Chapter - 2

^l(fview of Literature

• chapter-2 ^^^^^^==^^^=^^=^= ^^vkw of Literature

The literature pertaining to the "Development and Validation of Bio-intensive

Integrated Pest Management Modules for Vegetable Crops" is reviewed hereunder

appropriate headings.

Survey on pest and diseases management on Agricultural crops including vegetables

Survey conducted in the Eastern dry zone of Kamataka among chrysanthemum

growers revealed that 59.00 per cent of them belonged to middle age group

(Chandregowda, 1997). Angadi (1999) conducted a study in Bagalkot district of

Kamataka and reported that majority of the pomegranate growers (65%) were middle

aged. The respondents below 35 years of age were 18.75 per cent, while 16.25 per cent of

them were of old age. Vijayakumar (1999) from his study on floriculturists of Bangalore

district indicated that 38 per cent of the rose growers belonged to the young age group,

whereas 45 per cent of them belonged to middle age group and only 17 per cent of them

belonged to old age group. Karpagam (2000) conducted a study in Erode district of Tamil

Nadu and indicated that majority of the turmeric growers (70.83%) belonged to middle

aged group. Sunil Kumar (2004) from his study on tomato growers of Belgaum district of

Kamataka indicated that majority of the tomato growers (53.30%) belonged to middle

age group.

Vijayakumar (1999) in his study on rose growers in Bangalore district revealed

that 22 per cent of the rose growers were illiterates. More per cent of them were studied

upto high school (42.00%), followed by middle school (20.00%), pre-university college

(11.00%), primary school (4.00%) and graduation (1.00%), respectively. Palaniswamy

and Sriram (2000) in their study to measure extension participation of farmers revealed

that majority of the farmers belonged to medium education level (53.06%), while 21.77

and 25.17 per cent belonged to low and high education levels, respectively. Moulasab

7

• Cfuipter-2 = = = ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ = ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ = (^^view of Literature

(2004) studied that mango growers of North Kamataka indicated that more than 23.00 per

cent of growers were educated upto primary school followed by higher secondary school

(19.16%) and 4.16 per cent of them were illiterates.

Vijayakumar (1999) from his study on floriculturists of Bangalore revealed that

75 per cent of the rose growers belonged to small farmers category, followed by medium

land holding (23.00%) and big (2.00%) farmers category. Shashidhar (2003) from his

study on socio-economic profile of drip irrigation farmers in Shimoga and Davanagere

district of Kamataka state revealed that comparatively more number of farmers (46.67%)

belonged to semi-medium land holding category, followed by medium (32.22%) and

small land holding categories (18.89%).

In Kolar district of Kamataka farmers were having low (30.00%), medium

(28.67%) and high (41.33%) level of knowledge on pests and disease management in

tomato crop (Venkatesh, 2002). Study conducted in Thiruvannamalai district of Kerala

reported that majority of rice growers possessed the knowledge of Pest Management

practices (78.6%) (Parthasarathi and Santha Govind, 2002). Among the IPM components

comparatively more number of farmers have knowledge of cultural methods (42.37%),

followed by chemical methods (31.24%), biological methods and physical methods

(11.67%) in the cultivation of rice crop. In a study carried out in Kanyakumari district of

Tamil Nadu had indicated that 59.16 per cent of the respondents possessed medium level

of knowledge and 28.33 per cent of the respondents had low level of knowledge on

various dimensions of pests and pesticides (Darling and Vasanthkumar, 2004).

Study on tomato growers of Belgaum district revealed that 59.17 per cent of the

respondents were occasionally listening agricultural programmes through radio, whereas,

30.00 per cent of them viewed agricultural programmes through television occasionally

and 70.86 and 85.00 per cent of them never used to read the newspapers and farm

magazines, respectively (Sunil Kumar, 2004).

• Cfictpter- 2 =============^^= <Kgview of Literature

The National Sample Survey (Glendenning et al. 2010) showed that 60 per cent of

farmers had not accessed any source of information on modem technology to assist in

their farming practices. Of those who had sourced information, 16 per cent received it

from other progressive farmers, followed by input dealers (13.1 %), radio (13 %), TV

(9.3 %), and newspapers (7 %). Bailey et al (2009) observed that many farmers do make

use of suitable pest management techniques and that their choice of IPM portfolio

appears to be jointly dictated by farm characteristics and government policy. Results also

indicate that portfolio choice does affect the number of subsequent insecticide

applications per crop.

Iqbal et al. (1996) observed that lack of adequate knowledge on the natural

predators and parasites, lack of adequate knowledge on the economic threshold level of

different pests, inability to apply pesticides in time, excessive use of synthetic

pyrethroids, non availability of bio-pesticides were the major constraints in adopting

integrated pest management practices in cotton. Shivaraj (1996) reported that non

availability of pheromone traps, predators and NPV, lack of knowledge in selecting IPM

practices, lack of technical guidance and lack of printed materials were the major

constrains which come in the way of adoption of IPM practices. Sangram (1997)

observed that red gram growers were facing problems of non-availability of IPM

materials in the market (28.24%) and hinders the adoption of IPM practices. Katole et al.

(1998) revealed that majority of respondents (80.67%) lack the knowledge about

biological control. Around eighty per cent (78.67%) stated that cost of insecticides were

exorbitant, followed by 69.33 per cent of the respondents faced the difficulties of lack of

knowledge about plant protection measures. Chitnis et al. (2000) reported the constraints

of non-availability of inputs (19%), pheromone trap (14%) abiotic agents (12%) and non­

availability of IPM lab at taluk level. Study on constraint analysis of tomato growers in

the Kolar district reported that non-availability of IPM material/input in the market

(48.00%), lack of technical knowledge and guidance about IPM (44.67%) and non­

availability of sufficient credit (40.67%) were the problems faced by respondents in the

adoption of IPM practices (Gandhi, 2002).

