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Main article: South Asian Stone Age Further information: Mehrgarh , Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka , and Edakkal Caves

Bhimbetka rock painting , Madhya Pradesh , India .

Stone age writings of Edakkal Caves in Kerala, India.

Isolated remains of Homo erectus in Hathnora in the Narmada Valley in Central India indicate that India might have been inhabited since at least the Middle Pleistocene era, somewhere between 200,000 to 500,000 years ago. [5][6] Most traces of the out of Africa migration along the shores of the Indian Ocean seem to have been lost.Due to flooding in the post-Ice Age period, recent finds in Tamil Nadu (at c. 75,000years ago, before and after the explosion of the Toba volcano ) indicate the presenceof the first anatomically modern humans in the area.

The Mesolithic period in the Indian subcontinent covered a timespan of around25,000 years, starting around 30,000 years ago. More extensive settlement of thesubcontinent occurred after the end of the last Ice Age , or approximately 12,000years ago. The first confirmed permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago inthe Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka in modern Madhya Pradesh , India.

Early Neolithic culture in South Asia is represented by the Mehrgarh findings ( 7000BCE onwards) in present day Balochistan , Pakistan. Traces of a Neolithic culturehave been found submerged in the Gulf of Khambat in India, radiocarbon dated to7500 BCE.[7] The Edakkal Caves has one of the earliest exmples of stone age writing.Late Neolithic cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region between 6000 and 2000BCE and in southern India between 2800 and 1200 BCE.

The north-western part of the Subcontinent has been inhabited continuously for at least two million years. [8][9] The ancient history of the region includes some of South

Asia 's oldest settlements [10] and some of its major civilizations. [11][12] The earliest archaeological site in the Subcontinent is the palaeolithic hominid site in the SoanRiver valley .[13] Village life began with the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh ,[14] while thefirst urban civilization of the region began with the Indus Valley Civilization .[15][16]


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nkisMain article: Solanki

Modhera Sun Temple built by the Solankis.

The S olanki are Hindu Rajput clan who ruled parts of western and central Indiabetween the 10th and 13th centuries. Solankis are descended from 6th CentuaryBadami Chalukya [35] . The name Solanki comes from Chalukya the ancient Indian dynasty. During 543-566, Pulakesi I , established the kingdom at Vatapi (present-dayBadami , Bagalkot District in North Karnataka of Karnataka ). [36] The Solanki clan-name is found within the Rajput community of Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh .

In Gujarat , Anhilwara (modern Siddhpur Patan ) served as their capital. Gujarat wasa major center of Indian Ocean trade, and Anhilwara was one of the largest cities inIndia , with population estimated at 100,000 in the year 1000. The Solankis werepatrons of the great seaside temple of Shiva at Somnath Patan in Kathiawar ; Bhima

Dev helped rebuild the temple after it was sacked by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1026. Hisson, Karandev, conquered the Bhil king Ashapall or Ashaval, and after his victoryestablished a city named Karnavati on the banks of the Sabarmati River , at the siteof modern Ahmedabad .

[ ed it ] Th e ParamarasMain article: Paramara dynasty

The P aramara dynasty was an early medieval Indian dynasty who ruled overMalwa region in central India. This dynasty was founded by Upendra in c.800. Themost significant ruler of this dynasty was Bhoja I who was a philosopher king and

polymath . The seat of the Paramara kingdom was Dhara Nagari (the present dayDhar city in Madhya Pradesh state). [37]

[ ed it ] Th e ChauhansMain article: Chauhan


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Statue of Prithvi Raj Chauhan at Ajmer

The Ch au h an dynasty flourished from the 8th to 12th centuries AD. It was one of

the four main Rajput dynasties of that era, the others being Pratiharas , Paramaras and Chalukyas . Chauhan dynasties established themselves in several places in NorthIndia and in the state of Gujarat in Western India . They were also prominent at Sirohi in the southwest of Rajputana , and at Bundi and Kota in the east. Inscriptionsalso associate them with Sambhar, the salt lake area in the Amber (later Jaipur)district (the Sakhambari branch remained near lake Sambhar and married into theruling Gurjara -Pratihara , who then ruled an empire in Northern India ). Chauhansadopted a political policy that saw them indulge largely in campaigns against theChalukyas and the invading Muslim hordes. In the 11th century they founded thecity of Ajayameru ( Ajmer ) in the southern part of their kingdom, and in the 12thcentury captured Dhilika (the ancient name of Delhi) from the Tomaras and annexedsome of their territory along the Yamuna River .

The Ch au h an Kingdom became the leading state in Northern India under KingPrithviraj III (1165-1192), also known as P rit hv i Raj Ch au h an or Rai Pithora.Prithviraj III has become famous in folk tales and historical literature as the Chauhanking of Delhi who resisted and repelled the invasion by Mohammed of Ghor at thefirst Battle of Tarain in 1191. Armies from other Rajput kingdoms, including Mewar ,assisted him. The Chauhan kingdom collapsed after Prithviraj and his armiesfled [38][39] the battle ground against Mohammed of Ghor in 1192 at the Second Battleof Tarain .

