Journal of Research in Biology Volume 3 Issue 5

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Publisher, Journal of Research in Biology.

Editorial Board Members:

Ciccarese [Molecular Biology] Universita di Bari, Italy.

Sathishkumar [Plant Biotechnologist]

Bharathiar University.

SUGANTHY [Entomologist]

TNAU, Coimbatore.

Elanchezhyan [Agriculture, Entomology]

TNAU, Tirunelveli.

Syed Mohsen Hosseini [Forestry & Ecology]

Tarbiat Modares University (TMU), Iran.

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Kamal Prasad Acharya [Conservation Biology]

Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Norway.

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Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur

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Kisan PG College, BAHRAICH

Ramesh Chandra [Hydrobiology, Zoology]

S.S.(P.G.)College, Shahjahanpur, India.

Adarsh Pandey [Mycology and Plant Pathology]

SS P.G.College, Shahjahanpur, India

Hanan El-Sayed Mohamed Abd El-All Osman [Plant Ecology]

Al-Azhar university, Egypt

Ganga suresh [Microbiology]

Sri Ram Nallamani Yadava College of Arts & Sciences, Tenkasi, India.

T.P. Mall [Ethnobotany, Plant pathology]

Kisan PG College,BAHRAICH, India.

Mirza Hasanuzzaman [Agronomy, Weeds, Plant]

Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh

Mukesh Kumar Chaubey [Immunology, Zoology]

Mahatma Gandhi Post Graduate College, Gorakhpur, India.

N.K. Patel [Plant physiology & Ethno Botany]

Sheth M.N.Science College, Patan, India.

Kumudben Babulal Patel [Bird, Ecology]

Gujarat, India.

CHANDRAMOHAN [Biochemist]

College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University.

B.C. Behera [Natural product and their Bioprospecting]

Agharkar Research Institute, Pune, INDIA.

Kuvalekar Aniket Arun [Biotechnology]

Lecturer, Pune.

Mohd. Kamil Usmani [Entomology, Insect taxonomy]

Aligarh Muslim university, Aligarh, india.

Dr. Lachhman Das Singla [Veterinary Parasitology]

Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, India.

Vaclav Vetvicka [Immunomodulators and Breast Cancer]

University of Louisville, Kentucky.

José F. González-Maya [Conservation Biology]

Laboratorio de ecología y conservación de fauna Silvestre,

Instituto de Ecología, UNAM, México.

Dr. Afreenish Hassan [Microbiology]

Department of Pathology, Army Medical College, Rawalpindi, Pakistan.

Gurjit Singh [Soil Science]

Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Amritsar, Punjab, India.

Dr. Marcela Pagano [Mycology]

Universidade Federal de São João del-Rei, Brazil.

Dr.Amit Baran Sharangi [Horticulture]

BCKV (Agri University), West Bengal, INDIA.

Dr. Bhargava [Melittopalynology]

School of Chemical & Biotechnology, Sastra University, Tamilnadu, INDIA.

Dr. Sri Lakshmi Sunitha Merla [Plant Biotechnology]

Jawaharlal Technological University, Hyderabad.

Dr. Mrs. Kaiser Jamil [Biotechnology]

Bhagwan Mahavir Medical Research Centre, Hyderabad, India.

Ahmed Mohammed El Naim [Agronomy]

University of Kordofan, Elobeid-SUDAN.

Dr. Zohair Rahemo [Parasitology]

University of Mosul, Mosul,Iraq.

Dr. Birendra Kumar [Breeding and Genetic improvement]

Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, India.

Dr. Sanjay M. Dave [Ornithology and Ecology]

Hem. North Gujarat University, Patan.

Dr. Nand Lal [Micropropagation Technology Development]

C.S.J.M. University, India.

Fábio M. da Costa [Biotechnology: Integrated pest control, genetics]

Federal University of Rondônia, Brazil.

Marcel Avramiuc [Biologist]

Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, Romania.

Dr. Meera Srivastava [Hematology , Entomology] Govt. Dungar College, Bikaner.

P. Gurusaravanan [Plant Biology ,Plant Biotechnology and Plant Science]

School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, India.

Dr. Mrs Kavita Sharma [Botany]

Arts and commerce girl’s college Raipur (C.G.), India.

Suwattana Pruksasri [Enzyme technology, Biochemical Engineering]

Silpakorn University, Thailand.

Dr.Vishwas Balasaheb Sakhare [Reservoir Fisheries]

Yogeshwari Mahavidyalaya, Ambajogai, India.

Dr. Pankaj Sah [Environmental Science, Plant Ecology]

Higher College of Technology (HCT), Al-Khuwair.

Dr. Erkan Kalipci [Environmental Engineering]

Selcuk University, Turkey.

Dr Gajendra Pandurang Jagtap [Plant Pathology]

College of Agriculture, India.

Dr. Arun M. Chilke [Biochemistry, Enzymology, Histochemistry]

Shree Shivaji Arts, Commerce & Science College, India.

Dr. AC. Tangavelou [Biodiversity, Plant Taxonomy]

Bio-Science Research Foundation, India.