• Cdapter- 2 ^=^^=^=^===^^=== (g^view of Literature

Talekar and Shelton (1993) mentioned that in many countries, the adoption of

IPM is hindered because many farmers cannot differentiate pests and beneficial

organisms. Although alternatives to physical counting had been looked into, such as the

yellow trap and pheromone trap, these tended to have limited predictive utility.

IPM module studies involving bio-pesticides and pheromones on Agricultural crops

including vegetable crops

The conceptualization of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) had started with the

discovery of pest resistance to pesticides during the early 1950s. IPM was first referred to

as an integrated control mechanism by Stem et al. (1959) - as applied pest control, which

combined and integrated biological and chemical controls. Over the years, IPM has

evolved to encompass every activity that influences not only the pests but all the living

beings - man, animal, plant and environment. Thus, the IPM is a broad ecological

approach which aims at keeping pest population below economic threshold level by

blending more than one method of pest control such as, cultural, mechanical, biological,

chemical and legislative in a compatible and environmentally sound manner

(Lakshminarayan, 1998). This method is considered to be economical, effective,

practical, protective and eco-friendly (Anonymous, 2002). Frisbie and Smith (1991)

proposed a switch to "biologically intensive" IPM or "biointensive" IPM. Biointensive

IPM would rely mainly on biological control and the industry would develop biorational

pesticides more easily integrated into biointensive IPM systems.

During the past decade, the industry has also ventured into the production of bio-

pesticides and natural enemies of pests. Over a dozen of industrial units in India are now

producing and marketing products based on botanicals (Azadirachtin), pathogens,

parasites and predators (Bacillus thuringiensis, NPV, Verticillium, Beauveria,

Trichogramma, Bracon, Chrysopa, Coccimllid, etc.) against insect pests and

Trichoderma, Pseudomonas, Paecilomyces, etc. against plant pathogens. Other biological

products such as pheromones and mechanical devices such as light traps that help

monitor and suppress pests are also now available in the market (Anonymous, 2002).

10

• CHapter- 2 ==^^^=^^==^^=^^= (^gview of Literature

Smith (2011), pointed out that the bio-pesticide market was expanding annually at

approximately 10 per cent while the market for conventional pesticides lagged at around

2 per cent growth. The biopesticide market value has rocketed from US$0.9 billion in

2000 to over US$2.0 billion currently. He projects an overall increase in biopesticide

market value to US$2.7 billion by 2015. He pointed out that biopesticides fit into IPM

approaches where, when used together with conventional pesticides, they can increase

efficiency, raise yields and decrease the overall chemical impact. David (2008)

mentioned that the growth rate for biopesticides over the next ten years has been forecast

at 10-15 per cent per annum in contrast to 2.5 per cent for chemical pesticides. The

major components used under these are (a) bacteria, (b) fungi, (c) nuclear polyhedrosis

viruses, (d) neem, (e) pheromones, and (f) parasitoids and predators.

Bacteria, Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki is one of the earliest biopesticides

used as a spray formulation for control of a variety of pests the world over for more than

five decades. Bt was also found to be effective when combined with entomopathogenic

fungi such as Metarhizium and Beauveria, resulting in better grain yield (Kale and Men,

2008). Other Bt-crops like Bt-brinjal, Bt-rice and Bt-tomato are at various stages of

regulatory trials in India (Manjunath, 2007). Pseudomonas fluorescens, has been found to

be effective in the control of Panama wilt in banana, blister blight in tea, root rot in

groundnut, root-knot nematode of grapevine, damping off in tomato and pepper

(Ramamoorthy et ah, 2002). In potato, seed-tuber treatment with P. fluorescens along

with Trichoderma viride and also soil application of these reduced the late blight

incidence significantly, resulting in excellent germination (95%) and higher yield

(Basue/a/.,2001).

Entomopathogenic fungi, the natural incidences of different entomofiingal

bioagents such as Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, Verticillium lecanii,

Paecilomyces fumosoroseus and Hirsutella thompsonii have been reported from different

parts of the country on various crop pests, but very limited efforts have been made to

establish their efficacy under field conditions by developing effective formulation.

11

• Cfiapter-2 ===^=^=^=^=^== (Review of Literature

Fungal pathogen particularly Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, Verticillium

lecanii and Nomuraea rileyi have been found promising in the control of several

agricultural pests (Lingappa et al., 2005). Ghosh et al. (2007) studied the efficacy of

Myco-Jaal TM 10% SC, commercial formulation of B. bassiana registered for the first

time in India. Under fanners' field conditions, application of Myco-Jaal (@2ml/litre) was

found to reduce the larval population of diamond-back moth (Plutella xylostella) by

55.1% over control for upto 25 days after treatment and this was nearly on par with

Indoxicarb-14.5%SC (60.0%). However, in terms of cost-benefit ratio, Myco-Jaal was

superior. When it was used in combination with Indoxicarb-14.5%SC, it gave better

control (62.63%) of the pest leading to an additional yield of 6.8 tonnes/ha over control

(48.96 t/ha). The field efficacy of M. anisopliae and B. bassiana was evaluated from

1999 to 2001 against the white grub, Holotricha serrata, in potato (Bhagat et al, 2003).

