  claims  the  special  knowledge  that  entitles  an  expert  to  depart  from  (what  he  believes  to  be)  the  truth  in  the  interests  of  someone’s  moral  education.     I  have  a  further  worry  about  reading  the  dialogues  for  their  dramatization  of  the  educational  possibilities  for  different  psychological  types.    This  is  that  while  it  is  one  thing  to  say  of  an  interlocutor  that  he  is  angry  or  unreflective  on  the  basis  of  his  behaviour  in  a  dialogue,  it  is  quite  another  to  say  that  he  is  ‘ruled  by  appetite’  or  ‘tyrannical’  based  on  the  particular  psychological  theory  of  the  Republic.    The  psychological  claims  made  in  the  Republic  are  as  tentatively  introduced  and  provisionally  defended  as  the  claims  about  politics,  or  metaphysics,  or  anything  else  and  we  risk  using  them  more  rigidly  than  Plato  himself.    (When  Socrates  is  expounding  the  types  of  deficient  characteristics  and  asks  who  is  the  man  who  corresponds  to  the  timocratic  constitution,  Adeimantus  immediately  volunteers  Glaucon,  as  a  lover  of  honour—which  Socrates  immediately  qualifies:    Glaucon  may  be  like  the  timocrat  in  his  love  of  victory,  but  Glaucon  is  better  educated  in  music  and  poetry,  and  not  harsh  to  his  slaves  (548e-­‐49a).)      

In  the  two  following  sections  of  this  paper,  I  show  how  paying  attention  to    speakers’  explicit  statements  and  their  dialectical  place  in  the  Republic  gives  us  new  insight  into  two  interpretive  puzzles:    (section  2)  about  the  relationship  of  Book  I  to  the  rest  of  the  book  and  (section  3)  about  the  role  of  political  claims  in  the  overall  argument  of  the  work  according  to  which  the  just  life  is  better  than  the  unjust.    [for  the  sake  of  time,  probably  need  to  skip  (3)    Book  X’s  myth]  2.    The  relationship  between  Republic  I  and  Republic  II-­‐X  

The  Socrates  of  Book  I  of  the  Republic  reminds  many  readers  of  the  Socrates  of  the  dialogues  of  definition  (e.g.  Euthyphro,  Lysis):    he  solicits  definitions  from  his  interlocutors  and  then  refutes  them.    Book  I  ends  with  Socrates  saying  that  he  does  not  know  what  justice  is,  and  that  not  knowing  what  justice  is,  he  is  not  in  a  position  to  know  whether  or  not  it  is  a  virtue,  whether  or  not  it  makes  its  possessor  happy  (354a-­‐c).    The  Socrates  of  Book  II-­‐X,  by  contrast,  argues  (at  great  length!)  that  the  just  person  is  is  happier  than  the  unjust.    Some  scholars  characterize  the  Socrates  of  Republic  Book  II  on  as  ‘dogmatic’  or  ‘constructive’;  many  have  taken  Plato  to  be  putting  his  own  ideas  into  Socrates’  mouth.      

An  increasingly  popular  explanation  for  this  change  is  that  Plato  uses  Book  I  to  point  out  Socrates’  shortcomings;  recognizing  these  faults  motivates  his  continuing  in  a  different  vein  in  Republic  II-­‐X.9    In  particular,  the  criticism  is  that                                                                                                                  9  It  used  to  be  thought  that  Book  I  of  the  Republic  was  an  ‘early’  dialogue  that  must  have  pre-­‐existed  the  rest  of  the  book  because  of  its  similarity  to  many  ‘early’  dialogues:    richly  characterized  interlocutors  brimful  of  opinions,  a  self-­‐avowedly  ignorant  Socrates  refuting  them,  the  conclusion  that  neither  Socrates  nor  the  interlocutors  know  what  the  virtue  under  discussion  is.    The  (dubiously  Platonic)  Clitophon  was  counted  as  evidence  of  this  separate  existence  of  Book  I.    However,  the  Clitophon’s  relationship  to  the  Book  I  we  have  is  problematic.    For  example,  the  Clitophon  attributes  the  questions  about  justice’s  product  to  Clitophon  rather  than  to  Socrates  (contrast  Clitophon  409b-­‐d  and  Republic  332c  &  ff.);  it  attributes  the  answer,  ‘friendship,  that  is,  agreement,  that  is,  shared  knowledge’  to  a  companion  of  Socrates  (409d-­‐e);  this  answer  begs  the  question  of  the  content  of  knowledge  in  a  way  familiar  from  the  Euthydemus  288e-­‐92e  and  a  later  passage  in  the  Republic  (505c);  it  attributes  to  Socrates  the  opinion  that  justice  is  helping  friends  and  harming  enemies  (410b),  but  in  Book  I  this  is  Polemarchus’,  not  Socrates’  view.    However,  the  main  point  of  the  Clitophon—Clitophon’s  complaint  that  while  Socrates  is  good  at  inspiring  people  to  pursue  virtue,  he  