Nasroallah Moradi Kor [Animal Science]

Razi University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Iran

T. Badal Singh [plant tissue culture]

Panjab University, India

Dr. Kalyan Chakraborti [Agriculture, Pomology, horticulture]

AICRP on Sub-Tropical Fruits, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,

Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal, India.

Dr. Monanjali Bandyopadhyay [Farmlore, Traditional and indigenous

practices, Ethno botany]

V. C., Vidyasagar University, Midnapore.

M.Sugumaran [Phytochemistry]

Adhiparasakthi College of Pharmacy, Melmaruvathur, Kancheepuram District.

Prashanth N S [Public health, Medicine]

Institute of Public Health, Bangalore.

Tariq Aftab

Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

Manzoor Ahmad Shah

Department of Botany, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, India.

Syampungani Stephen

School of Natural Resources, Copperbelt University, Kitwe, Zambia.

Iheanyi Omezuruike OKONKO

Department of Biochemistry & Microbiology, Lead City University,

Ibadan, Nigeria.

Sharangouda Patil

Toxicology Laboratory, Bioenergetics & Environmental Sciences Division,

National Institue of Animal Nutrition

and Physiology (NIANP, ICAR), Adugodi, Bangalore.

Jayapal

Nandyal, Kurnool, Andrapradesh, India.

T.S. Pathan [Aquatic toxicology and Fish biology]

Department of Zoology, Kalikadevi Senior College, Shirur, India.

Aparna Sarkar [Physiology and biochemistry] Amity Institute of Physiotherapy, Amity campus, Noida, INDIA.

Dr. Amit Bandyopadhyay [Sports & Exercise Physiology]

Department of Physiology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, INDIA .

Maruthi [Plant Biotechnology]

Dept of Biotechnology, SDM College (Autonomous),

Ujire Dakshina Kannada, India.

Veeranna [Biotechnology]

Dept of Biotechnology, SDM College (Autonomous),

Ujire Dakshina Kannada, India.

RAVI [Biotechnology & Bioinformatics]

Department of Botany, Government Arts College, Coimbatore, India.

Sadanand Mallappa Yamakanamardi [Zoology]

Department of Zoology, University of Mysore, Mysore, India.

Anoop Das [Ornithologist]

Research Department of Zoology, MES Mampad College, Kerala, India.

Dr. Satish Ambadas Bhalerao [Environmental Botany]

Wilson College, Mumbai

Rafael Gomez Kosky [Plant Biotechnology]

Instituto de Biotecnología de las Plantas, Universidad Central de Las Villas

Eudriano Costa [Aquatic Bioecology]

IOUSP - Instituto Oceanográfico da Universidade de São Paulo, Brasil

M. Bubesh Guptha [Wildlife Biologist] Wildlife Management Circle (WLMC), India

Rajib Roychowdhury [Plant science]

Centre for biotechnology visva-bharati, India.

Dr. S.M.Gopinath [Environmental Biotechnology]

Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore.

Dr. U.S. Mahadeva Rao [Bio Chemistry]

Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia.

Hérida Regina Nunes Salgado [Pharmacist]

Unesp - Universidade Estadual Paulista, Brazil

Mandava Venkata Basaveswara Rao [Chemistry]

Krishna University, India.

Dr. Mostafa Mohamed Rady [Agricultural Sciences]

Fayoum University, Egypt.

Dr. Hazim Jabbar Shah Ali [Poultry Science]

College of Agriculture, University of Baghdad , Iraq.

Danial Kahrizi [Plant Biotechnology, Plant Breeding,Genetics]

Agronomy and Plant Breeding Dept., Razi University, Iran

Dr. Houhun LI [Systematics of Microlepidoptera, Zoogeography, Coevolution,

Forest protection]

College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, China.

María de la Concepción García Aguilar [Biology] Center for Scientific Research and Higher Education of Ensenada, B. C., Mexico

Fernando Reboredo [Archaeobotany, Forestry, Ecophysiology]

New University of Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal

Dr. Pritam Chattopadhyay [Agricultural Biotech, Food Biotech, Plant Biotech]

Visva-Bharati (a Central University), India

Table of Contents (Volume 3 - Issue 5)

Serial No Accession No Title of the article Page No

1 RA0359 Identification lethal and sub lethal concentrations (LC50) of

Organophosphate (OP) pesticide Diazinon using an endemic species

(Yucatan Molly, Poecilia velifera Regan 1914) as a potential

biomonitor for the intensive agricultural activities of Southeastern

Mexico.

Francisco Ucan-Marin, Víctor Cobos-Gasca and Roberto C. Barrientos-

Medina.

993-1002

2 RA0366 Species diversity and assemblage of fish fauna of Sip River: A tributary

of Narmada River.

Vipin Vyas and Kripal Singh Vishwakarma.

1003-1008

3

RA0361

A preliminary study on spider diversity from a house hold garden

(artificial mixed plantation) in West Tripura, India.

Animesh Dey, Susmita Debnath, Biplab Debbarma and PS Chaudhuri.