Trichoderma viride is the most popular and widely used biopesticide being

produced by many companies and sold as 1.0% WP while T. harzianum is produced by

few companies in the form of 0.5%, 1% and 12%WP. The field efficacy of T. viride and

T. harzianum has been extensively studied in different crop ecosystem with various

delivery systems like seed treatment, nursery bed treatment, root dip or rhizome treatment

and soil treatment by enriching farm yard manure (FYM) with Trichoderma inoculum

along with available oil cake. They have given good control of diseases affecting roots

(root rot) or seedlings (leaf blight) of chili (67.7%), beans (95.3%). cotton (87.6%),

pigeon pea (35.6%). peas (61.9%), betel vine, banana, etc. In Chilli, the combined

application of T. viride and T. harzianum suppressed the root rot disease by upto 67.66%

which was on par with copper-oxy-chloride (0.3%) treatment (Bhat, et al, 2004). In

beans, the integration of T. harzianum as soil application (5 g/kg) and sub-lethal dose of

carbendazim (0.02%) as seed treatment (1x10 8 conidia/ml) significantly reduced the dry

root rot incidence (95.3%) over soil treatment (91.5%) and seed treatment alone (86.5%)

(Rajeswari et a/., 1999). Similarly, the usage of T. viride @6 gm/kg of seeds improved the

seed germination, plant height, root length, root nodule number and yield, and reduced

plant mortality and disease caused by Rhizoctonia solani in beans (Dubey and Patel,

12

• chapter- 2 ^ = = = = = ^ = ^ = = = ^ (Rgview of Literature

2002). Field study was conducted on pigeon pea in 14 farmers' fields at Bacharach

district, Uttar Pradesh, during 1999-2000 to evaluate integrated pest management (IPM)

modules against Fusarium wilt {Fusarium udum) with T. viride and the results were very

encouraging with a Cost-benefit ratio of 1:3.06 (Singh et al, 2003). The pre- and post-

monsoon treatment of T. harzianum at the rate of 50gm/vine along with FYM and neem

cake was found to increase the yield up to 50.00% as revealed by the studies carried out

by IISR, Calicut (Rajan, et al, 2002). Ramarethinum (2003) also mentioned that

Trichoderma and the bacteria like Pseudomonas are being used as disease control agent

of various fungal and bacterial plant diseases.

Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus, work on insect viruses in India was initiated as early

as 1968 with the report of nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) from Helicoverpa armigera

(Patel et al, 1968), a pest of national importance and Spodoptera litura (Dhandapani

et al, 1992), a polyphagous pest attacking several crops. The usefulness of the

baculoviruses, particularly the Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV) of the old world

bollworm (Or tomato fruit borer), Helicoverpa armigera and that of the tobacco

caterpillar, Spodoptera litura, has been extensively studied and found to give good

control of these pests infesting different crops like cotton, chickpea, pigeon pea, oilseeds,

tomato and other vegetable crops in large scale field demonstrations under certain

favourable conditions. These have been strongly recommended in the IPM of these pests.

It was evaluated under farmers' field conditions on tomato against H. armigera by Indian

Institute of Horticultural Research (IIHR), Bangalore. Three sprays HaNPV @ 250

LE/'ha were given at .weekly interval which resulted in reduction of the fruit borer

incidence to 2.62% in the NPV sprayed plot as compared to 21.2% in the controlled plots.

The mean yield recorded in the NPV sprayed plots was 46.6 t/ha as compared to 25.9 t/ha

in the control plots. The mean net return in the NPV sprayed plot was f 1,03, 574/ ha as

compared to ?36,138 / ha in the control plots (Krishnamoorthy et al, 2003). Control of

S. litura infesting various crops such as tobacco, cotton, cauliflower, cabbage, chilli,

castor and groundnut using NPV alone or in combination with low concentrations of

insecticides was studied and found to give good results (Jayaraj et al, 1981; Dhandapani

13

• Cddpter- 2 ===^=:^=^==^=^==^ ^^vieu> of Literature

et al., 1993). Around 50 tonnes of Helicoverpa NPV are being marketed, the maximum

utilization being in vegetable crops followed by pulses and commercial crops like cotton.

NPV is recommended as one of the major inputs in the IPM programmes of the various

states like Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Kamataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and

Andhra Pradesh where it is made available to the farmers at a 50 per cent subsidized cost.

Farmers seem to have realized the benefits of NPV and there is an increasing demand for

this product (Vivek Singhal, 2003).

Pheromones : Since the first chemical identification of an insect pheromone by

Butenandt et al. (1959), many hundreds of pheromones have been identified (Am et al.,

1997; Hardie and Minks, 1999). A great deal of research has been undertaken concerning

use of pheromone in pest management as tool of biological control. Pheromones are now

widely used to monitor the abundance of pest populations and for controlling them by the

techniques of mating disruption and mass trapping in many crops worldwide (Howse

et al., 1998). The word pheromone (Greek pherein, to carry; hormon, to excite or to

stimulate) was defined by Karlson and Luscher (1959) as 'substances which are secreted

to the outside by an individual and received by a second individual of the same species in

which they release a specific reaction, for example, a definite behaviour or development

process'. Way back in 1979, Pest Control (India) Private Limited, in association with the

Directorate of Plant Protection Quarantine and Storage, Govt, of India; Directorate of

Agriculture Aviation; Cornel of USA; and Indian Cotton Mills Federation, Mumbai,

carried out large scale field trials to demonstrate the utility of mating disruption

technology against the pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella, in the cotton fields at

Bhatinda, Punjab (India). The pheromone was used in the form of hollow-fiber with

controlled release technology. The studies demonstrated successful control of the pest

leading to an increased yield of about 34 per cent. However, no fiirther attempts were

made as the mating disruption technology was not available indigenously and importation

was very costly. Pheromones have been identified for over 7000 species of insects and

are currently being used for monitoring and control of over 200 insect pests worldwide.