Th e Eastern Gangas

Main article: Eastern Ganga dynasty See also: Konark Sun Temple and Jagannath Temple (Puri)


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Konark Sun Temple at Konark , Orissa , built by King Narasimhadeva I (AD 1236-1264) also a World Heritage site .

The Eastern Ganga dynasty rulers reigned over Kalinga which consisted of theparts of the modern day Indian states of Orissa , West Bengal , Jharkhand ,Chattisgarh , and Andhra Pradesh from the 11th century to the early 15th century [40] .Their capital was known by the name Kalinganagar, which is the modernSrimukhalingam in Srikakulam District of Andhra Pradesh bordering Orissa . Today

they are most remembered as the builders of the Konark Sun Temple a WorldHeritage site at Konark, Orissa . It was built by King Narasimhadeva I (1238-1264).During their reign (1078-1434) a new style of temple architecture came into being,commonly called as Indo-Aryan architecture. This dynasty was founded by King

Anantavarma Chodaganga Deva (1078 1147). He was a religious person and apatron of art and literature. He is credited for having built the famous JagannathTemple of Puri in Orissa .

King Anantavarman Chodagangadeva was succeeded by a long line of illustriousrulers such as Narasimhadeva I (1238-1264). The rulers of Eastern Ganga dynastydefended their kingdom from the constant attacks of the Muslim rulers. This

kingdom prospered through trade and commerce and the wealth was mostly used inthe construction of temples. The rule of the dynasty came to end under the reign of King Bhanudeva IV (1414-34), in the early 15th century.

h e Kadambas

Main article: Kadambas

Kadamba tower at Doddagaddavalli

The Kadamba Dynasty (Kannada : ) (345 - 525 CE) was an ancient royal familyof Karnataka that ruled from Banavasi in present day Uttara Kannada district. Thedynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the


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Chalukya and the Rashtrakuta empires for over five hundred years during which timethey branched into Goa and Hanagal . At the peak of their power under KingKakushtavarma, they ruled large parts of Karnataka. During the pre-Kadamba erathe ruling families that controlled Karnataka, the Mauryas , Satavahanas and Chutuswere not natives of the region and the nucleus of power resided outside present dayKarnataka. The Kadambas were the first indigenous dynasty to use Kannada, thelanguage of the soil at an administrative level. In the history of Karnataka, this eraserves as a broad based historical starting point in the study of the development of region as an enduring geo-political entity and Kannada as an important regionallanguage.

The dynasty was founded by Mayurasharma in 345 which at times showed thepotential of developing into imperial proportions, an indication to which is providedby the titles and epithets assumed by its rulers. One of his successors,Kakusthavarma was a powerful ruler and even the kings of imperial Gupta Dynasty of northern India cultivated marital relationships with his family, giving a fairindication of the sovereign nature of their kingdom. Tiring of the endless battles andbloodshed, one of the later descendants, King Shivakoti adopted Jainism. TheKadambas were contemporaries of the Western Ganga Dynasty of Talakad andtogether they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absoluteautonomy.

[ edit ] T h e Western Gangas

The statue of Gomateshwara built by the Western Ganga is one of the largest monolithic statues in the world.Main article: Western Ganga Dynasty

The Western Ganga Dynasty (350 1000 CE) ( Kannada : ) was anruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka in India . They are known as Western Gangas to distinguish them from the Eastern Gangas who in later centuries ruled overmodern Orissa . The general belief is the Western Gangas began their rule during atime when multiple native clans asserted their freedom due to the weakening of the


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Palla va em p

re in South In dia , a geo- political e vent sometime s att ribute d to thesouthe rn con que s t s of Samu dra Gupta . The We s te rn Gan ga sovereignt y las te d f romabout 350 to 550 CE, initiall y ruling f rom Kolar an d late r mo ving thei r capital toTala kad on the ban ks of the Kaveri River in mo dern Mysore dist rict .

Afte r the rise of the im perial Chalu kya s of Ba dami , the Gan gas accepte d Chalu kyaoverlords hip an d fou ght fo r the cau se of thei r overlords again st the Palla vas of Kanchi. The Chalu kya s we re replaced by the Rasht rakuta s of Man yakheta in 753 CEas the dominant powe r in the Deccan . Afte r a centu ry of s t rugg le fo r autonom y, theWe ste rn Gan gas finally accepte d Rasht rakuta o verlords hi p an d success fully fou ght alon gs ide them a gain s t thei r foe s, the Chola D yna s t y of Tanja vur. In the late 10thcentu ry, no rth of Tun gabha dra river, the Rasht rakuta s we re replaced by theeme rg ing We s te rn Chalu kya Em pire an d the Chola D yna st y saw renewe d powe r south of the Kaveri river. The defeat of the We ste r n Gan ga s by Cholas aroun d 1000resulte d in the en d of the Gan ga influen ce o ver the region.