1009-1017

4 RA0368 Constraints in the control of animal trypanosomiasis by cattle farmers

in coastal savannah of Ghana: Quality aspects of drug use.

Reuben K. Esena.

1018-1031

5 RA0370 A study on the wetland avian species of Sultanpur National Park

Gurgaon, Haryana (India).

Girish Chopra, Anil K. Tyor and Seema Kumari.

1032-1040

6 RA0367 Empirical validation of reliability of triangulation methods of mixed-

method mode research: Quality improvement strategies for

trypanosomiasis control.

Reuben K. Esena

1041-1053

http://jresearchbiology.com/documents/RA0359.pdf






Article Citation: Francisco Ucan-Marin, Víctor Cobos-Gasca and Roberto C. Barrientos-Medina. Identification lethal and sub lethal concentrations (LC50) of Organophosphate (OP) pesticide Diazinon using an endemic species (Yucatan Molly, Poecilia velifera Regan 1914)

as a potential biomonitor for the intensive agricultural activities of Southeastern Mexico. Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 993-1002

Jou

rn

al of R

esearch

in

Biology

Identification lethal and sub lethal concentrations (LC50) of Organophosphate (OP)

pesticide Diazinon using an endemic species (Yucatan Molly, Poecilia velifera

Regan 1914) as a potential biomonitor for the intensive agricultural activities

of Southeastern Mexico.

Keywords: Agriculture, Diazinon, LD50, Yucatan Molly, Biomonitor, Yucatan Mexico, Ecotoxicology

ABSTRACT: Organophosphate (OP) pesticides are commonly used in agriculture; this group of compounds includes very toxic chemicals. Diazinon (IUPAC name: O,O-Diethyl O-[4-methyl-6-(propan-2-yl)pyrimidin-2-yl] phosphorothioate, INN- Dimpylate) is used often in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Regular tropical rain-floods and the Yucatan’s karstic topography allow Diazinon to be incorporated quickly into the freshwater watersheds and other aquatic ecosystems surrounding agricultural areas. This dispersion process has various negative consequences for the aquatic ecosystems. In the present study we used the Yucatan Molly (Poecilia velífera) a native and endemic fish of Southeastern Mexico as a biomonitor for the first time to assess some of the basic gaps in the Diazinon toxicity data. 96 juvenile fish (fry) were exposed to two time exposure-observations; for acute (24 hours) and chronic exposures (10 weeks). Three Diazinon doses were added as follows: 0.01, 0.02 and 0.04 mg/l (and a duplicated control group). The results showed that the acute dosed group has 100% mortality. Fish exposed to a 0.01 mg/l did not have any observable effects. The LC50 value calculated during this experiment for Yucatan Mollies exposed to dissolve Diazinon is extremely toxic at 0.02 mg/L. These results confirm, that the sensibility of Poecilia velifera as a native bioindicator for pesticides; and compared with other published LC50 data appears to be the most sensitive. Further studies are recommended to continue the study on the Yucatán Molly physiology; this fish has the potential to become a reliable sentinel for the aquatic ecosystems in the Yucatan Area, Mexico.

993-1002 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5

This article is governed by the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/

licenses/by/2.0), which gives permission for unrestricted use, non-commercial, distribution and reproduction in all medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

www.jresearchbiology.com Journal of Research in Biology

An International

Scientific Research Journal

Authors:

Francisco Ucan-Marin* 1,2,

Víctor Cobos-Gasca3 and

Roberto C. Barrientos-

Medina3

Institution: 1. Aquatic Toxicology, Aquaponika Ltd. 126-340 Parkdale Ave. Ottawa Ontario, Canada K1Y 1P2.

2 . Chemistry and Environmental Toxicology, Department of Chemistry, Carleton University. 203 Steacie Building Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1S 5B6.

3. Cuerpo Académico de Ecología Tropical, Depto. de Ecología. Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Campus de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán. Km. 15.5 Carretera Mérida-Xmatkuil, Yucatán, México.

Corresponding author:

Francisco Ucan-Marin

Email Id:

Web Address: http://jresearchbiology.com/documents/RA0359.pdf.

Dates: Received: 18 June 2013 Accepted: 01 July 2013 Published: 16 July 2013

Journal of Research in Biology An International Scientific Research Journal

Original Research

INTRODUCTION

The Yucatan Peninsula in located in

Southeastern Mexico, and is an intensive production area

for citrus and horticultural farms, most of the farming is

developed th rough smal l groups cal led

“Ejidos comunitarios” (Community Cooperatives).

Agricultural activities in this region includes: citrus

production, mango and papaya farming, vegetables and

herbs, but also intensive cattle and horse ranching.

Organophosphate (OP) pesticides are used openly for

infestation management and applied intensively. It has

been noticed that farmers and agricultural workers in the

Yucatan area do not use proper protection during

pesticide applications. Furthermore, there are no

enforced disposal regulations for the remaining

chemicals or containers. Diverse factors of management

and inadequate disposal protocols have contributed to

leaking and accumulation of pesticides in sites near

water sources. Therefore the potential of pesticides

entering the aquatic ecosystems increase the possibilities

of endocrine disruptions effects in wildlife, and

eventually the surrounding human settlements.