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Socrates’  dialectical  practice  of  refuting  his  interlocutors  by  showing  that  their  opinions  are  inconsistent  (elenchus)  fails  to  turn  the  interlocutors  to  inquiry:    Cephalus  quickly  bows  out  of  the  argument;  Thrasymachus  is  enraged,  at  first  violently,  then  in  a  quiet  sulk.    Such  people’s  beliefs  are  ‘intransigent’,  either  because  they  were  acquired  a-­rationally  at  a  young  age,  or  because  some  irrational  desire  (newly  theorized  in  the  Republic)  demands  their  acceptance.    Confirming  this  criticism  of  Socrates’  failure  to  deal  adequately  with  intransigent  beliefs  is  the  new  solution  to  the  problem  in  Republic  II-­‐III—early  childhood  education  to  instill  correct  values—and  the  warning  in  Republic  VII  (537d-­‐39d)  about  the  dangers  of  practicing  dialectic  on  just  anyone  irrespective  of  its  suitability  to  their  moral  and  intellectual  state.10    The  failure  of  Socratic  dialectical  practice  prepares  the  way  for  a  more  constructive  Socrates,  one  who  offers  his  own  account  of  justice  rather  than  just  refuting  the  accounts  of  others.11  

This  account  of  the  Book  I-­‐Book  II  change  in  terms  of  a  change  from  dialectical  failure  to  a  constructive  approach  is  dramatically  awkward.    How  can  the  very  same  

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         leaves  them  high  and  dry  when  it  comes  to  helping  them  figure  out  how  to  pursue  it  (presumably  because  he  leaves  them  without  a  definition)—is  addressed  in  the  rest  of  the  Republic.    That  might  support  its  being  an  alternative  (and  never  completed)  introduction  to  the  Republic.  Kahn,  ‘Proleptic  composition  in  the  Republic,  Or  Why  Republic  I  was  never  a  separate  dialogue’    argues  for  a  closer  connection  on  the  grounds  that  Book  I  foreshadows  so  much  of  the  rest  of  the  Republic.*  10  Scott  1999,  cf.  Blondell  p.  165  passim,  who  argues  that  Cephalus  is  a  ‘dialectical  non-­‐starter’,  although  it  is  not  clear  to  me  whether  this  is  supposed  to  be  because  of  his  attachment  to  wealth,  like  the  oligarch  of  Book  VII  or  because  of  his  view  that  wisdom  comes  with  age  and  tradition,  making  old  age  the  time  to  philosophize;  that  Polemarchus,  because  of  his  “vigor,  intelligence,  stamina,  honesty,  .  .  .  courage  to  scrutinize  .  .  .  establish  opinions  and  abandon  some  of  them  if  necessary,  .  .  .  friendly  cooperative  spirit  .  .  and  fundamental  conviction  that  justice  is  worthwhile”  [p.  177]  is  “an  elenctic  success”—but  the  ease  with  which  he  adopts  new  opinions  should  remind  us  of  the  democrat  of  Book  IX,  and  make  us  uneasy;  that  Plato  dramatizes  Thrasymachus’  annoyance  to  acknowledge  the  alienating  effect  of  Socratic  elenchus  on  his  own  readers  but  also  to  show  that  “the  commitment  to  injustice  undermines  the  will  and  ability  to  participate  in  dialectic”  (p.  181)  because  it  inclines  him  to  confrontation,  authoritative  pedagogy  and  insincerety.    General  lessons  about  Socratic  elenchus:    “any  skillful  arguer  can  lead  a  less  skilled  one  to  agree  with  his  conclusions  .  .  .  but  such  agreement  is  obviously  not  enough  to  establish  either  argument  or  conclusion  as  sound.”  (p.  184);  say  what  you  believe  means  Socrates  is  constrained  by  the  interlocutor’s  moral  and  intellectual  qualities.    And  “Plato  underlines  these  limitations  by  refusing  to  let  Sokrates  ever  meet  his  intellectual  match.”  (p.  185)      Reeve,  Philosopher-­‐Kings  pp.*.      11  Blondell,  p.  186,  who  also  thinks  that  from  Book  II  on,  Socrates  adopts  the  methods  of  the  sophists  (such  as  defending  a  view  for  the  sake  of  argument),  which  is  more  cooperative  and  less  ‘impossible’  for  education  than  one-­‐on-­‐one  elenchus.      *But  B.  may  be  close  to  right,  because  perhaps  the  depersonalization  of  inquiry  allows  it  to  continue  without  anyone’s  ego  being  on  the  line,  as  B.  says  (p.  208)?    And  given  the  Gorgias’  comment  on  the  pitfalls  of  dialectic  (458),  isn’t  it  plausible  that  this  hypothetical  approach  is  a  way  of  inquiring  cooperatively?    But  that  shift  needn’t  be  grounded  in  a  new  psychology  of  belief-­‐formation  or  character*  For  after  all,  we  see  that  depersonalized  investigation  in  the  Protagoras  (in  what  the  many  think  about  knowledge  being  dragged  about  like  a  slave)  Also  Gorgias  distinction  between  two  types  of  persuasion,  with  and  without  knowledge,  might  suggest  Socrates  is  doing  the  latter  here.    But  he’s  not  if  he’s  making  his  hypotheses  known.  

