“Every day in every way I am gettingbetter and better” was a slogan coinedby the French psychotherapist DrEmile Coué in the 1920s; “Kaizen” or“continual improvement” is the currentwatchword in Japan and about tobecome widespread here, because thekaizen concept is said to be crucial tounderstanding the differences betweenthe Japanese and the Westernapproaches to management.

In Japan, people are bombardeddaily by the media with statementsconcerning, for example, the kaizen ofthe trade balance with the USA, thekaizen of the welfare system or thekaizen of diplomatic relations withother countries. Management andlabour speak of the kaizen of industrialrelations.

This article is about the applicationof the kaizen strategy to manu-facturing, as demonstrated at a “work-shop event” run by the Kaizen Instituteof Europe and described in MasaakiImai’s book[1].

The Kaizen UmbrellaBecause every activity and everyproduct is capable of improvement, thekaizen umbrella covers many of themanagement techniques that have beendeveloped over the last 40 years or so,including quality circles, total qualitycontrol, total productive maintenance,suggestion systems, kanban, just-in-

time, productivity improvement,robotics and automation. What is notincluded in this extensive, but by nomeans exhaustive, list is innovation,because kaizen is the antithesis ofinnovation. Innovation, which isimplemented by abrupt changes, andkaizen, which is a gradual process, arealternative means of introducingimprovements. While kaizen isclaimed to be widely applicable thereare circumstances in which it yields toinnovation. Both are required in manycompanies. The kaizen philosophy issaid to be better suited to a slowly-growing economy while innovation isbetter suited to a fast-growingeconomy. If this is accepted it mayaccount for the increasing interest inkaizen in this part of the world at thepresent time.

Standardization is an essentialfeature of kaizen. The drill is toestablish a standard, maintain it, thenimprove on it. In this context, standardsare defined as a set of policies, rules,directives and procedures establishedby management for all majoroperations as guidelines that enable allemployees to perform their jobssuccessfully. If people are unable toadhere to a standard, management musteither provide training or review andrevise the standard so that it can befollowed.

A concept following standardizationis that of “The Obvious Factory”, in

which locations are clearly marked soas to make product flow andscheduling easy, standards areconspicuously displayed and floors arepainted to make spillages and dirtobvious, all encapsulated in “visiblemanagement”.

The more senior the manager, themore he is concerned withimprovement. An unskilled worker isexpected to work to existing standards.As he becomes more proficient he isexpected to contribute to improve-ments in his working methods, eitherby individual suggestions or throughgroup suggestions.

Improvements are made byestablishing higher standards. Given anew, higher standard it becomesmanagement’s job to ensure that it isobserved. Lasting improvement isachieved when people work towardshigher standards.

In a successful Japanese companytop management always pressesmanagers for improvements. Improve-ment can be by kaizen or byinnovation. Kaizen means smallimprovements made as a result ofcontinuing effort. Innovation involvesa drastic improvement as a result of alarge investment in new equipment ortechnology.

Kaizen promotes process-orientedthinking because processes must beimproved before improved results areobtained. This may be very different

12 Assembly Automation

Kaizen – The ManyWays of Getting

BetterG. Wittenberg

Vol. 14 No. 4, 1994, pp. 12-17, © MCB University Press, 0144-5154

F E A T U R E S

from the result-oriented thinking ofmost Western managers. Moreover,kaizen is people-oriented, beingdirected at people’s efforts. Of courseresults count, but kaizen assumes thatimprovements in people’s attitudes andefforts are more likely to produceimproved results in the long run thanmere result-oriented thinking would do.

Kaizen● starts with people;

● focuses its attention on people’sefforts;

● people work on processes;

● processes are continually im-proved;

● improved processes improveresults;

● improved results satisfy cus-tomers.

