Julius Caesar

The Gallic CampaignMrs Graham’s Ancient History

The Pen is Mightier than the Sword

The most prolific source of evidence is Caesar’s own “ De Bello Gallico” written as a series of field reports and sent back to Rome.

Caesar’s style of writing , describing himself in the 3RD person, fails to achieve the historical objectivity but provides a clear military narrative of events. Although biased it is an extremely useful source.

Caesar’s aim in his Commentaries was to keep fresh in the minds of Romans , his outstanding achievements, thereby overshadowing any memory of his previous illegal acts.

Other sources include Plutarch’s Life of Caesar and Suetonius’ Lives of the Caesars. Both sources are very sketchy in their cover of the Gallic Wars

Numismatical Evidence- Roman Coins minted in the 50’s BC

Close enough to Rome to keep an eye on political

developments and communicatewith aides

As proconsul, he could avoid prosecution for his illegal

Acts as Consul the yearbefore

Gaul was a source of recruitment for troops and

skilled craftsmenfor swords and armor

Gaul was a country richIn natural resources and wouldLink Rome with the Atlantic

The factional nature of the many tribes of Gaul made them easy

to defeat.?????

Why Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul?

Evolution of the Roman LegionVolunteer to professional soldier

Roman Marches

One days march; 15-20 miles. Overrall length of column 22.5 milesAverage speed; 3 miles per hourTotal army makeup- based on a six legion army;Legionary troops;30,000Ancillary troops;3,500Gallic Cavalry Wing;4,000Roman cavalry;720Setvants;6,500Horses;4,720Total mules;10,000Legion Staff- ancillary troops,clerks,technicians,specialists,reserve tentage,cavalry equipment,field hospital,medical staff, veterinary staff, engineering stores, workshops.Caesar maintained that at any one time there were between 300-500 sickFood ; Daily requirement 3lbs per day per man. Each man carried 10 days rationArtillary included, siege engines, Ballistae, Caterpults and Onagers

Celtic Battle Tactics- Chariots and Chaos

Instigation and Motivation?

Caesar's campaigns in Gaul began in 58 BC, when the Helvetii and several neighboring peoples began a mass migration from their homes in Switzerland. Caesar forbade their passage through Roman territory and marched against them. Once the Helvetii had been driven back to their homes and their leader, Dumnorix, was defeated, Caesar then turned on Ariovistus and his tribe, the Sequani, who had been threatening the Aedui, allies of Rome. Ariovistus was quickly defeated in a single battle. Thus began eight successive years of largely successful campaigns that would secure the regions of Gaul for Roman control.

Justify your Actions.Helvetii on the march 58BC

“ Caesar in as much as he kept in remembrance that a Roman consul had been slaughtered, did not think that their request ought to be granted; nor was he of the opinion that men of hostile disposition, if an opportunity of marching through the province were given to them, would abstain from outrage and mischief”

De Bello Gallico- Book 1

Book 1

Read the extract and using the annotation as a guide, explain the significance of Caesar’s writings and what they reveal about him.

Caesar against the HelvetiiWho has the Advantage?

Celeritas and Clemencia

“ The battle ended, that he might be able to come up with the remaining forces, he procures a bridge to be made across the Saone. The Helvetii, confused by his sudden arrival, when they had found that he had effected in one day what they themselves had difficulty in accomplishing in twenty….send ambassadors to him.”

“ He ordered the Helvetii to return to their territories from which they had come and as there was nothing at home whereby they might support their hunger, he commanded the Allobroges to let them have a plentiful supply of corn.”

Date Place Enemy Result

58BC Nth Gaul Helvetii Defeated them at Bibracte and forced

Them back to their homeland

58BC Rhine River Suebi under

AriovistusDrove the Germans

beyond the Rhine

57BC Nth of the Seine Belgae

Nervii

The tribes

yielded to Caesar

56BC West- Quiberon Bay Venetii Under the command of Decimus Brutus, Venetii’s defeated

55BC RHINE River Germans- Usipetes, Tencteri

Annihilated the two tribes- women and children

54BC Britain Defeated King Cassivellanus

54BC Nth East Belgic tribes under

AmbiorixGauls managed to defeat1and a half legions. Caesar finally crushes them “ root and branch”

52BC Gergovia and Alesia Averni and other tribes

Led by

Vercingetorix

Starved into submission by use of siegeworks

A larger plan?