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Socrates  be  a  dialectical  failure  at  one  moment  and  then  have  acquired  an  entirely  new  approach  a  few  dramatic  moments  later?    As  Socrates  narrates  the  transition  from  (our)  Book  I  to  Book  II,  ‘When  I  said  this,  I  thought  I  had  done  with  the  discussion,  but  it  turned  out  to  have  been  only  a  prelude.’  (357a).    The  ‘this’  which  he  had  just  said  a  dramatic  moment  earlier  is  a  diagnosis  of  his  own  dialectical  failure:    

 .  .  .  Thrasymachus,  after  you  became  gentle  and  ceased  to  give  me  rough  treatment  [I  had  my  feast  of  words].    Yet  I  haven’t  had  a  fine  banquet.    But  that’s  my  fault  not  yours.    I  seem  to  have  behaved  like  a  glutton,  snatching  at  every  dish  that  passes  and  tasting  it  before  properly  savoring  its  predecessor.    Before  finding  the  answer  to  our  first  inquiry  about  what  justice  is,  I  let  that  go  and  turned  to  investigate  whether  it  is  a  kind  of  vice  and  ignorance  or  a  kind  of  wisdom  and  virtue.    Then  an  argument  came  up  about  injustice  being  more  profitable  than  justice,  and  I  couldn’t  refrain  from  abandoning  the  previous  one  and  following  up  on  that.    Hence  the  result  of  the  discussion,  as  far  as  I’m  concerned,  is  that  I  know  nothing,  for  when  I  don’t  know  what  justice  is,  I’ll  hardly  know  whether  it  is  a  kind  of  virtue  or  not,  or  whether  a  person  who  has  it  is  happy  or  unhappy.  (354a-­‐c)  

 In  other  words,  Socrates  shouldn’t  have  argued  that  justice  is  a  virtue  or  that  its  possessor  is  happy  when  he  had  not  yet  given  a  definition  of  justice,  because  in  the  absence  of  an  adequate  account  of  what  justice  is,  he  cannot  know  what  its  properties  are.12    Why  should  we  dismiss  Socrates’  own  diagnosis  that  it’s  his  own  failure  of  knowledge  that’s  to  blame  and  suppose  instead  that  the  problem  is  the  defect  in  Thrasymachus’  rationality  that  calls  for  a  non-­‐rational  mode  of  engagement?      

If  Plato’s  point  is  that  Socrates’  arguments  may  fail  due  to  his  interlocutor’s  irrationality,  what  should  we  think  about  the  relationship  between  Plato’s  work  and  his  reader.    Does  Plato  aim  to  persuade  his  readers  of  the  intrinsic  goodness  of  justice?    Is  he  limited  (like  Socrates)  by  his  readers’  irrationality,  or  does  he  also  use  strategies  to  work  on  our  irrationality  (e.g.  as  Edelstein  and  Lear  suggest  the  myths  do.13)  

We  can  account  for  the  Book  I  –  Book  II  transition  without  making  it  dramatically  awkward.    But  to  begin,  we  should  not  exaggerate  the  difference.    For  although  Socrates  ends  Book  I  in  aporia  and  is  constructive  in  Book  II,  he  is  not  suddenly  dogmatic.    Even  as  he  produces  an  account  of  what  justice  is  in  the  city  and  the  soul  in  order  to  answer  the  pressing  question  whether  it  is  good  by  itself  or  not,  the  Socrates  of  Book  II  on  repeatedly  reminds  his  interlocutors  that  the  results  of  his  arguments  are  less  than  fully  accurate  (435c-­‐d,  504b),  that  he  himself  lacks  the  knowledge  of  the  good  (506c)14  required  for  someone  to  be  able  to  see  whether  anything  in  particular  is  good  (520c).                                                                                                                    12  Priority  of  Definition  texts  and  scholarly  literature.  REFS*  13  Edelstein,  Lear  REFS*  14  maybe  say  how  to  understand  533,  where  Socrates  says  Glaucon  won’t  be  able  to  follow  him  any  longer?    Why  not,  because  it’ll  involve  hypothesis  above  hypothesis  of  Forms  (same  form  accounts  for  justice  of  city  and  soul)?    What  can  Socrates  do  that  G&A  can’t—engage  in  dialectic?    That  doesn’t  require  knowledge,  though.      

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Suppose  that  Socrates  doesn’t  suddenly  acquire  knowledge  of  what  justice  is,  but  remains  in  the  intellectual  condition  he  owns  at  the  end  of  Book  I:    unable  to  give  an  account.    How,  then,  in  the  absence  of  this  account,  is  he  to  answer  the  challenge  renewed  by  Glaucon  and  Adeimantus  in  Book  II  that  he  show  that  the  just  person  is  happier  than  the  unjust  person,  not  only  for  the  sake  of  the  consequences  of  being  seen  to  be  just,  but  because  it  is  so  good  to  be  just?    We  all  know  what  he  does:    (1)    he  comes  up  with  an  account  of  what  justice  is  in  a  soul,  and  shows  that  this  justice  in  the  soul  is  good  for  its  possessor.    How  does  he  come  up  with  the  account  of  what  justice  is  in  a  soul,  in  the  absence  of  an  account  of  justice?    Again,  we  know  what  he  does:    (2)    he  supposes  that  justice  in  the  soul  has  the  same  form  as  justice  in  a  city,  and  (2a)  he  comes  up  with  an  account  of  what  justice  is  in  the  city.    How  does  he  come  up  with  the  account  of  what  justice  is  in  the  city,  in  the  absence  of  an  account  of  what  justice  is?15    (3)    He  constructs  a  city  that  meets  certain  specifications—it  is  one  in  which  the  law  aims  at  the  good  not  of  the  rulers,  as  Thrasymachus  claims  is  the  case  in  all  existing  cities,  but  of  the  whole  city—and  accepts  that,  as  Thrasymachus  claims,  justice  in  that  city  is  defined  by  its  law.16    (4)    The  law  of  the  city  aimed  at  the  good  of  the  whole  rather  than  the  ruling  class  is:    each  does  his/her  own  work,  the  work  that  he/she  is  best  suited  to  do.    That  is  justice  in  the  city;  given  the  assumption  that  justice  in  the  soul  has  the  same  form,  it  will  be  each  part  of  the  soul  doing  its  own  work.    And  having  a  soul  in  which  each  part  does  its  own  work  turns  out  to  be  a  condition  of  harmony,  which  is  the  health  of  the  soul,  which  affords  its  possessor  the  enjoyments  of  the  best  goods  (knowledge  of  Forms,  the  best  pleasures  of  appetite  and  spirit)  possible.    None  of  these  steps  is  immune  from  criticism:    one  might  say  (as  Aristotle  does)  that  the  institutions  of  the  city  Socrates  describes  fail  to  bring  about  the  happiness  of  the  city  as  a  whole.    One  might  say  that  the  account  of  justice  in  the  city  is  flawed.    One  might  say  that  justice  is  not  the  same  in  the  city  and  soul  (although  Plato  might  be  more  committed  to  this  than  to  his  particular  construction  of  the  city  on  the  grounds  that  it  fits  with  his  method  of  supposing  that  everything  is  what  it  is  by  participating  in  Forms,  cf.  Phaedo  100a-­‐101e).    My  point  is  not  so  much  to  defend  the  reasoning  by  which  Socrates  defends  justice  as  to  show  what  kind  of  reasoning  it  is.  