However, in India, 14 pheromone based products are commercially available to the

14

• chapter-2 ^==^=^===^===^= <J(^view of Literature

farmers, mainly as monitoring tools. In recent years, the most widely used pheromone

traps and lures are for monitoring or mass trapping of the following pests: Helicoverpa

arrnigera on cotton and other crops (Kumar and Shivakumar, 2003; Nandagopal et al.,

2003); Spodoptera litura (Mahalingam et al., 2003); Plutella xylostella (diamond-back

moth) (Prasad and Guerrero, 2001); Scirpophaga incertulas (rice yellow stem borer)

(Krishnaiah et al, 2000); Leucinodes orbonalis (brinjal fruit and shoot borer)

(Krishnakumar et al, 2006; Singh et al, 2007; Bhanu et al, 2007); Rhynchophorus

ferrugeneus (red palm weevil) (Faleiro, 2004; Abraham et al, 2002; Jayanth et al, 2007);

Oryctes rhinoceros (coconut rhinoceros beetle) (Jayanth, 2007); and Chilo

sacchariphagus indicus (sugarcane intemode borer) (Easwaramoorthy et al, 2003;

Yadav et al, 2007; Jayanth et al, 2007). Approximately 55 kg of pheromone concentrate

of various insects per annum have been utilized by the Indian farmers. Most of this is

utilized for monitoring purpose and to some extent for mass trapping.

Sex Pheromones: Sex pheromone alters the behaviour of one or both members of the

mating pair, thereby regulating the different stages of mating process. The first

pheromone to be identified was the sex pheromone of the silkworm moth, Bombyx mori,

in 1959 (Butenandt et al, 1959). Since then, sex pheromones have been identified in

several hundred species of Lepidoptera (http://www.pherobase.com) and other insect

orders (Hardie and Minks, 1999). Sex pheromones are mostly produced by females and

in some case by males, according to species (Hildebrand, 1995). Since the identification

of the first insect pheromone there has been a continuing interest in behaviour-modifying

chemicals and their potential role in integrated pest management. Many early studies

concentrated on pheromones used by social insects, but subsequently attention has turned

to non-social insects, especially members of the Lepidoptera and Coleoptera. Pheromones

are used commercially in two main ways for indirect control (monitoring) and for direct

control (mating disruption, mass trapping or lure and kill) (McVeigh et al, 1993; Jutsum

and Gordon, 1989 and Hall, 1995). The semiochemicals that have been used most

successfully in pest control are lepidopteran sex pheromones and the aggregation

pheromones of Coleoptera (Howse et al, 1998 and Ridgway et al, 1990). Over 1500

15

= Cfiapter-2 ======^=^=^^=s= (^^view of Literature

moth sex pheromones have been identified, and a valuable web-based list is updated

frequently (http://www.nysaes.comell.edu/pheronet/ and http://www.pherobase.com).

Pheromones relevant to a range of agricultural systems have been reviewed recently

(Hardie and Minks, 1999). Inscoe et al. (1990) reported that on a worldwide basis, the

number of insect species for which pheromones are commercially available and used in

indirect control to be more than 200, whereas for direct control, there are less than twenty

pheromone formulation registered and used commercially.

Monitoring: Miller and McDougall (1973) gave description about an ideal monitoring

trap, where adult insect catch will always be directly proportional to the surrounding

population, so that the catch provides a useful estimate of insect density. Lures need to be

designed to attract insects in a predictable fashion, which are frequently at a low density.

Catches in pheromone traps are often significantly affected by environmental conditions

such as wind speed, temperature, rainfall and humidity and even moonlight. Trap efficacy

can also vary with population density, generally decreasing as density and competition

from natural pheromone sources increases. There are some technological aspects in the

development and use of monitoring systems. These include the design of the attractant

release system, trap design and deployment system. For example, the trap design and

deployment variables which need to be considered include: lure, physical shape, colour,

durability, trapping surface, position in the crop and biology of the pest (Suckling, 2000;

Howse et al, 1998). Rubber septa, polyethylene vial or other passive carriers

(formulations) are commonly used in traps as an effective reservoir for the

semiochemicals. However, the release rate from many substrates cannot be controlled

readily, and changes significantly with time and with temperature. New dispensers are

mostly based on polymers or laminated materials to overcome these problems. The new

developments also protect the components from UV light, which can otherwise lead to

degradation or isomerisation of synthetic pheromone lures (Howse et al, 1998).

Advantages of pheromone-baited traps are that they are cheap and easy to construct and

maintain, they are generally very sensitive to low population densities, and they are

specific for the target pest. One disadvantage of sex pheromone traps for Lepidoptera is

16

• Cfiapter- 2 = = = ^ = = ^ = ^ = ^ = ^ = ^ <l^gview of Literature

that generally the male moths are attracted to the trap whereas it is the female that is

laying the eggs and the subsequent larvae that do the damage (Wall, 1989). The most

useful characteristic of pheromones traps is that they catch selectively at low population

densities. It has been shown many times they will catch individuals of the species under

investigation earlier than other available sampling methods and in many cases there are

no other sampling methods suitable for the adult stage. Pheromone traps for monitoring

are cheap to produce, particularly since the lure contains so little chemical and can

therefore be sold to growers or advisory extension services at a price which is not only

reasonable but also represents a tiny fraction of the value of the crop (Wall, 1989).

Groundnut leaf-miner, Aproaerema modicella had become a serious pest of groundnut in

Madhya Pradesh, India. Seasonal activity of the same was studied by Das (1999) in the

west Nimer Valley, using pheromone trapping. Significant positive correlations were

observed between trap catches and morning & evening relative humidity and the number

of rainy days. He suggested that the results indicated that the pheromone traps may be a

promising tool for monitoring A. modicella in groundnut fields. Reddy and Urs (1996)

demonstrated that, for the diamond back moth, Plutella xylostella, pheromone baited

sticky traps caught most moths when placed 30 cm above the crop canopy, and that catch

was significantly reduced after 28 days of field exposure. Importantly they also found

that synthetic lures attracted similar numbers of adult male moths as ten virgin female

moths suggesting that the synthetic pheromone could have considerable potential for use

in monitoring and control. Reddy and Guerrero (2000) subsequently established an

economic threshold based on pheromone trap catch of eight moths per night. Sreedhar

(1983) monitored the activity of S.litura moths in cabbage fields using sex pheromones

and observed the peak catches during February and March. He also observed positive

correlation between egg mass counts and moth catches of 5". litura in pheromones traps

on cabbage crop.