Thou gh te rr ito rially a small kingd om, the We s te rn Gan ga cont ribution to polit y,cultu re an d literatu re of the mo dern south Ka rnata ka region i s con sidered important.The We ste rn Gan ga kings showe d bene volent tole ran ce to all faith s but a re mo s t famou s for thei r pat rona ge towa rds Jaini sm resultin g in the con st ruction of monument s in places such a s Sh ravana bela gola an d Kambadahalli . The kings of thi s dyna s t y en cou raged the fine a rt s due to whi ch lite ratu re in Kanna da an d San skr it flourishe d. Cha vun daraya 's writing, Cha vun da raya Pu rana of 978 CE, i s an im portant wo rk in Kanna da prose. Man y class ics we re w ritten on various sub je ct s ran ging f romreligion to ele phant mana gement.

Th ada C ha yas

Main a rticle : Chalu kya dyna s t y See al so: Badami Chalu kya Archite ctu re , Patta dakal , Badami Ca ve Tem ples , an d

Aihole

The C ha ya p , nati ve s of the Aihole an d Badami region in Ka rnata ka, we reat fi rs t a feu dato ry of the Ka dam bas . [ 1][ ] [ 3][ ][ 5] The y en cou raged the u se of Kanna da in a dd ition to the San skr it lan gua ge in thei r administ ration. [ ][ 7] In themidd le of the 6th centu ry the Chalu kyas came into thei r own when Pula kes i I ma dethe hill fo rt ress in Ba dami hi s cente r of powe r. [ 8] During the rule of Pula kesi II asouth In dian em pire s ent ex pedition s to the no rth past the Ta pti River an d Narma daRiver for the fi rs t time an d success fully defie d Harsha vardhana, the Kin g of Northe rn

In dia (

tta rapathe swa ra ). The Aihole inscr iption of Pula kesi II, w ritten in class icalSan skr it lan gua ge an d old K anna da scr ipt date d 634, [49 ][ 50 ] proclaim s his victo ries again st the Kin gd o m s of Kadam bas, We s te rn Gan gas , Alupas of South Cana ra,Mauryas of Puri, Kingd om of Kosala , Malwa , Lata an d Gur ja ras of southe rnRaja s than . The in scr iption descr ibes how Kin g Harsha of Kannauj lost hi s Hars ha( jo yful disp osition ) on seein g a la rg e num ber of hi s wa r ele phant s die in battleagain st Pula kesi II. [51 ][ 52 ][ 53 ][ 54 ][ 55 ]


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in far off places like Gujarat and Vengi as evidenced in the Nava Brahma temples at Alampur. [71]

[ edit ] T h e P alla v as

Main article: Pallava

Shore Temple in Mamallapuram built by the Pallavas . (c. eighth century C.E.)

The seventh century Tamil Nadu saw the rise of the Pallavas under MahendravarmanI and his son Mamalla Narasimhavarman I . The Pallavas were not a recognisedpolitical power before the second century. [72] It has been widely accepted byscholars that they were originally executive officers under the Satavahana Empire .[73]

After the fall of the Satavahanas, they began to get control over parts of Andhra andthe Tamil country. Later they had marital ties with the Vishnukundina who ruled overthe Deccan . It was around 550 AD under King Simhavishnu that the Pallavasemerged into prominence. They subjugated the Cholas and reigned as far south asthe Kaveri River . Pallavas ruled a large portion of South India with Kanchipuram astheir capital. Dravidian architecture reached its peak during the Pallava rule. [74] Narasimhavarman II built the Shore Temple which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site .

Many sources describe Bodhidharma , the founder of the Zen school of Buddhism inChina , as a prince of the Pallava dynasty. [75][76]

[ edit ] T h e Eastern Ch alukyas

Main article: Eastern Chalukyas

Eastern Ch alukyas were a South Indian dynasty whose kingdom was located inthe present day Andhra Pradesh . Their capital was Vengi and their dynasty lasted foraround 500 years from the 7th century until c. 1130 C.E. when the Vengi kingdommerged with the Chola empire. The Vengi kingdom was continued to be ruled byEastern Chalukyan kings under the protection of the Chola empire until 1189 C.E.,when the kingdom succumbed to the Hoysalas and the Yadavas . They had theircapital originally at Vengi now (Pedavegi, Chinavegi and Denduluru) near Eluru of the West Godavari district end later changed to Rajamahendravaram ( Rajamundry ).

Eastern Chalukyas were closely related to the Chalukyas of Vatapi ( Badami ).Throughout their history they were the cause of many wars between the morepowerful Cholas and Western Chalukyas over the control of the strategic Vengicountry. The five centuries of the Eastern Chalukya rule of Vengi saw not only the


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consolidation of this region into a unified whole, but also saw the efflorescence of Telugu culture, literature, poetry and art during the later half of their rule. It can besaid to be the golden period of Andhra history.