There  is  a  similar  transition  in  the  Meno:    Meno  wants  to  know  whether  virtue  is  teachable;  when  Socrates  insists  that  they  need  to  know  what  virtue  is  in  order  to  answer  the  question  whether  it  is  teachable,  Meno  zaps  him  with  the  question,  ‘How  will  you  look  for  it,  Socrates,  when  you  do  not  know  at  all  what  it  is?    How  will  you  aim  to  search  for  something  you  do  not  know  at  all?    If  you  should  meet  with  it,  how  will  you  know  that  this  is  the  thing  that  you  did  not  know?’  (Meno  80d)    In  the  Meno,  after  telling  Meno  that  learning  is  really  the  recollection  of  latent  beliefs  and  illustrating  this  by  the  example  of  a  slave  who  has  never  been  taught  geometry  coming  to  see  the  solution  to  a  non-­‐obvious  geometrical  problem  (81a-­‐86b),  Socrates  shows  how  one  can,  in  fact,  investigate  the  teachability  of  virtue  in  

                                                                                                               15  NB  priority  of  definition  applies  not  only  to  properties  (poia)  but  also  to  instances.    REFS*  16  For  further  references  to  law  in  the  Republic,  see  471b9-­‐10,  421a5,  484b9-­‐c1,  425c10-­‐26e4;  Annas,  ‘Virtue  and  Law  in  the  Republic’  REF*  goes  through  all  these  passages,  but  I  don’t  know  if  she  would  endorse  my  account  of  the  argument’s  dependence  on  Thrasymachus’  notion  of  law.  

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the  absence  of  an  account  of  what  virtue  is  (86e-­‐89a).    On  the  hypothesis  that  virtue  is  knowledge,  virtue  is  indeed  teachable,  and  on  the  hypotheses  that  virtue  is  always  beneficial  and  that  only  knowledge  is  always  beneficial,  virtue  is  knowledge;  we  have  reason  to  support  that  only  knowledge  is  always  beneficial  by  noticing  that  without  knowledge,  things  we  typically  think  of  as  good  are  not  good,  e.g.,  courage  without  knowledge  is  rashness.    Socrates  models  his  hypothetical  investigation  of  the  teachability  of  virtue  on  the  way  a  geometer  investigates  the  question,  ‘can  a  given  area  be  inscribed  in  the  form  of  a  triangle  in  a  given  circle?’    The  answer  is,  ‘yes,  if  that  area  is  the  area  of  a  rectangle  that  falls  short  of  the  rectangle  constructed  on  the  circle’s  diameter  by  a  rectangle  similar  to  itself’.17    The  reasoning  involved  is  greatly  aided  by  (or  perhaps  not  possible  without)  the  construction  of  a  model.     The  Meno  parallel  shows  that  we  can  account  for  the  change  in  how  much  Socrates  has  to  say  by  way  of  positively  characterizing  justice  (in  the  soul  and  city)  without  attributing  an  entirely  new  persona,  outlook  about  dialectic,  or  philosophical  position,  to  him.    For  in  the  Meno,  it  is  clearly  the  same  Socrates  who  on  the  one  hand  persists  in  asking  the  ‘what  is  virtue?’  question  and  insists  that  one  can’t  know  anything  about  virtue  (including  what  are  its  instances)  unless  one  knows  what  virtue  is,  and  on  the  other  hand  pursues  the  ‘is  virtue  teachable?’  question  (apparently  under  similar  practical  pressure)  without  an  answer  to  ‘what  is  virtue?’    In  the  Meno,  we  simply  take  him  at  his  word  that  he  is  pursuing  the  teachability  question  on  a  hypothesis.    Why  not  do  the  same  with  the  Republic?  