Caesar against Ariovistus 58BC

Measure of Leadership!

One constant in Caesar’s style of leadership was his ability to get the best from his men, either through leading from the front, relating to them on a personal level or inspiring them when fear or mutiny threatened.

READ CAESAR’S SPEECH TO HIS SOLDIERS.

Although we must consider the inherent bias, the proof is in the fact that throughout Caesar’s military career in the Gallic and Civil Wars, unlike other generals, no soldier ever left Caesar’s command.

Caesar against the Belgae 57BC

Read the extract from Book 2. What added aspects can we see contributing to Caesar’s success

Keeping a Tally

“The sum of all amounted to …368,000.When the census of those who returned home was taken, as Caesar commanded the number was found to be 110,000.” Book 1

“ On the basis of Caesar’s report, the Senate granted him a Supplicatio of fifteen days.. The Senate was paying him respect for the Conquest of the whole of Gaul. At the same time, it was indirectly confirming his command and the legitimacy of his wars. It was honouring him in such a way that the transgression of 59 were bound to pale. Its decision, thus represented a quite extraordinary success for Caesar, however little it meant in material terms”. C Meier

Supplicatio in ancient Rome was a solemn thanksgiving or supplication to the gods decreed by the senate: all the temples were opened, and the statues of the gods placed in public upon couches (pulvinaria) to which the people offered up their thanksgivings and prayers.

As a thanksgiving, when a great victory had been gained: it was usually decreed as soon as official intelligence of the victory had been received by a letter from the general in command. The number of days during which it was to last was proportioned to the importance of the victory. Sometimes it was decreed for only one day but more commonly for three or five days. A supplication of ten days was first decreed in honour of Pompey at the conclusion of the war with Mithridates and one of fifteen days after the victory over the Belgae by Caesar, an honour which Caesar himself says had never been granted to any one before. Subsequently a supplicatio of twenty days was decreed after his conquest of Vercingetorix. From this time the senate seems to have frequently increased the number of days out of mere compliment to the general.

A Quantitative measure of Forgiveness?????????

Caesar against the Venetii 56BC

The Roman naval tactics consisted mainly in either propelling a vessel with great force against a rival and crushing the side, or in catching hold of the hostile craft with hooks, pulling alongside, springing over on it, and settling the conflict with a hand-to-hand fight. In the sea-fight with the Veneti, who had only sailing vessels, the Roman sailors crippled the enemy's ships by cutting down the sail-yards

Delegation, Innovation and Recognition

“ One thing provided by our men was of great service..sharp hooks inserted into and fastened upon poles….When the ropes were caught by them and pulled…the yards necessarily fell down, so that all hope of the Gallic vessels of the Gallic vessels depending on their sails was taken from them”

“The rest of the contest depended on courage; in which our men decidedly had the advantage; and the more so, because the whole action was carried on in the sight of Caesar and the entire army; so that no act, a little more valiant than ordinary, could pass unobserved”.

Conference at Luca 56BCCommanding the battlefield and Roman politics simultaneously!!!!!!

The account of the conference of Luca found in most text books is that in 56 BC Caesar met with his fellow triumvirs Crassus and Pompey in Luca, along with 120 lictors (attendants and magistrates) and 200 senators, and that the triumvirate decided that

1. Pompey and Crassus would run for consul,

2 receive proconsular command in Spain and Syria respectively upon exiting office, and

3.as consuls vote to grant Caesar and extension on his term of office in Gaul.

However, understanding what really happened at this conference is of vital importance to understanding all the events leading up to the civil war. The primary sources (Dio, Appian, Plutarch, Suetonius and Cicero) all disagree at one point or another as to what truly happened at Luca in 56 B.C. or indeed whether anything happened at all.

Why are 200 Senators talking to Caesar????

Significance for CaesarTiming is everything!!!.

The extension of Caesar’s command allowed the continued immunity from prosecution.