Diazinon (O,O-diethyl O-[6-methyl-2-(1-

methylethyl)-4-pyrimidinyl] phosphorothioate), is an

organophosphate insecticide, it has agricultural and

commercial uses, and is used in Southeastern Mexico to

control a wide diversity of insects including aphids,

beetles, scales, pill bugs, and others (Cobos-Gasca 1995;

Cox 1992). Diazinon is a compound of large variety of

applications soluble in water, and produces a chemical

half-life recorded up to 12 weeks in water (Blackburn

et al.., 1988). In addition, Diazinon does not settle

permanently in sediments; as a result, it is easily hydro

transported which facilitates its presence in aquatic

ecosystems (Blackburn et al., 1988). Diazinon

permanency in the aquatic ecosystems has been

associated directly with rain-runoff and its unofficial

unregulated disposal, where it has been noticed to settle

on freshwater ecosystems (Bailey et al., 2000). Diazinon

has been previously reported as a dangerous chemical

able of acute toxicity and sub-lethal effects in fresh water

fish and other aquatic organisms (Banaeea et al., 2011).

The mode of action of OP chemicals it is associated with

the inhibition of acetyl cholinesterase, and oxidative

stress (Ozcan and Demet 2007). Diazinon disrupting

effects on aquatic organisms has been widely

documented in freshwater organisms such as snail

(Gillia altilis), largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides)

and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), among others

(Robertson and Mazzella 1989; Pan and Dutta 1998;

Beauvais et al., 2000).

Mexico’s Yucatan geography and hydrological

conditions create a unique aquatic underground

environment (Figure 1), and also a variety of unique

endemic species of fish (Figure 2) and aquatic

ecosystems. Due to this unique karstic ground (limestone

bedrock) characteristic, the leaching and transporting of

contaminants such as pesticides and fertilizers into

groundwater do not favor soil absorption (Pacheco and

Cabrera 1996). In the Yucatan, underground water is the

only source for human consumption since rivers are

almost not existent. The underground water table is close

to the surface in the north and near the coasts, but in the

higher elevations of the middle and south of the

Peninsula water is too far below the surface for access by

hand-dug wells; nevertheless, the ancient Maya

maintained dense populations in this area for centuries

using reservoirs and underground tanks (chultuno'ob).

Therefore, the assessment and monitoring of water and

environment quality through biomonitoring is highly

significant for a local social, economic and community

context.

Previous regional studies has assessed the effect

of OP pesticides in estuarine ecosystems aquatic macro-

fauna such as; shrimps from genus Penaeus

(Acosta-Maya et al., 1997), and mosquito fish

Gambusia yucatana (Rendón von-Osten et al., 2005).

Diazinon has also been repeatedly detected in

Ucan-Marin et al., 2013

994 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 993-1002

horticultural water supplies (underwater sinkholes) in the

Yucatan region (Cobos-Gasca et al., 1997). One of the

most common observable fish surrounding the areas of

concern is the Yucatan molly (Poecilia velifera, Regan,

1914). The Yucatan molly (Figure 2) belongs to the

Poeciliidae family, and is an endemic species to the

Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico (Miller 1983; Miller 2005;

Hankison et al., 2006). This fish was introduced

internationally for two main reasons; first, as a valuable

aquarium specie, and as a biological control against

mosquitoes larvae (Courtenay and Meffe 1989; Lever

1996).

Studies assessing the toxicity of Diazinon to

aquatic fauna had documented that this pesticide is able

to cause neurotoxic effects on fish (Dias-Assis et al.,

2012). However, the importance of the present study is

the original contribution of lethal and sub lethal data

assessing this native and endemic species. The values do

not only contribute to aquatic toxicology knowledge, but

also add the proposition to use the Yucatan Molly as a

biomonitor of pesticide activities surrounding

agricultural communities across the southeastern

Mexico.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Gravid female Yucatan mollies were captured

from freshwater near the port of Celestun, in the State of

Yucatan, Mexico, and kept under laboratory conditions.

Fish tanks were used for the acclimation, and 15 days

after collection, 134 fingerlings were hatched and were

fed with commercially available food for four weeks.

The bioassay to assess the toxicity of Diazinon was

conducted by selecting 96 juveniles (fry), of similar

length and weight, and distributed randomly sex

independent into four tanks with 20 liters of freshwater.

The conditions were: temperature, 26.9 ± 0.1°C;

saturation of dissolved oxygen, 62 ± 0.1%; electric

conductivity, 468.61 ± 0.1 μS /cm and pH of 7.40 ± 0.1

units. The experiment had four treatments 0.04 mg/l,

0.02 mg/l, and 0.01 mg/l of commercially available

Diazinon (Dragon®) and a control group.