Kaizen for QualityMuch of kaizen thinking relates toquality, not only the quality of productsbut first and foremost the quality ofpeople. The three pillars of a businessare hardware, software and “human-ware”. Humanware should be properlyin place before the hardware andsoftware aspects of a business areconsidered. Putting quality into peoplemeans helping them to become kaizen-conscious. In Japan, knowledge ofquality control and other engineeringtechniques is transmitted to everyoneso that people can solve their own jobproblems better. Training is regularlyprovided for top management, middlemanagement and blue-collar workersand it is said that “quality control startswith training and ends in training”.

With a fondness for peppering thetechnique with Japanese words theimplementation of kaizen starts at thegemba – the workplace or, morespecifically, the manufacturing shop-floor. Gemba is where the work isdone, value is created and problem-solving is delegated. There are tenbasic rules for practising kaizen at thegemba:

(1) Discard conventional, fixedideas concerning production.

(2) Think of how to do it, not why itcannot be done.

(3) Do not make excuses. Start byquestioning current practice.

(4) Do not seek perfection. Do itright away, even if for only 50per cent of the target.

(5) Correct mistakes at once.

(6) Do not spend money for kaizen.

(7) Wisdom is brought out whenfaced with hardship.

(8) Ask “why” five times and seekroot causes.

(9) Seek the wisdom of ten peoplerather than the knowledge of one.

(10) Kaizen ideas are infinite.

A deviation from normal production isthe enemy. It is countered by six gembaprinciples:

(1) When an abnormality occurs go tothe gemba first.

(2) Check the gembutsu (!): machine,materials, rejects, safety.

(3) Take temporary countermeasuresimmediately.

(4) Find the root cause.

(5) Remove the root cause.

(6) Standardize, to prevent the troublefrom recurring.

Next, kaizen turns attention to theelimination of muda, in plain English:Waste. There are seven classes ofmuda:

(1) Overproduction.

(2) Waiting time at the machine.

(3) Waste in the transport of units.

(4) Waste in processing.

(5) Waste in holding inventory.

(6) Waste in motion.

(7) Rejects.

The elimination of overproductionembraces the just-in-time (JIT)concept, not only in the supply ofmaterials and components from outsidebut also in the quantities produced, byminimizing stock levels. This not onlycuts capital employed but also helps toshow up production problems quickly.The idea is represented in one of manyuseful illustrations contained in themanual issued to participants, where awater container in which a high level(= excessive inventory) hides rocks(= problems) below the water surface.As the water level, representinginventory, is reduced the problemsbecome exposed and can be tackled(see Figure 1). Automation is criticizedfor encouraging the overproduction ofparts without regard for therequirements of subsequent processes.

Again, JIT improvement advocateswhat is termed “flow production” asagainst “lot production”. The advan-tages of “flow production” are given assmall quantities produced in largevariety; small, low-cost, slow, single-purpose equipment; small spacerequirement; company-wide approach;eliminates transport; zero defect; morepossibilities of setting improvements;no work-in-progress.

Examples of reducing waste inmotion include reducing the distancebetween machines or operations, usingboth hands, reducing the number ofmotions and making operationssmoother and more relaxed.

From the shopfloor, kaizen spreadsto all other functions of the business,including product planning, product

AA Vol. 14 No. 4, 1994 13

Unseen obstaclesand defects

Water surface

Problemsbecome apparent

After the unnecessaryinventory has been removed...

When the inventoryis full...

Abnormaloperation

Generationof defective

products

Imbalance inworkforce

performance

Delay indelivery

Breakdown ofproduction facility

Reduce water level

Inve

ntor

y(E

xces

sive

)

Figure 1. Reduce Water Level

©Kaizen Institute of Europe

design, production planning,purchasing and sales.

Because kaizen employs so manymanagement techniques and isintended to be applied to all aspects ofa business it has many more facets thancan be described in one article but it istime to see how these ideas work inpractice.

A Kaizen WorkshopA gemba kaizen workshop event washeld on 13-17 December 1993 at thepremises of Paddy Hopkirk Limited(PHL)[2], by the Kaizen Institute ofEurope[3]. There were 19 participants,including the managing director ofPHL and staff members. There was apreponderance of representatives fromthe metal can industry and a widegeographical distribution: UK, France,Greece, Hong Kong, Canada and theUSA.