[ edit ] T h e P andyas

Main article: Pandyan kingdom

Pallavas were replaced by the Pandyas in the 8th century. Their capital Madurai wasin the deep south away from the coast. They had extensive trade links with theSoutheast Asian maritime empires of Srivijaya and their successors. As well ascontacts, even diplomatic, reaching as far as the Roman Empire . During the 13thcentury of the Christian era Marco Polo mentioned it as the richest kingdom inexistence. [77] Temples like Meenakshi Amman Temple at Madurai and NellaiapparTemple at Tirunelveli are the best examples of Pandyan Temple architecture [78][79] .The Pandyas excelled in both trade as well as literature and they controlled the pearlfisheries along the South Indian coast, between Sri Lanka and India, which producedsome of the finest pearls in the known ancient world.

[ edit ] T h e Ras h trakutas

Main article: Rashtrakuta Empire See also: Rashtrakuta literature , Economy of Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta ,Society of Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta , and Ellora Caves

Rashtrakuta Empire in 800 CE, 915 CE.

In the middle of 8th century the Chalukya rule was ended by their feudatory, theRashtrakuta family rulers of Berar (in present day Amravati district of Maharashtra ).Sensing an opportunity during a weak period in the Chalukya rule, Dantidurga trounced the great Chalukyan "Karnatabala" (power of Karnata). [80][81] Havingoverthrown the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas made Manyakheta their capital (modernMalkhed in Gulbarga district ). [82][83] Although the origins of the early Rashtrakutaruling families in central India and the Deccan in the 6th and 7th centuries iscontroversial, during the eighth through the tenth centuries they emphasised theimportance of the Kannada language in conjunction with Sanskrit in theiradministration. Rashtrakuta inscriptions are in Kannada and Sanskrit only. They


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encouraged literature in both languages and thus literature flowered under theirrule. [84][85][86][87][88]

Kailash Temple in Ellora Caves

The Rashtrakutas quickly became the most powerful Deccan empire, making theirinitial successful forays into the doab region of Ganga River and Jamuna River duringthe rule of Dhruva Dharavarsha .[89] The rule of his son Govinda III signaled a newera with Rashtrakuta victories against the Pala Dynasty of Bengal and GurjaraPratihara of north western India resulting in the capture of Kannauj . TheRashtrakutas held Kannauj intermittently during a period of a tripartite struggle forthe resources of the rich Gangetic plains .[90] Because of Govinda III's victories,historians have compared him to Alexander the Great and Pandava Arjuna of theHindu epic Mahabharata .[91] The Sanjan inscription states the horses of Govinda IIIdrank the icy water of the Himalayan stream and his war elephants tasted thesacred waters of the Ganges River. [92] Amoghavarsha I , eulogised by contemporary

Arab traveller Sulaiman as one among the four great emperors of the world,succeeded Govinda III to the throne and ruled during an important cultural periodthat produced landmark writings in Kannada and Sanskrit. [93][94][95] The benevolent development of Jain religion was a hallmark of his rule. Because of his religious

temperament, his interest in the arts and literature and his peace loving nature,[93]

he has been compared to emperor Ashoka . [96] The rule of Indra III in the tenthcentury enhanced the Rashtrakuta position as an imperial power as they conqueredand held Kannauj again. [97] Krishna III followed Indra III to the throne in 939. Apatron of Kannada literature and a powerful warrior, his reign marked thesubmission of the Paramara of Ujjain in the north and Cholas in the south. [98]

An Arabic writing Silsilatuttavarikh (851) called the Rashtrakutas one among the fourprinciple empires of the world. [99] Kitab-ul-Masalik-ul-Mumalik (912) called them the"greatest kings of India" and there were many other contemporaneous books writtenin their praise. [100] The Rashtrakuta empire at its peak spread from Cape Comorin in

the south to Kannauj in the north and from Banaras in the east to Broach (Bharuch)in the west. [101] While the Rashtrakutas built many fine monuments in the Deccan,the most extensive and sumptuous of their work is the monolithic Kailasanathatemple at Ellora, the temple being a splendid achievement. [102] In Karnataka theirmost famous temples are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayanatemple at Pattadakal. All of the monuments are designated UNESCO World HeritageSites . [103]

[ edit ] T h e Western Ch alukyas


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Main article: Western Chalukya Empire See also: Kannada literature in the Western Chalukya Empire and Western Chalukya