Mortality was first observed after 24 h and data

were adjusted accordingly with two regression models:

binomial logit model (Collet 2003) and the probit model

(Finney 1971), with the help of STATGRAPHICS

package. This statistical procedure consent the estimation

of regression parameters by maximum likelihood method

and use the percentage of deviance explained as a

measure of fit for comparing the models, and estimates

the median lethal concentration (LC50). The bioassay was


Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 993-1002 995

Figure 2. Yucatan Molly (Poecilia velífera, male) a

native fish of Southeastern Mexico (Credit: Lizbeth

Chumba-Segura)

Figure 1 Cenote (in Spanish) or Sinkhole a common

freshwater ecosystem in the Yucatan area of Mexico

(Credit; Francisco Ucan-Marin).

sustained up to 10 weeks of exposure, where

concentration levels were applied in order to study

severe chronic effects, and a constant concentration of

pesticide in the tanks were monitored. Mortality data

obtained after 10 weeks, excluding the highest

concentration, were analyzed using repeated measures

analysis of variance (ANOVA), considering weeks as

repeated sampling units and using as response variable

the number of dead organisms (base-10 log transformed)

and concentrations as treatments employing Tukey-test

as multiple comparison procedure to distinguish the dose

effects, including the control group (Kuehl 2001).

Repeated measure ANOVA were carried out with PAST

software (Hammer et al., 2001), version 2.14 and for all

statistical analyses, the significant level of 5% was

considered as appropriated. Finally, to aid in the

interpretation of results, standardized mortality was

calculated according to the following expression

(Raymond 1985):

Where ME is the standardized mortality, MT is

the death occurred in each dose and MC the mortality

that occurred in the control group. This expression

allows separating the mortality caused by the pesticide of

natural mortality.

RESULTS

Within the first 24 h of exposure, all organisms

exposed to the highest concentration (0.04 mg/l)

perished. Diazinon effects on the exposed fish began to

be noticeable at the moment of the first exposure, where

erratic swimming behavior and disruption in the posture

were clearly observable. Fish exposed started to swim

close to the bottom of the tank, revolving around a single

point, with the head close to the bottom and the body

placed in perpendicular to it. Fish groups exposed at

0.02 and 0.01 mg/l had mortalities of 16% and

52% (Figure 3), and control registered no deaths or

changes in the swimming behavior. Regression analyses

revealed that both; the logit model and probit models, are

appropriate to describe the relationship between

concentration and mortality at 24 hours of exposure.

Both models were highly significant (P < 0.001). Probit

model had greater percentage of deviance in the data

(98.84%) when compared to logit model (97.89%).

According to the probit model, estimates of the

regression parameters are β0 = 2.4246 and β1 = 127.93,

both significantly different from zero according to the

confidence limits at 95% (Table 1). This means that in

the modeling of mortality by effect of diazinon the

intercept (β0) should be considered as an intercept, as a

measure of the response obtained in the absence of

pesticide (natural mortality), and that the association

between pesticide dose and mortality is direct and

significant, given that mortality is increased nearly 124

units (on average) by each increase in the applied dose of

diazinon.

The estimate of LC50 was 0.0189 mg / l (0.0160

to 0.0231 mg / l, 95% confidence), statistically similar to

the value of intermediate concentration used



Figure 3. Relationship between the concentration of

diazinon and mortality of Yucatan Molly

Poecilia velifera, according to the probit regression

model. The 95% CI for the regression curve is also

included (dotted lines).

(0.02 mg / l), which will cause a mortality of 52%.

Comparing selected data (Table 2) as average for lethal

concentration obtained in this bioassay for freshwater

fish (Figure 4), shows that Yucatan Molly tolerance to

Diazinon exposure is clearly lower. The repeated

measures ANOVA revealed significant differences

between treatments (F= 1164, P<< 0.05 with 2, 29 df). In

fact, the three treatments differ in terms of mortality

(Tukey’s P< 0.05, in all cases): the two sub lethal

concentrations causes mortalities of 9 and 48%

respectively, compared with control (Figure 4). At the

intermediate concentration, which produces five times

greater mortality than the lowest concentration (0.01 mg/

l), swimming disruption was observed after three weeks

of exposure. In the fourth week we observed that one fish

had damage in the orbits and visible spine paralysis,

which prevented movement and feeding. The fish died a

few hours after this behavior first appeared. At the

seventh week another fish was observed also with severe

spinal paralysis. In both cases, fish were not able to feed

for themselves and perished.

DISCUSSION

Given the intensive use of pesticides in Yucatan,

several evaluations of the quality of groundwater have

been done; mainly assessing areas specialized in growing

citrus and vegetables (Cobos-Gasca et al., 1997; Santos-

Vázquez 1989; Cabrera et al., 1992). These studies have

shown that the presence of these contaminants in the

aquifer is linked to the rainfall season. During this event

the rain wash and carry the all sort of organic compounds



1

10

100

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Weeks

Mo

rtali

ty (

100%

) L

og

ari

thm

ic

Control

0.01 mg/L

0.02 mg/L

Figure 4. Yucatan molly (Poecilia velifera)

accumulative mortality for each treatment during

the 10 weeks of exposure to Diazinon.

Table 2. Comparative levels of LC 50 (lethal concentration, 50%) of Diazinon

(mg /l) for some freshwater fish.