This  approach  conforms  quite  closely  to  Socrates’  characterization  of  dianoia  (‘thought’)  in  the  famous  Divided  Line  passage  in  Republic  VII.18    

 In  one  subsection,  the  soul,  using  as  images  the  things  that  were  imitated  before,  is  forced  to  investigate  from  hypotheses,  proceeding  not  to  a  first  principle  but  to  a  conclusion.    In  the  other  subsection,  however,  it  makes  its  way  to  a  first  principle  that  is  not  a  hypothesis,  proceeding  from  a  hypothesis  but  without  the  images  used  in  the  previous  subsection,  using  forms  themseves  and  making  its  investigation  through  them  .  .  .  You’ll  understand  it  more  easily  after  the  following  preamble.    I  think  you  know  that  students  of  geometry,  calculation,  and  the  like  hypothesize  the  odd  and  the  even,  the  various  figures,  the  three  kinds  of  angles,  and  other  things  akin  to  these  in  each  of  their  investigations,  as  if  they  knew  them.    They  make  these  their  hypotheses  and  don’t  think  it  necessary  to  give  any  account  of  them,  either  to  themselves  or  to  others,  as  if  they  were  clear  to  everyone.    And  going  from  these  first  principles  through  the  remaining  steps,  they  arrive  in  full  agreement.    .    .  you  also  know  that,  although  they  use  visible  figures  and  make  claims  about  them,  their  thought  isn’t  directed  to  them  but  to  those  other  things  that  they  are  like.    They  make  their  claims  for  the  sake  of  the  square  

                                                                                                               17  Diagram*  18  Fine  2003,  ‘Knowledge  and  Belief  in  Republic  V-­‐VII’,  p.  106:    ‘Plato  in  the  Republic  place  himself  at  L3  [viz.  thought,  dianoia]’.    Fine  identifies  two  criteria  to  distinguish  thought  and  dialectic:      (i)  the  use  of  sensible  images  of  forms  but  for  the  sake  of  thinking  about  the  forms,  and  (ii)    the  movement  from  hypothesis  to  conclusion.    Cf.    Irwin  PMT  222-­‐3,  Gallop  in  AGP  47  (1965)  pp.  113-­‐31*  

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itself  and  the  diagonal  itself,  not  the  diagonal  they  draw,  and  similarly  with  the  others.    These  figures  that  they  make  and  draw,  of  which  shadows  and  reflections  in  water  are  images,  they  now  in  turn  use  as  images,  in  seeking  to  see  those  others  themselves  that  one  cannot  see  except  by  means  of  thought.    .  .  .  This,  then,  is  the  kind  of  thing  that,  on  the  one  hand,  I  said  is  intelligible,  and,  on  the  other,  is  such  that  the  soul  is  forced  to  use  hypotheses  in  the  investigation  of  it,  not  travelling  up  to  a  first  principle,  since  it  cannot  reach  beyond  its  hypotheses,  but  using  as  images  those  very  things  of  which  images  were  made  in  the  section  below,  and  which,  by  comparison  to  their  images,  were  thought  to  be  clear  and  to  be  valued  as  such.  (510b-­‐11b)    

In  the  passage  I  have  here  excerpted,  Socrates  describes  our  various  cognitive  powers  and  the  objects  they  grasp,  starting  at  the  lower  levels  with  imagination  and  opinion,  powers  that  grasp  sensible  objects,  and  moving  to  the  higher  levels  with  thought  (dianoia)  and  understanding  (noêsis),  powers  that  grasp  Forms.    Thought  reasons  ‘down’  from  hypotheses  to  conclusions,  treating  hypotheses  as  principles  (or  starting  points),  and  using  visible  things  as  images  of  Forms—geometers  construct  diagrams  to  reason  about  abstract  objects.    Superior  to  thought  is  understanding,  the  achievement  of  dialectic,  which  treats  hypotheses  as  hypotheses  and  so  aims  to  ground  them  in  something  ‘higher’  until  it  reaches  an  unhypothetical  first  principle.    Something  like  this  method  of  investigation,  distinguishing  a  ‘way  up’  and  a  ‘way  down’  is  described  in  the  Phaedo  (100b-­‐101e),  where,  significantly,  Socrates  describes  the  Forms  as  his  hypothesis.       In  sum,  I  have  argued  in  this  section  that  the  hypothesis  (n)  ‘justice  in  the  city  is  each  class  doing  its  own’  is  based  on  (n’)  ‘justice  is  the  same  form  in  city  and  soul’  and  (n’’)  the  construction  of  the  city  according  to  a  law  that  makes  the  city  as  a  whole  rather  than  just  the  rulers,  happy.19    In  the  next  section,  I  show  the  pay-­‐off  this  interpretation  for  understanding  the  role  of  politics  in  the  argument  of  the  Republic.      3.    Politics  in  the  Argument  of  Books  II-­‐IX:    The  happiness  of  the  guardians       Twice  in  the  course  of  Socrates’  defense  of  justice  in  the  Republic  Glaucon  and  Adeimantus  interrupt  Socrates  to  say  that  the  political  arrangements  he  is  drawing  up  for  the  ideal  city  (namely,  banning  the  guardians  from  owning  private  property  and  requiring  the  philosophers  to  rule)  deprive  the  guardians  of    happiness.    Socrates  replies,  on  the  first  occasion,  that  their  aim  is  not  to  make  any  group  in  the  city  outstandingly  happy,  but  the  city  as  a  whole  happy,  and  on  the  second  occasion,  that  the  aim  of  the  law  is  not  to  make  any  group,  but  the  city  as  a  whole,  happy,  by  bringing  the  citizens  into  harmony  with  one  another.    