Architecture

In the late 10th century, the Western Chalukyas , also known as the KalyaniChalukyas or 'Later' Chalukyas rose to power by overthrowing the Rashtrakutasunder whom they had been serving as feudatories. Manyakheta was their capitalearly on before they moved it to Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan ). Whether the kingsof this empire belonged to the same family line as their namesakes, the BadamiChalukyas is still debated. [104][105] Whatever the Western Chalukya origins, Kannadaremained their language of administration and the Kannada and Sanskrit literature of their time was prolific. [87][106][107][108] Tailapa II , a feudatory ruler from Tardavadi(modern Bijapur district ), re-established the Chalukya rule by defeating theRashtrakutas during the reign of Karka II . He timed his rebellion to coincide with theconfusion caused by the invading Paramara of Central India to the Rashtrakutascapital in 973. [109][110][111] This era produced prolonged warfare with the Choladynasty of Tamilakam for control of the resources of the Godavari River -KrishnaRiver doab region in Vengi . Somesvara I , a brave Chalukyan king, successfullycurtailed the growth of the Chola Empire to the south of the Tungabhadra River region despite suffering some defeats [112][113] while maintaining control over hisfeudatories in the Konkan, Gujarat, Malwa and Kalinga regions. [114] Forapproximately 100 years, beginning in the early 11th century, the Cholas occupiedlarge areas of South Karnataka region (Gangavadi). [115]

Gadag style pillars, Western Chalukya art .

In 1076, the ascent of the most famous king of this Chalukya family, Vikramaditya VI, changed the balance of power in favour of the Chalukyas. [116] His fifty year reignwas an important period in Karnataka's history and is referred to as the "Chalukya

Vikrama era". [117] His victories over the Cholas in the late 11th and early 12thcenturies put an end to the Chola influence in the Vengi region permanently. [116]

Some of the well known contemporaneous feudatory families of the Deccan underChalukya control were the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri , the Kakatiyadynasty and the Southern Kalachuri. [118] At their peak, the Western Chalukyas ruleda vast empire stretching from the Narmada River in the north to the Kaveri River inthe south. Vikramaditya VI is considered one of the most influential kings of Indianhistory. [119][120] Important architectural works were created by these Chalukyas,especially in the Tungabhadra river valley, that served as a conceptual link betweenthe building idioms of the early Badami Chalukyas and the later Hoysalas. [121][122] With the weakening of the Chalukyas in the decades following the death of


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Vikramaditya VI in 1126, the feudatories of the Chalukyas gained theirindependence.

The Kalachuris of Karnataka, whose ancestors were immigrants into the southerndeccan from central India, had ruled as a feudatory from Mangalavada (modernMangalavedhe in Maharashtra). [123] Bijjala II , the most powerful ruler of thisdynasty, was a commander (mahamandaleswar) during the reign of Chalukya

Vikramaditya VI. [124] Seizing an opportune moment in the waning power of theChalukyas, Bijjala II declared independence in 1157 and annexed their capitalKalyani.[125] His rule was cut short by his assassination in 1167 and the ensuing civilwar caused by his sons fighting over the throne ended the dynasty as the last Chalukya scion regained control of Kalyani. This victory however, was short-lived asthe Chalukyas were eventually driven out by the Seuna Yadavas. [126]

[ edit ] T h e Yada v as

Main article: Yadava dynasty

The S euna , Sevuna or Yada v a dynasty (Marathi : , Kannada : ) ( 850 - 1334 ) was an Indian dynasty, which at its peak ruled a kingdom stretching fromthe Tungabhadra to the Narmada rivers, including present-day Maharashtra , northKarnataka and parts of Madhya Pradesh , from its capital at Devagiri (present-dayDaulatabad in Maharashtra). The Yadavas initially ruled as feudatories of theWestern Chalukyas . Around the middle of the 12th century, they declaredindependence and established rule that reached its peak under Singhana II. Thefoundations of Marathi culture was laid by the Yadavas and the peculiarities of Maharashtra 's social life developed during their rule. [127]

[ edit ] T h e Kakatiyas

Main article: Kakatiya dynasty

The Kakatiya dynasty was a South Indian dynasty that ruled parts of what is now Andhra Pradesh , India from 1083 to 1323. They were one of the great Telugu kingdoms that lasted for centuries.

[ edit ] T h e Kalac h uris

Main article: Kalachuri


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San gamanatha tem ple at Kudala san gama , North Ka rnata ka

Ka a ! h " # $ % & p $ # ' (San skr it an d Kanna da : ) is this the name u sed by twokingd om s who ha d a success ion of dyna s tie s f rom the 10th-12th centu ries, oneruling over area s in Cent ral In dia (we s t Madhya P rade sh , Raja s than ) an d we re calle d Che di or H aiha ya (H eyhe ya ) (no rthe rn bran ch ) [128 ] an d the othe r southe rn Kala chu riwho rule d over part s of Karnata ka . The y are disparatel y placed in time an d sp ace.

Apart f rom the dyna s tic name an d perha ps a belief in common an ces t ry, the re i s little in known sou rces to conne ct them.