Species LC50 Time of exposure Reference

Channa punctata (Bloch, 1793) 11.00 96 h Robertson and Mazella, 1989 Carassius auratus (Linnaeus, 1758) 9.01 96 h Turner L, 2002

Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758) 7.83 96 h Giron-Perez et al., 2007

Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus, 1758) 4.97 96 h Turner L, 2002

Cyprinodon variegatus (Lacepède, 1803) 1.47 96 h Turner L, 2002

Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum, 1792) 5.52 24 h Robertson and Mazella, 1989

Lepomis macrochirus (Rafinesque, 1819) 0.76 24 h Robertson and Mazella, 1989

Micropterus salmoides (Lacepède, 1802) 0.09 24 h Robertson and Mazella, 1989

Danio rerio (Hamilton, 1822) 2.52 96 h Turner L, 2002

Poecilia sphenops (Cuvier, 1846) 1.65 96 h Turner L, 2002

Gambusia affinis (Baird and Girard, 1853) 1.27 48 h Turner L, 2002

Poecilia reticulata (Peters, 1859) 0.08 96 h Turner L, 2002 Poecilia velifera (Regan, 1914) 0.02 24 h * Present study

Table 1. Estimates of the regression parameters

according to the probit regression model.

Parameter Estimation SE CI 95%

β0 -2.42 0.43 -4.46, -0.39

β1 127.93 26.97 11.87, 243.98

SE = standard error, CI = confidence interval

passing over calcareous soil, which cause difficulty of

absorption into the subsoil. If a compound is exposed

directly over the karstic soil, the heat and light of the

tropics are a decisive factor to their breakdown. Also,

due to the edaphological characteristics of the area, these

do not allow bacterial enzymes to speed the breakdown

of Diazinon. However, since the pesticide is stored in

cold water underground, the persistence of Diazinon is

an environmental concern. Toxicology studies assessing

other native fish species to the Yucatan Peninsula, the

mosquito fish Gambusia yucatana (Rendón von-Osten

et al., 2005) determined, granted midsize lethal

concentration (LC50 of 0.085 mg/l for chlorpyrifos, 17.79

mg/l for glyphosate, 0.636 mg/l for carbofuran and

0.011 mg/l for a mixture of chlorpyrifos and glyphosate).

Chlorpyrifos (IUPAC name: O,O-diethyl O-3,5,6-

trichloropyridin-2-yl phosphorothioate) after 96 h of

exposure had LC50 values of 0.085 mg/l in mosquito fish

(Rendón von-Osten et al., 2005).

Our results showed that Diazinon is extremely

toxic to the Yucatan molly fry, with high probability to

cause mortality as these chemicals enter the surrounding

aquatic ecosystems (wells, watersheds and sinkholes)

where frequent use is registered for this pesticide (Cobos

-Gasca et al., 1997). Differences in LC50 values among

different species may be due to physiological and

ecological factors, although most fish are sensitive to

Diazinon, it is known that fish living in fresh and hard

(calcium-bicarbonate-containing) waters are more

resistant to those who live in saltwater environments

(Banaeea et al., 2011).

The abnormal behavioral responses (loss of

equilibrium, hanging vertically in the water, rapid gill

movement, erratic swimming, swimming at the water

surface, and staying motionless on the aquarium bottom)

of the Yucatan Molly in the present study are similar

behavioral responses observed with the guppy

[Poecilia reticulate] (Viran et al., 2003), freshwater

catfish [Heteropneustes fossilis] (Saha and Kaviraj 2003)

and young mirror carp [Cyprinus carpio] (Calta and Ural

2004). Nevertheless, the physiological response has been

extensively analyzed, where it has been recently

observed by Ucan-Marin et al., (2012) that the Brain

Acethyl cholinesterase is the main enzyme affected by

OP insecticides. Briefly, the mechanism of action of OP

insecticides is based on the irreversible inhibition of

Brain Acethylcholinesterase (AChE) which leads to the

accumulation of ACh in synapses resulting in an initial

over-stimulation of neurotransmission followed by

depression of neurotransmission, paralysis, and eventual

death (Pope 1999). The disruption of AChE activity

either above or below 50% of normal has been

considered as a valid indicator of adverse effects

(De Marco et al., 2002). The loss of mobility and lack of

coordination in animals previously exposed to pesticides

is often attributed to a decrease in the activity of brain

AChE (Arufe et al., 2007). Yet, the same effect was

observed when brain AChE activity is increased, Zatta

et al., (2002) studied mice exposed to aluminum and

reported that brain AChE increased activity also has the

effects of paralysis and lack of control in the mobility.

One of the possible mechanisms of action of

Diazinon is centered on its potent ability to open

g-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-gated ClK channels

(Campbell 1989) in both invertebrates and vertebrates.