And  then  Adeimantus  interrupted:    How  would  you  defend  yourself,  Socrates,  he  said,  if  someone  told  you  that  you  aren’t  making  these  men  very  happy  and  that  it’s  their  own  fault?    The  city  really  belongs  to  them,  yet  they  derive  no  good  from  it.    Others  own  land,  build  fine  big  houses,  acquire  furnishings  to  go  along  with  them,  make  their  own  private  sacriices  to  the  gods,  entertain  

                                                                                                               19  cf.  Netz  2003  on  the  complex  object  that  a  hypothesis  is:    proposition  plus  construction  

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guests,  and  also,  of  course,  possess  what  you  were  talking  about  just  now,  gold  and  silver  and  all  the  things  that  are  thought  to  belong  to  people  who  are  blessedly  happy.    But  one  might  well  say  that  your  guardians  are  simply  settled  in  the  city  like  mercenaries  and  that  all  they  do  is  watch  over  it.  Yes,  I  said,  and  what’s  more,  they  work  simply  for  their  keep  and  get  no  extra  wages  as  the  others  do.    Hence,  if  they  want  to  take  a  private  trip  away  from  the  city,  they  won’t  be  able  to;  they’ll  have  nothing  to  give  to  their  mistresses,  nothing  to  spend  in  whatever  other  ways  they  wish,  as  people  do  who  are  considered  happy.    You’ve  omitted  these  and  a  host  of  other,  similar  facts  from  your  charge.  .  .  .    I  think  we’ll  discover  what  to  say  if  we  follow  the  same  path  as  before.    We’ll  say  that  it  wouldn’t  be  surprising  if  these  people  were  happiest  just  as  they  are,  but  that,  in  establishing  our  city,  we  aren’t  aiming  to  make  any  one  group  outstandingly  happy  but  to  make  the  whole  city  so,  as  far  as  possible.    [For]20  we  thought  that  we’d  find  justice  most  easily  in  such  a  city  and  injustice  by  contrast,  in  the  one  that  is  governed  worst  and  that,  by  observing  both  cities,  we’d  be  able  to  judge  the  question  we’ve  been  inquiring  into  for  so  long.    We  take  ourselves,  then,  to  be  fashioning  the  happy  city,  not  picking  out  a  few  happy  people  and  putting  tem  in  it,  but  making  the  whole  city  happy  (419-­‐20c).    [Glaucon:]    Then  are  we  to  do  them  [=the  philosophers]  an  injustice  by  making  them  live  a  worse  life  when  they  could  live  a  better  one?  [Socrates:]    You  are  forgetting  again  that  it  isn’t  the  law’s  concern  to  make  any  one  class  in  the  city  outstandingly  happy  but  to  contrive  to  spread  happiness  throughout  the  city  by  bringing  the  citizens  into  harmony  with  each  other  through  persuasion  or  compulsion  and  by  making  them  share  with  each  other  the  benefits  that  each  class  can  confer  on  the  community.    The  law  produces  such  people  in  the  city,  not  in  order  to  allow  them  to  turn  in  whatever  direction  they  want,  but  to  make  use  of  them  to  bind  the  city  together  (519d-­‐20a,  tr.  Grube-­‐Reeve).  

 Students  of  Plato’s  political  thought  have  naturally  come  away  from  these  passages  with  the  question:    what  does  Plato  think  is  the  relationship  between  this  happiness  of  the  city  as  a  whole  and  the  happiness  of  its  citizens?    Does  the  happiness  of  the  city  float  free  of  the  happiness  of  its  citizens  because  Plato  thinks  of  the  city  as  a  kind  of  super-­‐organism?21    Or  does  the  happiness  of  the  city  consist  in  the  happiness  of  its  citizens?22    Or  is  the  city  happy  in  virtue  of  the  happiness  of  some  subset  of  its  citizens  just  as  it  is  wise  in  virtue  of  its  rulers’  wisdom?    Or  is  the  city  happy  to  the  

                                                                                                               20  Grube-­‐Reeve  and  Griffith  omit  the  connecting  gar  in  their  translation;  Shorey  and  Reeve  translate  it.  21  Popper  1962,  169,  cf.  79-­‐81,  Williams  1973,  197  22  Vlastos  1977,  15;  Annas  1981,  179  

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extent  that  its  citizens  are  happy  and  its  constitution  is  the  cause  of  their  happiness?23         Attention  to  the  role  of  claims  about  the  ideal  city  in  the  context  of  the  Republic’s  dialectic  shows  why  these  passages  cannot  yield  a  determinate  answer  to  the  question  about  the  relationship  between  city’s  and  citizens’  happiness.    This  is  not  because  the  Republic  is  not  ‘about’  politics  but  rather  ethics  (it’s  about  a  lot  of  things,  and  Aristotle  criticizes  some  of  the  arrangements  of  the  city  in  Politics  II,  so  he  clearly  took  it  to  be  about  politics  among  other  things),  but  rather  because  of  the  role  that  its  political  claims  play  in  its  overarching  ethical  argument.         From  Book  II  to  Book  IV,  the  city  goes  from  being  a  city  to  being  ‘the  good  and  correct  constitution’  (449a).    On  what  grounds  does  Socrates  conclude  that  the  city  he  describes  is  happy?    Is  it  because  it’s  reasonable  to  assume  that  a  city  is  happy  (well-­‐functioning)  if  its  citizens  behave  justly24?    But  Socrates  asserts  that  the  city  is  happy  (419-­‐20,  above)  before  he  gives  an  account  of  its  justice  (‘each  class  doing  its  own  work,  433a-­‐    And  lots  of  readers  (as  early  as  Aristotle)  have  doubted  that  the  city  described  in  the  Republic  is  a  happy  city.    It  certainly  makes  enough  controversial  innovations!    