“A new–

strategy must

be adopted

to meet

new

challenges”PHL is a leading manufacturer ofautomotive accessories. It is Europe’slargest manufacturer of fuel cans anddog guards, one of Europe’s largestmanufacturers of cycle carriers, axlestands and ramps and its sixth-largestmanufacturer of roof racks and roofbars.

There were plans for recruiting 65temporary operators for the periodJanuary-September 1994 but hopesthat by implementing kaizen thisnumber could be reduced. Theproducts have, for many years, enjoyeda reputation for quality and reliabilityin the home market and exports – someto Japan – have recently much in-creased, contributing to an increase inturnover to around £6.5 million in1993.

The manufacturing processesemployed at PHL include stamping;presswork; MIG, spot and seamwelding; degreasing; dip and powderpainting; assembling; packing.

The health of the company is greatlyaffected by the situation in the UKautomotive industry. The company is atpresent expanding and wishes toreview and change its approach tomanufacturing processes. Challengesfaced by the company include:

● competition from Far Eastsuppliers of cheaper, thoughinferior, products;

● responding quickly to large ordersfrom new customers withoutrecourse to stocks;

● accommodating the seasonalnature of the market – 70 per centof sales in seven months;

● accommodating expansion with itsexisting human and materialresources.

PHL realizes that it has to adopt a newmanufacturing strategy to meet thesechallenges and to achieve worldcompetitive status. The kaizenapproach had been studied by themanagement team and was explainedto the 130-strong workforce inpreparation for the workshop andkaizen implementation.

It was recognized that the plantpresents all the opportunities targetedby the kaizen policy which areavailable to a traditional manufacturingcompany of any size:

● Reduction in inventory of rawmaterials, components, work-in-progress and finished product.

● Connection of dissimilar pro-cesses to reduce space andtransport and to allow one-by-onerather than batch production.

● Changing the layout of facilities soas to create comfortable andbalanced workstations whicheliminate waste and allow value-adding activities to be increased.

● Introduction of operationalstandards to assure quality, safety,cost and delivery.

● Organization of the workplace sothat everything is made obviousand more easily manageable.

● Establishing control systemsto facilitate JIT rather than areactionary or just-in-caseapproach.

The ProgrammeMonday was the first of the five days,and was an intensive “Training Day”,devoted to introductions and toexplaining the kaizen philosophy, itsconstituent aspects, like JIT, and themethods used in implementing it. Alarge and well-produced workingmanual was issued to each participant.The 19 participants were divided intothree teams and each team wasallocated one of the product areas inthe plant:

(1) ramps and axle stands;

(2) dog guards;

(3) cycle carriers.

Each team was also given office space.On the second day each team wasintroduced to previously-briefedoperators in its product area andassigned roles. The team appointed aleader and began to study oppor-tunities, list problems and set targets.At the daily meeting at 3.00 p.m. allteam leaders met the workshoporganizers and the PHL management toco-ordinate results and proposals. Bythe end of the second day, proposals formaking changes on the shopfloor wereformulated and put into effect bymaintenance staff assisted by teammembers.

Day three followed broadly similarlines, after an assessment of the resultsobtained by the changes made theprevious evening. The morning of thefourth day was given over tostandardization while the afternoonwas spent on discussions withoperators and the preparation ofpresentations of each team’s work andresults.

Finally, Friday was a half-day, whenthe main activities were a 20-minutepresentation by each team and aquestions and answers session.

On the ShopfloorThe manufacture of cycle carriers,studied by Team 3, has the greatestassembling content of any productmanufactured by PHL. Cycle carriersare one of the newest and currentlymost successful PHL products, butexport opportunities are being lostthrough inability to meet demand.Labour has been thrown at the job inattempts to meet demand; noweveryone gets in each other’s way inobtaining and working withcomponents. Not much thought hasbeen given to facilities or activities.There are two varieties of the present

14 Assembly Automation

CH3 model of cycle carrier, one ofwhich includes a number plate. Twonew models are to be introduced in1994. There is thus every opportunityand incentive to establish an efficientmanufacturing process and a need toaccommodate the assembling of newproducts.