Mass trapping: Jianwei et al. (2003) defined mass trapping as a technique that involves

placing a higher number of traps in the crop field in various strategic positions to remove

a sufficiently high proportion of individuals from the pest population to achieve the

17

• Cfiapter-2 ===^==^==^=^==^==- (^^xdew of Literature

required level of protection. The application of pheromone traps to control insect pest by

mass trapping has been particularly successful against Coleoptera using traps baited with

aggregation pheromones. This involves deploying pheromone traps at a much higher

density than they would be for monitoring purposes. Jianwei et al. (2003) also reported

that the efficiency of mass trapping using synthetic sex pheromone for the control of rice

stem borer, Chilo suppressalis was evaluated in 1999 in China. But Hall (1995)

mentioned that control of Lepidoptera by mass trapping using traps baited with sex

pheromones has been predictably less successful because the traps only catches male

moths and the reproductive capacity of the female moths is generally high (Hall, 1995).

Anon (2008) indicated that the possibility of sex pheromone trap catches could be used as

a monitoring and surveillance tool for timing of intervention against H. armigera in

tomato. The population of adult male moths of fruit and shoot borer of brinjal were

drastically reduced by the use of sex pheromones. Occurrence of single peak during the

fourth week of April offered opportunity for the management of the pest by utilizing the

early warning system. Chandramohan (1995) found that DBM moth catch was more in

summer months and it was positively correlated with pupal population in the field.

IPM approach: Vegetable farmers obtained 72 per cent increased yields through better

management of pests and augmenting natural enemies (Ranga Rao et al., 2009). The

newer technologies and practices embedded in IPM provide better protection against

insect pests, improve crop yields and net benefits to the farmers (Krishna Moorthy and

Krishna Kumar, 2004). IPM practices enabled reduction in the number of chemical

sprays (Dhaliwal and Arora, 1996). ICRISAT (2000) study showed that the biopesticide

plots gave similar or higher yields (2 to 76% in tomato) compared to the plots where

chemical pesticides were used. The same study also showed cost reduction of 21 to 55

per cent in IPM over control. Farmer-participatory studies in Asia have shown a 21 to

100% reduction in pesticide use due to adoption of IPM. Farmers adopted parts of the

package, if not the entire package (Sharma, 2006).

18

• CHapter- 2 ^ = = = = ^ = ^ = = ^ = ^ ^ ^ = ^ = ^ (Review of Literature

IPM studies on Brinjal: IPM against brinjal pests using insecticide mixtures and natural

enemies were evaluated by Naitam and Mali (2001). Rath and Bijayeeny Dash (2005)

found out that the per cent fruit infestation (number basis) was 13.07 and 6.56 for

summer and kharif seasons, 2004 under IPM plots and the corresponding figures in non

IPM plots were 43.34 and 27.30 per cent, respectively. The cost benefit ratio was more

for IPM plots (1:1.81 and 1:2.95) for summer and kharif, 2004 over non IPM plots

(1:1.03 and 1:1.80) during both the seasons. Chiranjeevi et al. (2005) evaluated IPM

modules using different chemical combinations and reported that spraying at 15 days

intervals from flower initiation with NSKE 4%, cypermethrin or profenofos 0.1 per cent

along with IPM package for effective management of BFSB. Maximum BFSB damage

and mite incidence was observed on farmers' practice, while the minimum damage and

incidence was observed in the IPM plots. IPM plots included seed treatment with

Pseudomonas fluorescem, soil application of neem cake and yellow sticky traps (Anon.

2008). Significant differences in pheromone trap catches and fruit damage were attained

four and two weeks respectively after IPM treatments began in the mature crop whereas

in the immature crop significant differences were not observed for the first eight to nine

weeks respectively (Cork et al, 2003). The use of sex pheromone is a potential

component in the BFSB IPM program (Srinivasan, 2008).

IPM studies on Cabbage: The combination of low concentration of fungal pathogen

N. rileyi @ 1.6 x 108 conidia/ml + endosulfan 0.03 per cent effectively brought down the

larval population of P.xylostella and S. litura in cabbage (Gopalkrishnan and Mohan,

1992). Pawar and Lawande (1995) opined that planting of mustard as a trap crop in

cabbage gave maximum cost: benefit ratio of 1:6 and recorded 75 per cent higher yield

of marketable heads than untreated. Similarly, Nataraju et al. (1998) reported that

cabbage raised in IPM plots with mustard as trap crop and spraying on an average eight

times with insecticides at recommended dose realized 152 per cent more net returns as

compared to farmer's practice in which on an average 25 sprays were taken up.

Dandapani et al. (2006) revealed that non-chemical methods adopted plots recorded

lower population of DBM (0.72 per plant) with high yield of 27.19 t and B:C ratio of

19

= = = Cfiapter- 2 ============================ (^gview of Literature ^ ^ ^ ^

3.46:1 when compared with untreated check. In all, judicious integration of egg

parasitoids, larval parasitoids, insect pathogens and safer insecticides effectively

suppressed the DBM population through biocontrol means on cabbage (Krishnamurthy,

2004). The yield of cabbage under 1PM practices was recorded to be 32.25 tones per

hectare, which is nearly 15 times more than yield in non-IPM plots. The non-IPM

cabbage plots registered only 21.25 tones per hectare. The total cost of protectioji and

market price of the yield was calculated to be X 16075.00 and ?96750.00 in case of IPM

plots and ?18435.00 and ^63750.00 in case of non-IPM plots, respectively. The net profit

with IPM practices was calculated to be ? 80675.00 and the corresponding value with

non-IPM plot was ? 45315. Similarly, the net profit with IPM practices in late season

cabbage was calculated to be T 54125.00 and the corresponding value for non-IPM plots

was X 22000.00 respectively excluding the cost of production (Singh et al., 2003).