The command was extended from March 1 54BC to January 48BC under the Sullan constitution

Although relinquishing his unique position as the only general in command of an army, his province placed his army between Pompey’s command and Rome

APPIAN“ In the meantime Caesar, who had performed the many brilliant exploits in Gaul and Britain which have been described in my Celtic history, had returned with vast riches to Cisalpine Gaul on the river Po to give his army a short respite from continuous fighting. From this district he sent large sums of money to many persons in Rome, to those who were holding the yearly offices and to persons otherwise distinguished as governors and generals, and they went thither by turns to meet him. So many of them came that 120 lictors could be seen around him at one time, and more than 200 senators, some returning thanks for what they had already received, others asking for money or seeking some other advantage for themselves from the same quarter. All things were now possible to Caesar by reason of his large army, his great riches, and his readiness to oblige everybody. Pompey and Crassus, his partners in the triumvirate, came also. In their conference it was decided that Pompey and Crassus should be elected consuls again and that Caesar's governorship over his provinces should be extended for five years more.”

Brutal and DecisiveAnnihilation and Criticism

“The Germans, when upon hearing a noise behind them, they looked and saw their families were slain…fled out of the camp…..threw themselves into the river and there perished”.

“ Caesar for those reasons, had resolved to cross the Rhine, but to cross by ships he neither deemed to be sufficiently safe, nor consisted with his own dignity or that of the Roman people. Therefore although the greatest difficulty in forming a bridge was presented to him, on account of the breadth, rapidity and depth of the river, he nevertheless considered that it ought to be attempted by him..Within ten days after the timber began to be collected, the whole work was completed.”

Cato at his Best!

Caesar invades Britain 55BC, 54BCAlthough not fruitful, Caesar gains an enormous reputation for his exploration into unknown territory.

Background and the BattlesAugust 55 BC --- Caesar (with 7th & 10th Legions + 500 Cavalry) invades Britain– “Reconnaissance in force”

– Lands at DUBRA• near DEAL on the coast of KENT

• “to learn of their localities, harbors, and landing-places”

– The landing was FIERCELY OPPOSED• “Hand-to-hand” fighting in the surf !

– Landing supported by catapults & ballistae mounted on ships

– After truce (weather deteriorating), CAESAR stays only 3 weeks then RETURNS TO GAUL for the winter

Background and the BattlesCAESAR’S Invasion Fleet:

– 800 Vessels (includes 28 warships)

– 5 Legions (approximately 20,000 troops)

– 2000 Gallic Cavalry

– TOTAL OF 23,000

CAESAR lands unopposed on 7 July 54 BC

CAESAR marches inland (leaving 10 cohorts and 300 cavalry --- total of 4,000 for base security)

Britons of the S.E. are aware of the Roman InvasionThe Storm DESTROYS 40 Ships & Damages remainderCaesar spends 10 days on repairs

19 July CAESAR sets out again on the marchEncounters Britons near old battlefield

CASSIVELLAUNUS attacksBritish Chariots cause Roman confusion --- MOBILITY & SURPRISE !Attack again repulsed

20 July CAESAR Sends out huge foraging partyCASSIVELLAUNUS boldly attacks again --- heavy Roman losses“Battle of Canterbury”

21 July CAESAR continues on to the territory of the “Trinobantes”

Phalanx versus Guerilla techniques

The very close-order drill and discipline that taught the Roman legions to battle according to plan was a hindrance in dealing with an enemy that "...never fought in close array":

"Throughout this peculiar combat, which was fought in front of the camp in full view of everyone, it was seen that our troops were too heavily weighted by their armor to deal with such an enemy: they could not pursue them when they retreated and dared not get separated from their standards. The cavalry, too, found it very dangerous work fighting the charioteers; for the Britons would generally give ground on purpose and after drawing them some distance from the legions would jump down from their chariots and fight on foot, with the odds in their favor." B.G., V, 16.

54/53BC; Troublesome revoltsA major force of five legions (half of the army in Gaul) was prepared for a second invasion of Britain in July of 54 BC. After a successful landing, the Romans marched as far as the Thames and secured tribute from several British tribes, among them the Trinovantes under Cassivellaunus

. Before a permanent camp could be established in Britain, Caesar had to return to Gaul in September, as the Belgae had convinced many Gallic tribes to rebel.

After a few skirmishes at the end of 54 BC, Caesar spent all of 53 BC subduing the resurgent Belgae and other rebellious tribes in the north such as the Nervii, Menapii, and Treveri near the Rhine, as well as the Senones and Carnutes.

A LOSS TO AMBIORIX 54BC

The Eburones under Ambiorix wiped out the Roman legions under Cotta and Sabinus. This was the Romans’ first defeat in Gaul.