Let’s  examine  a  little  more  closely  the  suggestion  of  the  previous  section  that  the  happiness  and  justice  of  the  city  Socrates  is  describing  fall  out  of  his  dialectical  position  vis-­‐à-­‐vis  Thrasymachus.      In  Republic  I,  Thrasymachus  claims  that  the  rulers  in  any  constitution  frame  laws  to  their  own  advantage  and  call  these  laws’  prescriptions  ‘justice’  (338d-­‐339e),  consequently,  when  one  (supposing  one  not  to  be  the  ruler)  follows  these  prescriptions,  one  is  serving  ‘another’s  good’  (358b-­‐c,  343c).    Since  Thrasymachus  has  said  the  law  (which  defines  justice)  is  in  every  actual  city  established  to  serve  the  interest  of  the  rulers  (338d),  Socrates  posits  a  city  in  which  the  law  is  not  established  to  serve  the  interest  of  the  rulers,  but  that  of  the  whole  city,  and  asks,  what  is  justice  in  this  city?    This  is  why  Socrates  says  in  the  passages  quoted  above  that  the  aim  of  the  law  is  to  make  the  city  as  a  whole  as  happy  as  possible.    There  may  be  a  lot  of  disagreement  about  what  institutions  actually  produce  the  happiness  of  everyone,  but  what  matters  for  Socrates’  argument  is  the  stipulation  that  whatever  institutions  they  have,  they  must  be  for  the  happiness  of  the  whole.    The  same  stipulation  allows  Socrates  to  ‘discover’  justice  in  this  city,  and  that  is  why,  when  he  finally  defines  it,  he  says  it  has  been  ‘rolling  around  at  our  feet  from  the  very  beginning’  (432d).    Socrates’  reply  to  Thrasymachus  runs  as  follows:    I’ll  show  you  what  justice  would  be  in  a  city  that  sets  up  its  laws  for  the  sake  of  the  happiness  of  the  whole  city  rather  than  for  the  sake  of  its  rulers.    Justice  would  be  that  each  does  his  own  work.    Socrates  does  not  have  to  prove  that  this  city  is  just  because  he  accepts  Thrasymachus’  legalism  (the  law  defines  justice).      

But  of  course  Socrates’  principal  task,  for  the  sake  of  which  he  describes  the  city,  in  reply  to  Thrasymachus,  Glaucon  and  Adeimantus,  is  to  show  that  individual  justice  makes  its  possessor  happy.    But  if  in  order  to  say  what  justice  is,  he  has  described  a  city  whose  citizens  are  just  by  stipulation  (whether  they  are  all  just  or                                                                                                                  23  Kamtekar  2001,  205-­‐6  24  Irwin  REF*  

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only  the  rulers  are  properly  just  while  the  others  are  only  ‘politically’  just),  he  is  in  no  position  to  say  that  these  citizens  are  happy  until  he  has  demonstrated  that  the  just  individual  is  happy.    Otherwise,  his  political  claims  would  beg  the  ethical  question  of  the  whole  dialogue.         And  Plato  has  Socrates  make  this  point  explicitly.    Following  his  statement  that  he  is  aiming  to  make  not  one  group,  but  the  city  as  a  whole,  as  happy  as  possible,  Socrates  reminds  Adeimantus  that  this  is  for  the  reason  that  (gar)  he  expects  to  find  justice  most  easily  in  such  a  city  (420b-­‐c,  cf.  369a,  371e,  372e,  376d).    This  is,  on  the  one  hand,  an  undefended  political  claim,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  given  by  his  dialectical  relationship  to  Thrasymachus.    So  what  Socrates  reminds  us  of  in  this  passage  is  the  dialectical  goal  for  the  sake  of  which  he  is  describing  the  city  as  he  is.     Plato  has  Socrates  alert  us  to  the  constraints  on  what  he  can  and  cannot  say  about  the  citizens’  happiness  in  another  passage,  which  has  not  drawn  the  attention  of  students  of  Plato’s  political  philosophy  as  have  the  passages  above.    After  he  has  finished  discussing  the  stories  about  gods  and  heroes  to  be  allowed  into  or  banned  from  the  musical  education  of  the  guardians  of  the  ideal  city,  Socrates  points  out  that  what  remains  to  be  discussed  is  stories  about  human  beings,  but  they  can’t  settle  that  because  if  they  say,  as  they  will  want  to,  that  they  should  ban  stories  that  say  that  many  just  people  are  unhappy  and  many  unjust  ones  happy  because  injustice  is  profitable  if  it  goes  undetected,  then  they  will  have  agreed  to  the  very  point  that  is  in  question  in  their  whole  discussion  (392a-­‐c).    (I  had  previously  thought  that  it  would  be  question-­‐begging  to  say  that  the  citizens,  who  are  by  stipulation  just,  are  happy;  but  more  generally  it  would  be  question-­‐begging  to  say  whether  anyone  is  happy,  if  the  question  about  the  relationship  between  happiness  and  justice  is  open  to  answers  such  as  that  happiness  depends  entirely  on  justice.)    Now  the  criteria  for  banning  stories  about  gods  and  heroes  (paradigmatically  happy  beings)  acting  viciously  were  their  untruth  and  their  corrosive  effect  on  citizens’  (‘political’)  virtue.    So  the  point  of  holding  off  on  the  stories  awaits  Socrates’  answer  to  the  question  whether  the  just  person  is  happier  than  the  unjust  in  any  and  every  circumstance.25     The  lesson?    We  cannot  determine  what  Plato  thinks  about  the  relationship  between  individual  and  city  happiness  from  these  passages  in  the  Republic.    Socrates  does  say  at  one  point  that  the  guardians’/auxiliaries’  life  is  better  than  even  an  Olympic  victor’s  (465e-­‐66b).    But  here  he  is  talking  about  recognition  and  reward  in  the  city,  not  about  the  condition  of  anyone’s  soul.    If  we  want  to  know  what  he  thinks  about  the  relation  between  individual  and  city  happiness,  we  can  turn  to  the  Laws,  where  the  dialectic  doesn’t  require  silence  on  the  question.    Still,  this  does  not  mean  it  is  out  of  place  to  evaluate  the  political  institutions  of  the  ideal  city,  just  as  it  is  not  out  of  place  to  say  that  a  geometrical  figure  is  not  well  drawn.26    4.    The  myth  of  Er  