Ucan-Marin et al., (2012) studied salmon smolts and

observed that behavioral symptoms similar to those

associated with Diazinon are observed when AChE

disruption is present, where either an elevated or

depressed significantly brain AChE activity can be a



Table 3. Qualitative descriptors for categories of fish

and aquatic invertebrate toxicity (from Zucker, 1985)

LC50 or EC50 Category description

< 0.1 ppm Very highly toxic

0.1- 1 ppm Highly toxic

> 1 ppm Moderately toxic

> 10 < 100 ppm Slightly toxic

> 100 ppm Practically non-toxic

response to stress (Nijholt et al., 2004). Diazinon can

be metabolized to diazoxon by cytochrome P-450

monooxygenase (Hogan and Knowles 1972). This

compound, which is a potent inhibitor of the brain

acetylcholine esterase (Ucan-Marin et al., 2012), is

usually not detectable in vivo because of its rapid

hydrolysis, catalyzed by the oxonase, to 2-methyl-6-

isopropyl -4-pyr imidinol (pyr imidinol). The

monooxygenase-catalyzed reaction accomplishes also an

oxidative ester cleavage (Sultatos 1991). So, the

production of diazoxon is accompanied by the concurrent

formation of other metabolites, including pyrimidino1

(Fuji and Asaka 1982). Finally, Diazinon can also be a

substrate for the glutathione S-transferase, which cleaves

an ethyl group from the phosphate and gives rise to the

S-ethyl-glutathione conjugate (de Bruijn I and

Hermens 1991). The remaining portion of the OP may be

hydrolyzed by phosphodiesterases to give pyrimidinol

and other products. Since monooxygenases are present

in fish with very different levels, it is likely that the rate

of formation of the oxon from diazinon as well as

from other organophosphothionates, acts in combination

with the AChE affinity to cause the species-specific

toxicity of OPs among fish (Keizer et al., 1995).

In-vivo evaluation of Yucatan molly as

biomarkers is highly significant due to the capacity to

react to a real environmental exposure. In-vitro studies

do not assess the specifics and co-factor triggered

responses, in fact the main drawback of in-vitro toxicity

tests is their apparently lower sensitivity compared

to fish (Castano et al., 2003; Segner 2004) which

restricts their use as alternative to the acute fish tests.

Because of its aquatic distribution capabilities, Diazinon

affects a wide range of non-target organisms like

invertebrates, mammals, birds, and fish; but especially

animals inhabiting aquatic ecosystems (Burkepile et al.,

2000). During the present study, the Yucatan Molly was

used as the most sensible fish for monitoring

the presence of Diazinon near extensive and

intensive agricultural activities.

CONCLUSION

In the present study we obtained an LC50 of 0.02

mg/L (24h) for young (fry) Yucatan molly

Poecilia velifera (Regan 1914) and due to its high

sensibility to Organophosphate compounds (OP) can be

used as a bioindicator for the presence of pesticides in

the aquatic ecosystems in the Yucatan Peninsula,

Mexico. P. velifera is an exceptional sensible fish able to

physiologically react to very low concentrations of

Diazinon present in their ecosystems. Since Diazinon is

used today in diverse agricultural activities in Latin

America, therefore the use of P. velifera as a first class

biomarker could improve the time, precision and costs of

monitoring practices.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We want to thank to the personal at the

Experimental Biology at the Autonomous University of

Yucatan (UADY). The funding for this study was

obtained trough the Yucatan Contaminants Monitoring

Program (V Cobos-Gasca) and Aquaponika Ltd.

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Article Citation: Vipin Vyas and Kripal Singh Vishwakarma Species diversity and assemblage of fish fauna of Sip River: A tributary of Narmada River Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1003-1008 Jou

rn

al of R

esearch

in

Biology

Species diversity and assemblage of fish fauna of Sip River:

A tributary of Narmada River

Keywords: Biodiversity, Sip River, Narmada River, Conservation, Ecosystem

ABSTRACT: The Sip River is a tributary of the River Narmada, joining Narmada right bank just upstream of Indira Sagar Reservoir. A systematic study of fish diversity in River Sip has been neglected and the information on this aspects in scanty, either very old or not been updated for decades. Keeping this in view, the present study was conducted. The aim of this study is to document ichthyofauna and to provide measures for their conservation. The present work was done from the period of May 2011 to April 2012. A total of 29 species belonging to 17 genera, eight families and three orders were recorded. A total of 427 individuals were caught from eight stations. The most abundant group of fish was Cyprinidae. Out of all these, Rasbora daniconius has the maximum number of individuals (116) recorded from all sites and contributes 27.16% of the total population.

1003-1008 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5

This article is governed by the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which gives permission for unrestricted use, non-commercial, distribution and reproduction in all medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

www.jresearchbiology.com

Journal of Research in Biology

An International


Authors:

Vipin Vyas* and Kripal

Singh Vishwakarma

Institution:

Department of

Environmental Science and

Limnology, Barkatullah

University, Bhopal-462026,

India


Vipin Vyas

Email Id:


Dates: Received: 13 July 2013 Accepted: 26 July 2013 Published: 10 Aug 2013


Original Research

INTRODUCTION

The Narmada River is a west flowing river of

central India which has been extensively studied for its

ecological aspects. Ichthyofaunal diversity of Narmada

has been documented by various workers in concern of

fish community by Hora and Nair (1941),

Karamchandani et al., (1967), Vyas et al., (2007). Most

of these studies were confined to the main river but

tributaries have not been studied yet.