They then besieged the troops under legate Quintus Cicero’s command. When Caesar heard he came to take command.

Cassius Dio“Thus Cicero learned of the approach of Caesar, and so took courage and held out more zealously. 

But the barbarians for a long time knew nothing of the assistance Caesar was bringing; for he journeyed by night, bivouacking by day in very obscure places, in order that he might fall upon them as unexpectedly as possible. But they finally grew suspicious because of the excessive cheerfulness of the besieged and sent out scouts; and learning from them that Caesar was already drawing near, they set out against him, thinking to attack him while off his guard. He learned of it in time and remained where he was that night, for the purpose of appearing to have only a few followers, to have suffered from the journey, and to fear an attack from them, and so in this manner to draw them to the higher ground. And thus it turned out; for in their contempt of him because of this move they charged up the hill, and met with so severe a defeat that they carried on the war against him no longer.”

Caesar’s words

“Considering these difficulties, I took every precaution that could be taken. Even though the troops were burning with desire for revenge, I thought it better to let go the opportunity of inflicting damage on the enemy if it could be done only at the cost of losing some of my own men. I sent messengers out to the neighboring tribes, and by offering them the prospect of booty, called on them to join me in pillaging the Eburones. My intention was to put Gauls rather than Roman legionaries at risk in the forest, and, at the same time, to overwhelm the Eburones with a huge force of men, and so wipe out that tribe and its very name, as a punishment for the great crime it had committed.”

A Rare Defeat?

In 52 BC Gergovia was the stronghold of Vercingetorix. It is famous for being the only place where Julius Caesar was defeated in the Gallic wars.

After conquering Avaricum, Caesar took six legions onward to Gergovia where he attempted a siege. He was outnumbered when the Aedui, formerly the Romans' allies, surprised Caesar by joining with Vercingetorix. As Caesar's army marched towards the great Arverni hillfort of Gergovie, Vercingetorix was setting out with his own army on the other side of the river Allier, breaking every bridge along the way to be sure the Romans could not cross over. Caesar, however, hid two legions in the woods. After Vercingetorix moved on, they rebuilt one of the bridges and went on to attempt the siege of Gergovia.

The assault failed. Caesar in his writings blames the soldiers for initiating an attack, without his orders. Whether this is true, what can be gauged is that it was only a temporary setback. Over 700 soldiers and 40 centurions were lost in the battle before Caesar drew back.

Through his determination, Caesar was able to extricate himself from this position, to regather and motivate his troops to fight again. This ability was to be seen to his advantage in the Civil War against Pompey.

Encouraged by this victory, the Gauls persisted in their revolt until their final defeat at Alesia.

Relentless determination

Through his determination, Caesar was able to extricate himself from this position, to regather and motivate his troops to fight again. This ability was to be seen to his advantage in the Civil War against Pompey.

Major General Fuller

Caesar opened his Gergovia campaign by dividing his army. His penalty was his repulse; it had revealed to all Gaul that his legions were not invincible. One thing alone saved him - his own invincibility.

  J.F.C. Fuller on Caesar's peril after defeat at Gergovia, 52 BC, p. 145.

The Battle of Alesia. Who has the advantage?

Short Term? Long Term?View the documentary and make notes on how Caesar defeated Vercingetorix

Gauls unite under Vercingetorix

Intelligence and leadership.

“ As the action was carried on in sight of all, neither a brave nor cowardly act could be concealed; both the desire of praise and the fear of ignominy, urged on each party to valor….Caesar sends at first young Brutus and afterwards Caius Fabius, his liutenant…….His arrival being known from the colour of his robe….the enemy joined battle.”

“Caesar on learning these proceedings from the deserters and captives, adopted the following system of fortification”.

Caesar’s Siege Works

Archaeological evidence at Alesia

Vercingetorix surrenders to CaesarVercingetorix would walk in the Gallic triumph in 46 in Rome before his traditional execution.

Plutarch, a favourable view!!!" .the campaigns by which he subjugated Gaul proved him to be as good a soldier and a commander as any of those who have been more admired for their leadership and shown themselves to be the greatest generals.we shall find that Caesar's achievements surpass them all. He may be considered superior to one

because of the difficulty of the country in which he fought;

to another because of the extent of his conquests;

to another because of the number and strength of the enemy forces which he defeated;

to another because of the savage treacherous character of the tribes whose goodwill he won;

to another because of the reasonable and considerate way in which he treated prisoners.

he surpassed them all in the fact that he fought more battles than any of them and killed greater numbers of the enemy."