The ea rlies t known Kala chu ri famil y (550 620 A.D ) rule d over no rthe rn Maha rasht ra ,Malwa an d we s te rn De ccan. Thei r capital wa s Mahismati situate d in the Narma dariver valle y. The re we r e th ree prominent mem bers; K rishna raja, Shan karagana an d Budd ha raja. The y dist ribute d coins an d epigraphs aroun d this area [129 ].

Sou th ( ) 0 Ka 1 a 2 h uri s (Kanna da : ) (1130 - 1184 ) at thei r pea k rule d part s of the Deccan exten ding over regions of present day North Ka rnata ka an d part s of Maha rasht ra . Thi s dyna s t y rose to powe r in the De ccan between 1156 an d 1181

A.D. The y t raced thei r origins to K rishna who wa s the con que ror of Kalinja r an d Dahala in Madhya P radesh . It i s said that Bijjala a viceroy of thi s dyna s t y e sta blishe d the autho rit y over Karnata ka . He w res te d powe r f rom the Chalu kya king Taila III.Bijjala wa s succee ded by his son s Some shwa ra an d San gama but afte r 1181 A.D,the Chalu kyas graduall y ret rieved the te rr itory . Thei r rule wa s a sho rt an d tu rbulent an d yet very important f rom a the so cio - religious mo vement point of view ; a newsect calle d the Lingayat or Virashai va sect wa s foun ded during the se time s [129 ]. Auni que an d purely nati ve fo rm of Kanna da lite ratu re- poet ry calle d the Vachana s wa s also born during this time. The w rite rs of Vachana s we re called Vachana karas (poet s) . Man y othe r important wo rks like Virupaksha Pan dita' s Chenna ba savapurana,

Dha rani Pan dita' s Bijjalarayacha rite an d Chan drasagara Varni's Bijjalarayapuranawe re al so w ritten.

N or th 3 rn Ka 4 a 5 h uri s rule d in cent ral In dia with it s base at the an cient cit y of Tripuri (Tewa r); it o riginate d in the 8th centu ry , ex pan ded s ignificantl y in the 11thcentu ry , an d declined in the 12th 13th centu ries.

[ e d it ] Th e Ho ysa 6 as

Main a rticle : Hoysala Em pire See al so: Lite ratu re in the Ho ysala Em pire an d Hoysala a rchite ctu re


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Shilabalika, Chennakeshava temple, Belur.

The Hoysalas had become a powerful force even during their rule from Belur in the11th century as a feudatory of the Chalukyas (in the south Karnataka region). [130] Inthe early 12th century they successfully fought the Cholas in the south, convincinglydefeating them in the battle of Talakad and moved their capital to nearbyHalebidu .[131][132] Historians refer to the founders of the dynasty as natives of Malnad Karnataka, based on the numerous inscriptions calling them Maleparolganda or "Lordof the Male (hills) chiefs" (Malepas). [130][133][134][135][136][137] With the waning of theWestern Chalukya power, the Hoysalas declared their independence in the latetwelfth century.

During this period of Hoysala control, distinctive Kannada literary metres such as

Ragale (blank verse), Sangatya (meant to be sung to the accompaniment of amusical instrument), Shatpadi (seven line) etc. became widelyaccepted. [87][138][139][140] The Hoysalas expanded the Vesara architecture stemmingfrom the Chalukyas, [141] culminating in the Hoysala architectural articulation andstyle as exemplified in the construction of the Chennakesava Temple at Belur andthe Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu. [142] Both these temples were built incommemoration of the victories of the Hoysala Vishnuvardhana against the Cholas in1116. [143][144] Veera Ballala II , the most effective of the Hoysala rulers, defeated theaggressive Pandya when they invaded the Chola kingdom and assumed the titles"Establisher of the Chola Kingdom" (Cholarajyapratishtacharya), "Emperor of thesouth" (Dakshina Chakravarthi) and " Hoysala emperor" ( Hoysala Chakravarthi). [145]

The Hoysalas extended their foothold in areas known today as Tamil Nadu around1225, making the city of Kannanur Kuppam near Srirangam a provincial capital. [146] This gave them control over South Indian politics that began a period of Hoysalahegemony in the southern Deccan. [147][148]

In the early 13th century, with the Hoysala power remaining unchallenged, the first of the Muslim incursions into South India began. After over two decades of wagingwar against a foreign power, the Hoysala ruler at the time, Veera Ballala III , died inthe battle of Madurai in 1343. [149] This resulted in the merger of the sovereign


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territories of the Hoysala empire with the areas administered by Harihara I , founderof the Vijayanagara Empire , located in the Tungabhadra region in present dayKarnataka. The new kingdom thrived for another two centuries with Vijayanagara asits capital. [15

Main article: Western Chalukya Empire See also: Kannada literature in the Western Chalukya Empire and Western Chalukya