What the Team Found andDidThere were 16 operators assembling,making number plates, cartoning,shrink-wrapping and stacking.Seasonal demand varies between 2,200and 18,500 units per month. Currentoutput is 500 units per day; say 10,000units per month. The seasonal demandvariation is a considerable challenge.The problem was how to accommodate

it without accumulating inventory;kaizen was expected to have asignificant part to play.

Team members observed the presentmethod of assembling and packing,and recorded operation times. Mudasor “Wastes” categorized by the kaizensystem were searched out andrecorded. Each team member’sobservations and ideas for improve-ments were recorded on slips of paper,to be displayed and discussed later.

Originally ten assemblers worked ata common bench, five aside, with twooperators cartoning at the end of thebench. Each assembler had an assemb-ling jig and carried out the entiresequence of assembling operations.

The working area was extremelycrowded; there was too little space formaterials and components with

consequent rework through damage;operators could not pass each otherwithout disturbance.

By the end of the second day themajor improvements arrived at were todivide the assembling operation intosubassembling components to each ofthree frame units and to cut up theworkbench so that each pair ofassemblers would work at a separatebench. These changes were put intoeffect the same evening, by aconsiderable effort on the part of thesmall maintenance staff assisted byteam members.

When the results of the changes hadbeen discussed with the operators andassessed by the team on the third day,ideas for further improvements arose,as predicted by the kaizen principle thatsmall improvements lead to furtherimprovements. While the idea ofsubassembling was retained, the mainassembling operation was divided intotwo successive operations, carried outby two assemblers working side-by-side. The team also realized thatworkbenches for assembling were anobstructive nuisance that contributednothing useful; they quickly designedan open structure on which twoassembling jigs and accessiblecomponent shelves could be mounted.The floor layout was changed toaccommodate the new structures,reducing space wasted on componentstorage and improving access, materialflow and operator movement. Again,all this was put into effect by workinglate into the evening.

AA Vol. 14 No. 4, 1994 15

Original assembling layout and equipment

Subassembling

Pair of assembling jigs on an open structure

The working of these improvementswas observed and timed early on thefourth day, after discussion with theoperators.

Analysis of the results showed that,on the face of it, they weredisappointing. Output had beenreduced from 500 to about 420 cyclecarriers per day and the floor space hadnot been reduced. However, thenumber of operators had been reducedto 15. Team members felt disappointedand frustrated and were anxious toexplain away the results: the operatorswere slow while learning and gettingused to the new method; not all of themwere initially co-operative; the twoassembling stages were not yetoptimally balanced. There was a strongfeeling that the new method must be

better and would in due course beshown to be so.

What the Teams ConcludedAt the presentation session on the finalday all teams expressed theirunreserved enthusiasm for the kaizenconcept. One team said that the kaizenphilosophy had demonstrated thebenefits of “one-piece flow” and that itcan identify problems and oppor-tunities. It is capable of overcomingpeople’s prejudices. It had shown to theteam how inventory could be reduceddramatically. It had shown to them howteamwork can solve problems andovercome difficulties. It haddemonstrated how much “muda” thereis in a “gemba” (and increased theirknowledge of Japanese).

Another team had learned that: thekaizen process produced dramaticimprovements quickly; time spent atthe workplace was by far the mostvaluable; their entire team – operatorsand advisers – could achieve almostanything; there is waste everywhere;and kaizen is “people doing thingstogether”.

When it came to what they would doabout kaizen in the future, someparticipants said they were “committedand raring to go” and that they arestarting eight “hothouses” in 1994.Others said that they were forming a“manufacturer’s college” and, withhelp from the Kaizen Institute, wouldmake dramatic improvements in theirplants.