Major General Fuller; A negative view“Like Cromwell Caesar was an amateur soldier of genius, neither trained nor educated for war..The truth is that Caesar was not an organiser; careful preparation- adequate supplies, sufficient fighting forces and many other requirements needed to assure the success of a campaign were either distasteful to him, or lost sight by reliance on his genius to solve all difficulties…. His invasions of Britain were amateurish in the extreme….Caesar mentions the deficiencies as if they were acts of gods rather than his own negligence…It is also inexplicable why he never attempted to raise, organise and train efficient cavalry and light infantry….These defects in the organisation of Caesar’s army detrimentally influenced both his strategy and tactics. His defective system of supply frequently compelled him to change his area of operation to his disadvantage…and when his enemy took to guerilla warfare, because of his lack of trained light infantry he could do nothing to respond..It is astonishing that a soldier of his outstanding intelligence could have failed to realize how defective his army organization was.”

A fair comment or anachronistic?????????????????????

Ability toinspire

SuccessSpeed or celeritas

PerseverancePersonal

leadership

PersonalKnowledge

Andacknowledgement

Ofbravery

GenerosityClemencia

Father figure

Caesar’sRelationship

with his army

Caesar had extended his

Clientale- seen asProtectorOf Gaul

Large amountOf booty sent

to Rome

Caesar’s reputation

wasenhanced

Gaul hadprovided himWith massive

Wealth neededTo buy

Political support

Caesar now Had a massive

loyal, experienced army

Caesar’s military

reputation nowequalled Pompey

Inclusion ofGaul in the

Roman Empire

The Legacy ofThe Gallic Wars

"took by storm more than 800 cities, subdued 300 nations, and fought pitched battles at various times with three million men, of whom he destroyed one million in the actual fighting and took another million prisoners“ Plutarch

The Roman province was safe; Caesar organized the new territories, permitting them to pay their own tribute (preventing victimization by tax farmers) of a relatively moderate 40,000,000 sesterces annually.

A History of Rome-M Cary

“ For Caesar, his term in Gaul was the turning point in his career. The war booty which he appropriated not only sufficed to pay off his enormous private debts, but enabled him to buy political services in Rome on a scale comparable to that of Crassus. He held at his beck and call an invincible army that was ready to follow him anywhere. Above all, it was as pro-consul of Gaul that he found himself and brought into full play his latent powers as a soldier and administrator. From this point Caesar’s actions betoken a leader who is serenely conscious of his superior genius and regards himself as a Man of Destiny.”

Historians Views- Michael AkindeCompare with Suetonius assessment of his generalship.

“There can be no doubt that Caesar was an extremely competent General, probably one of the best ever. He understood strategy and tactics, and he could handle the brutish and greedy legionaries of his time. He was almost always aware of the movements of his enemies and usually secured both communications and supply lines in a masterly fashion. His natural energy was turned into the feared celeritas of Caesar, a swiftness of action that stunned his contemporaries. Almost paradoxically, he could combine this swiftness with extraordinary patience, and as a result was almost always able to choose the time and place for his battles, or regain the initiative even in the most difficult situations. His campaigns in Gaul had earned him a large and devoted army; like in 61, Rome now waited with bated breath for the return of a victorius general, Caesar.”

Historians Views-Suzanne Cross

“As the Gallic Wars had made Caesar's military prowess the stuff of household fame, so Vercingetorix and the Gallic alliance, in their first and last great attempt at confederacy, showed barbarians throughout the Roman world that, even united, Rome could not be defeated when led by generals of genius. It is impossible to imagine Caesar's future career without the political capital, wealth and fighting skills he earned while contesting with the warriors of Gaul for its future. It is impossible to imagine the future history of France, Belgium, and so many countries of Western Europe without Caesar's drive to be first in Rome”

EXAM STYLE QUESTIONS

Explain the reasons for Caesar’s success in the Gallic Wars 12AH1

With reference to the sources assess Caesar’s significance as a general.12AH1

Assess the military achievements of Julius Caesar 12AH2

Evaluate the significance of the Gallic Wars for Caesar’s career.12AH2

Your turn

Divide into groups of 5 and compose a response of 400 words to your chosen question