Architecture

In the late 10th century, the Western Chalukyas , also known as the KalyaniChalukyas or 'Later' Chalukyas rose to power by overthrowing the Rashtrakutasunder whom they had been serving as feudatories. Manyakheta was their capitalearly on before they moved it to Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan ). Whether the kingsof this empire belonged to the same family line as their namesakes, the BadamiChalukyas is still debated. [104][105] Whatever the Western Chalukya origins, Kannadaremained their language of administration and the Kannada and Sanskrit literature of their time was prolific. [87][106][107][108] Tailapa II , a feudatory ruler from Tardavadi(modern Bijapur district ), re-established the Chalukya rule by defeating theRashtrakutas during the reign of Karka II . He timed his rebellion to coincide with theconfusion caused by the invading Paramara of Central India to the Rashtrakutascapital in 973. [109][110][111] This era produced prolonged warfare with the Choladynasty of Tamilakam for control of the resources of the Godavari River -KrishnaRiver doab region in Vengi . Somesvara I , a brave Chalukyan king, successfullycurtailed the growth of the Chola Empire to the south of the Tungabhadra River region despite suffering some defeats [112][113] while maintaining control over hisfeudatories in the Konkan, Gujarat, Malwa and Kalinga regions. [114] Forapproximately 100 years, beginning in the early 11th century, the Cholas occupiedlarge areas of South Karnataka region (Gangavadi). [115]

Gadag style pillars, Western Chalukya art .

In 1076, the ascent of the most famous king of this Chalukya family, Vikramaditya VI, changed the balance of power in favour of the Chalukyas. [116] His fifty year reignwas an important period in Karnataka's history and is referred to as the "Chalukya

Vikrama era". [117] His victories over the Cholas in the late 11th and early 12thcenturies put an end to the Chola influence in the Vengi region permanently. [116] Some of the well known contemporaneous feudatory families of the Deccan underChalukya control were the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri , the Kakatiyadynasty and the Southern Kalachuri. [118] At their peak, the Western Chalukyas ruleda vast empire stretching from the Narmada River in the north to the Kaveri River in


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the south. Vikrama dit ya VI is con sidered one of the mo st influential ki ngs of In dianhisto ry. [119 ][ 120 ] Im portant a rchite ctu ral wo rks we re create d by the se Chalu kyas,esp ecially in the Tun gabha dra river valle y, that served as a con ceptual lin k betweenthe building idiom s of the ea rly Badami Chalu kyas an d the late r Hoysala s . [121 ][ 122 ] With the wea kenin g of the Chalu kyas in the decades following the death of

Vikrama dit ya VI in 1126, the feu dato ries of the Chalu kya s gaine d thei r indepen den ce.

The Kalachu ris of Karnata ka, who se an ces to rs we re immi grant s into the southe rndeccan f rom cent ral In dia, ha d rule d as a feu dato ry f rom Man gala vada (mo dernMangala vedhe in Maha rasht ra). [123 ] Bijjala II , the mo s t powe rful rule r of thi s dyna s t y, wa s a comman der (mahaman dale swa r) during the reign of Chalu kya

Vikrama dit ya VI. [124 ] Seizin g an o pp ortune moment in the wanin g powe r of theChalu kyas, Bijjala II declar ed indepen den ce in 1157 an d annexe d thei r capitalKalyani . [125 ] His rule wa s cut sho rt by his ass ass ination in 1167 an d the en suin g civilwa r cau sed by his son s fightin g over the th rone en ded the dyna st y as the la s t Chalu kya sc ion regaine d cont rol of Kal yani. Thi s victo ry howe ver, wa s sho rt -lived a s the Chalu kyas we re e ventuall y dr iven out by the Seuna Y adavas. [126 ]

[ e d it ] Th e 7

adavas

Main a rticle : Y adava dyna s t y

The Seun a , Se vuna o r 8

adava dy n asty (Marathi : 9

@

A

B

9

C D @ , Kanna da : ) (850 - 1334 ) wa s an In dian dyna s t y, whi ch at it s pea k rule d a kingdom s t ret chin g f romthe Tun gabha dra to the Narma da rivers , in cluding present- day Maha rasht ra , no rthKarnata ka an d part s of Madhya P radesh , f rom it s capital at Devagiri (pr esent- day Daulata bad in Maha rasht ra). The Y adavas initially rule d as feu dato ries of the

We ste rn Chalu kyas . Aroun d the mi dd le of the 12th centu ry, the y declared indepen den ce an d es ta blishe d rule that rea che d it s pea k un der Singhana II. Thefoun dation s of Marathi cultu re wa s laid by the Y adavas an d the peculia rities of Maha rasht ra 's social life developed during thei r rule. [127 ]

[ e d it ] Th e Ka E at iyas

Main a rticle : Kakati ya dyna s t y

The Kakati ya dyna st y wa s a South In dian dyna st y that rule d part s of what i s now Andhra P radesh , In dia f rom 1083 to 1323. The y we re one of the great Telu gu

kingd om s that la ste d for centu ries .