Comments on KaizenNobody can quarrel with the idea ofproducing improvements. A policy ofgradual, continuous improvement, atlittle cost, has attractions for manycompanies. The cost may be greaterthan appears. Introducing improve-ments quickly may be good for moraleand retain momentum but assessingresults too soon afterwards may lead tofalse conclusions, to the disadvantageof the practitioner and to the detrimentof the kaizen concept. One must guardagainst changes which may turn out tobe only temporary improvementsresulting from change as such. The“Hawthorne Effect”, discovered in thefamous 1920s experiments, showedthat output increased when a changewas introduced and again when thechange was reversed. Much of thekaizen methodology appears to begood old-fashioned workstudy. If thiswere expressly stated it could embracethe substantial knowledge recorded inthe workstudy literature and in theaccumulated experience. All of thekaizen philosophy can be applied toassembling operations. Automatedassembling may appear to fall outsidethe scope of kaizen, if only becauseimprovement without significantexpenditure is one of its cornerstones,but it does not ignore this activity. Ofcourse, automated assembling can besubjected to continuous improvement.Simple improvements should be madefirst. Ejection should be automatedbefore parts placing. The simplestmethod of fastening should beemployed. Kaizen goes hand-in-handwith design for manufacture andassembly.

16 Assembly Automation

Operators discussing the refined assembling method with PHL’s managing director, Steve Marshall

New layout

Comments on the WorkshopParticipants and PHL staff workedenthusiastically and hard. Two teamsachieved useful results; those of Team3 were initially disappointing. It wasimpressive how much could be devisedand implemented in no more than threedays. That time was not enough torefine the improvements adequately orto establish working patterns thatreflected the value of the potentialbenefits. The changes made wereneither gradual nor small, in relation tothe size and resources of PHL. Team 3wasted a good deal of time on thesecond day while at cross-purposesduring discussions on methods andobjectives, which showed that the“Training Day”, while extensive andthorough, did not provide allparticipants with the concepts neededto enable them to work through akaizen project efficiently. Worse,because this team happened to have nomember experienced in time study, theoperations were timed at instances andin a manner which would perhaps havebeen avoided by an experienced time-study practitioner and this may wellaccount, at least in part, for theunfavourable conclusions reached.

The Kaizen Institute ofEurope (KIE)This institute was set up in 1991 toprovide consultancy support toEuropean companies wishing todevelop kaizen activities. It has 12consultants of its own and can draw onthe experience of over 30 Japaneseconsultants. It offers gemba kaizenworkshops, consultancy and publicseminars. It has offices in London,Paris and Frankfurt and has undertakenwork in the UK, France, Belgium,Spain, Italy and Germany. In Germanyprojects carried out strictly in thekaizen spirit are illegal, according tothe Betriebsverfassungsgesetz (BasicCompany Working Law). Kaizen callsfor prompt implementation of gembachanges. The law demands 14 days’notice to be given to the Works Councilof any such proposed change. If theWorks Council disapproves theproposal goes back and forth within thecompany and may finish up in theIndustrial Court; meanwhile the kaizenspirit will have been defeated on thisoccasion. If co-operatively minded, theWorks Council can waive its right toobject to a change.

HospitalityThe hospitality offered by PaddyHopkirk Ltd in the course of theworkshop deserves special mention.This relatively small company madeexcellent facilities available and took agreat deal of trouble to makeparticipants feel welcome and at homethroughout the five days. Thechairman, Mr Paddy Hopkirk, waspresent whenever he could be and gavethe teams much encouragement. Theinevitable interruptions of thecompany’s activities by the teams wereaccepted with good grace and therewas friendliness throughout. There wasan enjoyable pre-Christmas dinner onthe evening of the fourth day.

Notes and Reference1. Imai, M., Kaizen – The Key to Japan’s

Competitive Success, McGraw-HillPublishing, London and New York,1986.

2. Paddy Hopkirk Ltd, Eden Way, PagesIndustrial Park, Leighton Buzzard,Bedfordshire LU7 8TZ. Tel: 0525850800; Fax: 0525 850808.

3. The Kaizen Institute of Europe, 4Tavistock Place, London WC1H9RA. Tel: 071 713 0407; Fax: 071713 0403.

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