Chakraborti (2001) reported the integrated treatment with inclusion of double spray of

phosphamidon + neem cake + azadirachtin was the best treatment against DBM and

aphids. This treatment was significantly superior to chemical check and also was quite

safe to predator coccinellids, syrphids and spiders. Economics of various IPM modules

against DBM on cabbage was worked out. Among these modules M3 comprising of

endosulfan (1.25 1/ha) + beta-cyfluthrin (7.5 ml/ha) +azadirachtin (2 It/ha) gave a benefit

cost ratio of 9.75:1 and 10.71:1 in two years with a pooled mean of 10.25:1. Minimum

BC ratio was recorded when the crop was treated (Module M6) with diflubenzuron (200

g/ha) + spinosad (15 g a.i./ha) + azadirachtin (2 1/ha) (Shukla and Ashok Kumar, 2003).

The IPM technology using Indian mustard as a trap crop, spraying of neem and pongamia

soaps and pulverized neem seed powder extract for the control of major pests of cabbage

was found to be economically viable as it enhanced the yield by 7.2 per cent and reduced

the cost by 13.33 per cent and increased the net returns by 44 per cent (Gajanana et al.,

2004).

The greatest Diamondback moth (DBM) damage on cabbage occurs when the

infestation takes place in young plants, the larvae develop mainly on the outer leaves. A

population of 4 or more medium sized DBM larvae (3'̂ '̂ or 4* instar) / plant in a nursery

20

• Cfiapter-2 ^^===^=^^^^===^^^^= <R^view of Literature

could render seedlings untransplantable and 10 larvae / plant up to one month after

planting and 20 larvae / plant 1 to 2 months after planting caused economic loss and

required insecticidal application (Prasad, 1963; Jayarathnam, 1977). This was fiirther

confirmed as insect attack 40, 50 and 60 days after planting had a significant negative

correlation (Srinivasan, 1984). Therefore, greater attention is required to save the crop

fi-om DBM damage during this period. But based on path coefficient analysis it was

estimated that DBM infestation 55 days after planting has the maximum negative direct

effect in reducing yield (Krishna Kumar et al, 1986). Therefore, for biological control,

efforts should be concentrated to protect the early stages of the cabbage.

Performance of the IPM package was highly effective in all IPM-CRSP project

fields. Pest infestations in IPM fields of different sites ranged fi-om 2.1% to 3.2% as

compared to 6.5% to 9.8% in non-IPM fields. As a result of very low pest infestations,

the IPM fields produced 15.8 t/ha to 21.9 t/ha higher yields in cabbage (Anon, 2008). In

view of the increasing concern over environmental pollution, unsatisfactory chemical

control of pests, pesticide hazards to men and animals, biological control with reference

to microbial control using fungi, bacteria, virus, etc. has been recognized as one of the

important approaches in the recent past. Commercial preparations of Bacillus

thuringiensis (Bt) Berliner such as Thuricide HPSC and Dipel WP were more promising

at 1 and 1.5 g product lit"' of water than Bactospeine or Thuricide 90TS (Varma and Gill,

1977). Delfin also gave very good control of the pest (Asokan et al, 1996;

Sannaveerappanavar and Viraktamath, 1997; Malathi et al, 1999). But there were

indications that the population of DBM in the Punjab and Delhi regions has developed

more tolerance to Bt than the DBM population of Kamataka (to Dipel serotype 3a, 3b and

of its components Cry lAb). Therefore, one has to very cautious in over use of 5/ for the

control of DBM. Robertson (1939) stated that a high degree of infecfion by the fiingus

Entomophthora sp. occurred only with high humidity. But, Harcourt (1963) stated the

ftingi apparently did not persist in an active form among host population except during

high humidity accompanied by heavy rainfall.

21

==^ chapter-2 ==^===^^^^===^^==^^ (Review of Literature ^^^^=

The combination of low concentration of fungus (N. rileyi) @ 1.6 x 108

conidia/ml + endosulfan (0.035%) effectively brought down the larval population of

P. xylostella when compared to check (Anon., 1993). The commercial entomopathogenic

fungal based formulation bio-power (Beanveria bassiana) gave significantly higher per

cent mortality ranging between 6.7 to 86.7 per cent (Sood et al, 2001) and 47.6 to 83.2

per cent (Ramarethinam et al, 2002) against DBM. Among the entomogenous fungi,

mortality caused by N. rileyi was inferior to B. bassiana (Vastrad et al, 2002). Fungal

pathogens can be used either singly or as one of the components in IPM since these can

be used as sprays. Paecilomyces farinosus was found infecting DBM larvae in and

around Bangalore, (the first record in the world) and Zoophthora radicans

{Entomophthora sphaerosperma) was reported for the first time in India from DBM

(Gopalakrishnan et al, 1999a). Paecilomyces farinosus (9.1 to 16.7% natural infection)

and Z. radicans (33.3 to 68.6% natural infection) could well be considered for the control

of DBM (Gopalakrishnan, et. al, 1999a; Krishnamoorthy et. al, 2000). Entomo­

pathogenic fungi such as Beauveria bassiana, B. brogniarti, Paecilomyces fumosoroseus,

Verticillium lecanii and Metarrhizium anisopliae were also found to be highly pathogenic

even to third instar larvae of P. xylostella (Gopalakrishnan, 1989; Kennedy et.al, 2001)

and the virulence of B. bassiana, P. fumosoroseus and M. anisopliae increased

significantly after the in vivo passage in the larvae of P. xylostella (Sairabanu and

Rabindra, 2001). More details were needed with entomopathogenic fungi such as

B. bassiana, B. brongniarti, P. fumosoroseus, V. lecanii and M. anisopliae. Spraying of

various fungal inoculum viz., Paecilomyces sp. (Anuradha, 1997), Zoophthora sp.