                                                                                                               25  I  discuss  this  passage  and  the  relationship  of  the  contents  of  the  citizens’  education  to  the  framing  argument  in  my  2010.  26  Netz  points  out  that  in  geometrical  texts,  the  drawings  are  pretty  sloppy,  and  perhaps  that  has  a  parallel  in  Plato’s  nonchalance  about  many  of  the  details  of  the  city?  

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The  Republic  closes  with  an  account  of  the  “prizes,  wages  and  gifts”  of  justice  and  injustice  including  Er’s  tale  of  the  afterlife  punishment/reward  and  then  reincarnation  of  souls  according  to  their  justice  or  injustice  (614b-­‐21a)  is  treated  by  many  readers  as  an  appendage  to  the  main  argument  of  the  Republic  that  justice  is  better  than  injustice  all  by  itself  and  irrespective  of  any  consequences,  on  the  grounds  that  it  gives  the  unpersuaded  or  the  unphilosophical  merely  consequentialist  reasons  to  be  just,  or  else  a  myth  that  speaks  to  the  nonrational  elements  in  our  souls.      

But  the  myth  of  Er  gives  us  no  second-­‐best  reasons  to  be  just.    Socrates  interrupts  the  narrative  to  make  clear  its  message:    because  we  choose  our  own  next  incarnations,  the  most  important  thing  of  all  is  to  learn  how  to  make  the  best  choice,  and  that  requires  (a)  caring  only  about  justice  and  injustice,  respectively,  the  greatest  good  and  greatest  evil  and  (b)  learning  about  other  things—wealth,  beauty,  public  office,  high  birth—how  they,  in  combination  with  one  another  and  with  a  given  state  of  soul,  contribute  to  a  life  of  justice  or  injustice  (618c-­‐19b).27      Socrates’  comments  emphasize  that  whether  you  have  a  just  or  unjust  soul  (and  this  depends  on  what  the  soul  values  and  knows  about  value)  matters  even  beyond  this  life  because  your  character  stays  with  you  and  shapes  your  choices  even  beyond  this  life  and  into  the  next.    These  are  consequences,  but  we  might  consider  them  natural  consequences,  for  they  are  not  the  result  of  any  social  arrangements.    Each  soul’s  choice  of  a  life  reflects  its  judgments  of  good  and  bad  and  its  desires,  so  that  its  reincarnation  outcome  reveals  its  nature.  

Er’s  narrative  shows  by  example  the  kind  of  experience  that  can  shape  a  choice  (620a-­‐b):    Orpheus  chooses  the  life  of  a  swan  because,  having  died  at  women’s  hands,  he  does  not  wish  to  be  born  to  a  woman;  Ajax  chooses  to  be  a  lion  because,  remembering  that  Achilles’  armor  went  to  Odysseus  instead  of  to  him,  he  wishes  to  avoid  human  life;  Agamemnon,  who  also  hates  human  beings,  chooses  to  be  an  eagle.28    These  souls  make  poor  choices  because  their  perspective  is  so  narrow:    they  think  the  best  life  is  simply  one  that  avoids  the  particular  evils  they  previously  endured—they  are  like  the  people  Aristotle  mentions  who  identify  happiness  with  health  when  they  are  sick,  with  wealth  when  they  are  poor,  and  with  knowledge  when  conscious  of  their  ignorance  (EN  I.4  1095a22-­‐26).  

                                                                                                               27  Socrates  says  that  the  arrangement  (taxis)  of  the  soul  is  not  included  in  the  model  of  the  life  (bios)  to  be  chosen,  for  the  choosing  alters  that  arrangement  (618b).    I  don’t  yet  properly  understand  the  thought,  but  it  resembles  Aristotle’s  talk  of  action  shaping  character  through  habituation  and  Plato  says  similar  things  about  actions/choices  shaping  one’s  character  near  the  end  of  the  Callicles  section  of  the  Gorgias,  c.  510.*    Does  Socrates’  comment  also  suggest  that  the  soul  adds  something  from  its  character  (its  opinions  about  good  and  evil?)  to  the  life?    (Since  we  don’t  know  the  true  nature  of  the  soul  when  disembodied,  whether  it  is  simple  or  tripartite,  611-­‐12,  might  this  include  nonrational  dispositions  as  well,  such  as  spiritedness  and  gentleness?)  28  on  the  other  side,  a  swan  and  other  musical  animals  choose  [hairesin,  620a8]  human  lives.    The  only  examples  of  metempsychotic  promotion  from  non-­‐human  to  human  here  are  of  “musical”  animals—presumably  because  of  music’s  affinity  with  rationality.  

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