[ e d it ] Th e Ka F a G h uri s

Main a rticle : Kalachu ri


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Sangamanatha temple at Kudalasangama , North Karnataka

Kalac h uri Empire (Sanskrit and Kannada : ) is this the name used by twokingdoms who had a succession of dynasties from the 10th-12th centuries, oneruling over areas in Central India (west Madhya Pradesh , Rajasthan ) and were calledChedi or Haihaya (Heyheya) (northern branch) [128] and the other southern Kalachuriwho ruled over parts of Karnataka . They are disparately placed in time and space.

Apart from the dynastic name and perhaps a belief in common ancestry, there is

little in known sources to connect them.

The earliest known Kalachuri family (550 620 A.D) ruled over northern Maharashtra ,Malwa and western Deccan. Their capital was Mahismati situated in the Narmadariver valley. There were three prominent members; Krishnaraja, Shankaragana andBuddharaja. They distributed coins and epigraphs around this area [129] .

S out h ern Kalac h uris (Kannada : ) (1130 - 1184) at their peak ruled partsof the Deccan extending over regions of present day North Karnataka and parts of Maharashtra . This dynasty rose to power in the Deccan between 1156 and 1181

A.D. They traced their origins to Krishna who was the conqueror of Kalinjar and

Dahala in Madhya Pradesh . It is said that Bijjala a viceroy of this dynasty establishedthe authority over Karnataka . He wrested power from the Chalukya king Taila III.Bijjala was succeeded by his sons Someshwara and Sangama but after 1181 A.D,the Chalukyas gradually retrieved the territory. Their rule was a short and turbulent and yet very important from a the socio - religious movement point of view; a newsect called the Lingayat or Virashaiva sect was founded during these times [129] . Aunique and purely native form of Kannada literature-poetry called the Vachanas wasalso born during this time. The writers of Vachanas were called Vachanakaras(poets). Many other important works like Virupaksha Pandita's Chennabasavapurana,Dharani Pandita's Bijjalarayacharite and Chandrasagara Varni's Bijjalarayapuranawere also written.

N ort h ern Kalac h uris ruled in central India with its base at the ancient city of Tripuri (Tewar); it originated in the 8th century, expanded significantly in the 11thcentury, and declined in the 12th 13th centuries.

[ edit ] T h e H oysalas

Main article: Hoysala Empire See also: Literature in the Hoysala Empire and Hoysala architecture


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Shilabalika, Chennakeshava temple, Belur.

The Hoysalas had become a powerful force even during their rule from Belur in the11th century as a feudatory of the Chalukyas (in the south Karnataka region). [130] Inthe early 12th century they successfully fought the Cholas in the south, convincinglydefeating them in the battle of Talakad and moved their capital to nearbyHalebidu .[131][132] Historians refer to the founders of the dynasty as natives of Malnad Karnataka, based on the numerous inscriptions calling them Maleparolganda or "Lordof the Male (hills) chiefs" (Malepas). [130][133][134][135][136][137] With the waning of theWestern Chalukya power, the Hoysalas declared their independence in the latetwelfth century.

During this period of Hoysala control, distinctive Kannada literary metres such as

Ragale (blank verse), Sangatya (meant to be sung to the accompaniment of amusical instrument), Shatpadi (seven line) etc. became widelyaccepted. [87][138][139][140] The Hoysalas expanded the Vesara architecture stemmingfrom the Chalukyas, [141] culminating in the Hoysala architectural articulation andstyle as exemplified in the construction of the Chennakesava Temple at Belur andthe Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu. [142] Both these temples were built incommemoration of the victories of the Hoysala Vishnuvardhana against the Cholas in1116. [143][144] Veera Ballala II , the most effective of the Hoysala rulers, defeated theaggressive Pandya when they invaded the Chola kingdom and assumed the titles"Establisher of the Chola Kingdom" (Cholarajyapratishtacharya), "Emperor of thesouth" (Dakshina Chakravarthi) and " Hoysala emperor" ( Hoysala Chakravarthi). [145]

The Hoysalas extended their foothold in areas known today as Tamil Nadu around1225, making the city of Kannanur Kuppam near Srirangam a provincial capital. [146] This gave them control over South Indian politics that began a period of Hoysalahegemony in the southern Deccan. [147][148]

In the early 13th century, with the Hoysala power remaining unchallenged, the first of the Muslim incursions into South India began. After over two decades of wagingwar against a foreign power, the Hoysala ruler at the time, Veera Ballala III , died inthe battle of Madurai in 1343. [149] This resulted in the merger of the sovereign


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te rr itories of the Ho ysala em pire with the a rea s administe red by Hariha ra I , foun der of the Vijayana gara Em pire , lo cate d in the Tun gabha dra region in present day Karnata ka. The new kingd om th rived for anothe r two centu ries with Vijayana gara as it s capital. [15

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