(Gopala Krishna, 1998) & Beauveria sp. (Voon et al, 1999) were found to reduce the

DBM population. A granulosis virus isolated from P. xylostella (PxGV) (Rabindra

et a/., 1996) was found capable of curtailing the development of resistance by interacting

and synergizing with the insecticides. The 3'̂ '* instar of P. xylostella was found to be

highly susceptible to GmNPV with mortality of 78.85 per cent (Parthasarathy and

Rabindra, 1999). A nuclear polyhedrosis virus obtained from P. xylostella (PxNPV) was

also evaluated under field conditions and when applied at 1.7x10^ POB/ml mixed with

22

^ ^ ^ = Cfiapter— 2 = ^ ^ = ^ ^ = = ^ ^ = ^ = = ^ ^ = ^ ^ = = ([(fview of Literature =^^^=

Indian ink as a sun light protectant gave the greatest reduction in insect population

(Padmavathamma and Veeresh, 1995). Fungi or insect viruses may replace this in order

to bring down the population immediately. This is essential as P. xylostella has developed

resistance to several insecticides (Saxena et al, 1989; Chawla and Joia, 1992; Raju,

1996; Sannaveerappanavar and Viraktamath, 1997), whereas there is no evidence to show

that the insect has developed resistance to insect pathogens such as fungi and viruses.

More studies were required with these pathogens so that they can be used for the control

of DBM as sole biocontrol tool like insecticide sprays in order to bring down the

population immediately (Krishnamurthy, 2000).

Application of four rounds of A'̂ , rileyi 3.2 x 108 conidia 1 ml + triton x -100

(0.01%) at weekly intervals during evening hours significantly brought down the

population of S. litura in tomato and beet root, whereas in cabbage the combination of

low concentration of fungus @ 1.6 x 108 conidia per ml + endosulfan 0.035 per cent

effectively brought down the larval population of 5. litura (Anon., 1993). Devi (1995)

found that soil treatment with A'̂ . rileyi conidia together with its substrate crushed

sorghum resulted in high mortality of S. litura larvae due to mycosis. Similarly N. rileyi

caused maximum mortality (36.9%) of 5. litura in groundnut field over three generations

(Sridhar and Prasad, 1996). Gloriana et al. (2001) opined that the late instars of 5. litura

was susceptible to B. bassiana and B.t at high doses of entomopathogens. The LC50

values of these were 2.9 log conidia/ml and 17.3 log cells/ml for B. bassiana and B.t.

respectively. Larvae of S. litura when treated with N. rileyi, B. bassiana under laboratory

conditions exhibited mortality which had the mycosis of both the fungal pathogens

indicating that both the fungal pathogens were effective against S. litura (Rao et al,

2006). Elanchezhyan (2006) reported that B. bassiana to be highly effective than N. rileyi

on second instar larvae of H. armigera. Similar reports were also given by Ananthi and

Pillai (2006).

Cotesia plutellae Kurdj was also found causing more than 16 -70% larval

parasitism in Anand (Yadav et al, 1975) and Bangalore (Jayarathanam, 1977, Nagarkatti

23

• Cfiopter-2 =^==^=^====^= <Rfview of Literature

and Jayanth, 1982) followed by O. sokolowskii (Nagarkatti and Jayanth, 1982) causing

28-96% parasitism (Jayarathanam, 1977). It was observed that C. plutellae was the

dominant larval parasitoid in several parts of India. It was always observed that there

existed a lack of synchronization between the incidence of DBM and the occurrence of

C. plutellae (Krishnamoorthy et al., 1990). Because of this delayed action of C. plutellae,

the DBM population is found more at the beginning of the cropping period. The full

potential of C. plutellae is hampered by the activity of secondary parasitoids such as

B. excarinata and O. sokolowskii, which are generally considered as facultative

hyperparasitoids.

The study on the DBM pheromone traps indicated that 8 and 12 males per trap per

night in cabbage and cauliflower respectively warranted an application of insecticide

(Prasad Reddy and Guerrero, 2000,2001).

IPM studies on Tomato: The adoption of IPM on tomato using African marigold as trap

crop, seedling dip with imidacloprid, soil application of neem/pongamia cake, bio-

pesticide like HaNPV spraying was found effective in insect and disease management

(Gajanana et al., 2006). They also found IPM technology was economically viable as the

yield in IPM farms were 46 per cent higher with 21 per cent lesser cost of cultivation

coupled with 119 per cent higher net returns. The net profit with IPM practices in tomato

was calculated to be ? 50600.00 and the corresponding value for non-IPM plots was

f 41000.00 which excludes the cost of production (Singh et al., 2003). The possibility

that sex pheromone trap catches could be used as a monitoring and surveillance tool for

timing of intervention against H. armigera in tomato (Khaderkhan et al., 1998).

Microbial management of H. armigera in different crops had been very

extensively reviewed by Pawar and Borikar (2005), wherein virus at a dose of 1.5-3 x

lO'̂ polyhedral occlusion bodies (POB)/ha effectively controlled Helicoverpa armigera

on crops like tomato (Mistry et al., 1984). The sprays of Ha NPV at 250 larval

equivalents/ha, has been found to be effective in controlling fruit borer. Studies at IIHR

have indicated that 3-4 applications at weekly intervals, the first spray coinciding with

24

• chapter- 2 = ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ = = ^ = ^ ^ ^ = = ^ ^ ^ = <^view of Literature

flowering, reduced pest incidence to minimum (> 5%). (Moorthy et al, 1992 and Mohan

et al, 1996). The presence of//, armigera eggs was monitored by pheromone traps on

the young leaves on the top of the plant. The main limitation, however, was its

availability and the quality of NPV supplied by the private companies. The efficacy of

HaNPV had been tested extensively in farmers fields of Kamataka by Gopalkrishnan and

Ashokan (1998) and they opined that applications of five rounds of HaNPV @ 250 LE

per ha at weekly intervals commencing from the first spray on flower initiation was

needed to check the pest very effectively on tomato. Pokharkar and Chaudhary (1999)

suggested that HaNPV (375 LE/ha) + Jaggery (1%) and HaNPV (250 LE/ ha) + Jaggery

(1%) could be compared favourably for reduction in larval population, fruit damage and

increase in total and marketable fruit yields.

IPM dissemination to farmers

IPM is knowledge intensive technology and its effective implementation requires

extension workers to have a sound understanding of the characteristics of the technology,

its target host and relationship with natural enemies, and its method of application before

the technology is delivered to the farmers (Anon, 2002). Lack of understanding of any of

these would adversely affect its adoption. The extension workers should serve as a

collaborator, consultant, and facilitator in dissemination of the knowledge, with the

farmer playing a more active role. Community participation is the key to successful

adoption of IPM, and needs to be sustained by devising an appropriate exit policy. Local

bodies, such as Panchayats, Non-Governmental Organisations, Self Help Groups, etc.

should be encouraged to shoulder this responsibility (Birthal, 2004). Although, IPM has

been accepted as the most attractive option for protection of crops from the ravages of

pests, implementation at the farmers level had been limited. Pesticides continue to

dominate and their injudicious use represents the greatest threat to IPM. For an effective

implementation strategy, it is necessary to identify the obstacles to its dissemination

including measuring, evaluating and publicizing the impacts of IPM (Singh and Sharma,

2004).

25

• Cfiapter- 2 ====^==^=^==^^ (Review of Literature

Wearing (1988) stated that "problems with the transfer of IPM technology are

today identified as a principal bottleneck limiting progress with IPM worldwide despite

rising pesticide costs and resistance problems." He also stated that the lack of extensive

educational programmes was a major barrier to IPM adoption. It had been underscored

that promoting area-wide adoption involves key elements of training, extension and

transfer of technology (Saharan et al, 1996).

Maria Maceri et al. (2007) opined that field days, pamphlets and word of mouth

transmission have strong impact on adoption of IPM among farmers. Ooi (1998)

mentioned that successful IPM programmes should be farmer-focused and non-formal

education methods such as farmer field schools (FFSs) and the Area Field Laboratory

(ARF) should be strengthened to make farmers literate in pest management practices.

Impact survey of IPM extension activities

Although studies on adoption of agricultural innovations were many (Rogers

1968), only few studies have investigated the adoption of IPM innovations by farmers

(Grieshop et al, 1988). The characteristics of any IPM technology have an important role

in farmers' adoption decisions (Adesina and Zinnah, 1993; Lapar and Pandey, 1999).

Generally, the farmers adopt those components that show immediate effect and are easily

available. Biopesticides comprise a major component of IPM and most of the

biopesticides are host-specific, slow in action and have short shelf-life. Besides,

application of some of the components is labour intensive as compared to conventional

chemical control (Birthal et al, 2000). In other words, farmers are risk averse and such

technological characteristics create an apprehension among the farming about their

efficacy to control pests. The complexity of IPM necessitates active involvement of all

the stakeholders (researchers, extension workers and farmers) to alleviate apprehensions

through participatory/ adaptive research trials.

The farmers applying IPM technologies were more willing to participate in group

activities and training programmes. Ninety-nine percent of growers relied solely on

26

• chapter- 2 ==^^==^s^=^==:^^= q^gyiew of Literature

pesticide use to control brinjal pest. Brinjal growers applied insecticides more than 23

times in a season. Six days interval between insecticide application and fruit harvest

(Anon, 2008). Pesticide dealers were the major source of information to farmers on the

selection of chemicals and application methods. On an average 61 per cent of the farmers

believed that pesticide application are harmful to farm labour, 27 per cent farmers

expressed their views that pesticide application pollute the water and air (Rashid et al,

2008).

The IPM adopters received higher economic benefits as compared to the non-IPM

farmers although their investment was much higher for crop production. The average

yields in IPM fields adopting pheromone bait trapping and soil amendments with poultry

refuse or mustard oil-cake were 18 per cent and 13 per cent higher, respectively, than that

of the non-IPM fields. Similarly, the gross returns for pheromone baiting and soil

amendment were 44 per cent and 34 per cent higher, respectively, over the non-IPM

adopters who resorted to pesticide use. As a result, the IPM adopters received higher

economic returns having an average benefit-cost ratio of 3.02 as compared to 2.26 of the

non-IPM farmers. It was obvious from the surveys that the IPM adopters were highly

impressed with the effectiveness of the IPM practices in solving the problems of crop

losses due to pest infestation. By adopting the IPM technologies they not only obtained

higher crop yields and economic returns, but they were also benefited in various social

and economic aspects (Anon, 2008).

The study was conducted by Gandhi et al (2008) in two taluks of Kolar district to

assess the adoption level of vegetable growers with respect to integrated pest

management practices of tomato crop and the study revealed that 42 per cent of the

respondent farmers were in medium adoption group of integrated pest management

practices of tomato. The study also revealed that 34.67 per cent of farmers were in low

adoption group and 23.3 percent of farmers were in high adoption group of integrated

pest management practices of tomato. Further, it also revealed that, relationship between

27

• chapter-2 ==^========== (^fvi^w of Literature

socio-psychological characters of tomato growers, the variable mass media use exhibited

positive significance, other variables namely, age, education, land holding, annual

income, extension participation, innovative proneness and scientific orientation showed

non- significant relationship with adoption level of IPM practices of tomato crop.

Many studies made it clear that not all growers adopted the IPM after the training

programme. In fact, in some cases, the adoption rate is on the decline and growers

continue to apply pesticides on a routine basis. This is despite the numerous advantages

shown in studies with regards to the benefits of the IPM programme (Sudarwohadi, 1996;

Eusebio and Rejesus, 1996 ; Loke et al, 1992 and Sivapragasam et al, 1985).

28