Some recent works on various aspects of fish

diversity were also confined to central part of the river

Narmada (Vyas et al., 2007). Very first record of fish

diversity of Narmada was on the hill stream of Satpura

ranges (Hora and Nair 1941). Later Tawa and Barna

tributaries were dammed to form reservoirs and studies

were done on these reservoirs. Vyas et al., (2009)

worked on Ganjal River which joins Narmada River near

the backwaters of Indira Sagar. No record of fish fauna

of Sip River is available in the present literature.

Therefore, our objective in this study is to

document the fish diversity and species composition in

Sip River. The information from this investigation will

serve as a baseline data for carrying out further study on

ecology, conservation, sustainability and management of

fisheries resources of this tributary of Narmada in light

of the changing habitat conditions due to dam formation.

STUDY AREA:

The Narmada River is one of the three major

rivers in peninsular India. It flows over a length of

1312km before draining through the Gulf of Cambay

into the Arabian Sea. Narmada receives 41 principal

tributaries. Out of which 22 tributaries join from the left

bank and 19 from the right bank. The river under the

study is a right bank tributary of river Narmada namely

Sip river. The Sip river originates near Ramdasi village

of Ichhawar Tehsil in Sehore district of Madhya Pradesh,

(Longitude 77° 11’ E and Latitude 22° 34’ N) at an

elevation of above 432 M msl and joins river Narmada

near village Satdev of Narsurlaganj Tehsil in Sehore

district, (Longitude 76° 56’ E and Latitude 22° 54’N) at

an elevation of above 292 M msl. Total length of Sip

River is about 68 km. The catchment area of Sip river

basin is shown in Map – 01.

Fish sampling was conducted at eight pre-

selected locations in the river Sip namely Kaliyadev,

Ambha Kadim, Jhirniya, Chhapri, Pandagaon,

Confluence Point of Sip River, Up Stream Sip –

Narmada River Confluence and Down Stream Sip –

Narmada River Confluence.

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

Sampling and Analysis:

Physicochemical Analysis:

During the study, water samples were collected

at seasonal interval during May 2011 and April 2012,

using clean 1L-polyethylene bottle for analysis of water

variables in the laboratory from preselected station of the

river. The water quality parameters such as air and water

temperature, pH, Secchi Disc transparency, alkalinity

(carbonate and bicarbonate) and dissolved oxygen were

measured on in the field itself. The air and water

temperature was recorded with the help of mercury

thermometer, pH, conductivity and turbidity were

recorded through digital equipment and dissolved

oxygen was analyzed use Modified Winkle’s Method.

The methodology adopted for the analysis of

physicochemical properties was followed from American

Public Health Association (APHA, 1998) and Adoni

et al., (1985).

Collection of fish:

Th e fi sh es wer e col l ect ed us ing

monofilamentaous gill nets of 10-50 mm mesh size. We

also used cast nets of 10-25 mm mesh size for collecting

fish in shallow areas. Fish specimens were also collected

from different fish landing sites. All specimens were

preserved in 4% formaldehyde solution at the field.

Vyas and Vishwakarma, 2013


Laboratory Procedures:

Fishes brought to laboratory were preserved in

10% formaldehyde solution in separate specimen jar

according to the size of specimen. The fishes were

identified using standard keys of Jayaram (1981),

Qureshi and Qureshi (1983), Jhingran (1991), Day

Francis (1994) and Shrivastava (1998). Fish Base

website was also referred for various aspects of fish

fauna (www.fishbase.org).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

At the period of this study, the two seasons were:

dry (October- June) and wet (July – September), pH (7.0-

8.9), air temperature (27°C - 36°C) , water temperature

(22°C -31°C), transparency (09cm - 90cm), conductivity

(270 µ/cm - 618µ/cm), free Co2 (22 mg/l – 50 mg/l), total

alkalinity (182 mg/l – 504 mg/l), Dissolved oxygen (6.4

mg/l -13.6 mg/L), chloride (7.94 mg/l - 69.5 mg/l), total

hardness (90 mg/l – 190 mg/l), calcium hardness (46.2

mg/l – 102 mg/l), magnesium hardness (43.8 mg/l – 88

mg/l), and Turbidity (1.05 NTU -15.4 NTU). The river

serves as a source of water for irrigation.

During the present study of fish biodiversity of

Sip River, a total of 29 species belonging to eight

families and 17 different genera and three orders were

recorded. The species were collected at different

sampling sites during May 2011 to April 2012. The

members of family Cyprinidae were dominated with 19

species, followed by Cobitidae three species,

Ophiocephalidae two species, Gobiidae one species,

Heteropneustidae one species, Siluridae one species,

Ambassidae one species, Bagridae one species. Family

Cyprinidae was represented by the Oxygaster bacaila,

Oxygaster gora, Rasbora daniconius, Garra gotyla,

Puntius sophore, Puntius dorsalis, Puntius conchonius,

Puntius sarana, Puntius chola, Puntius chrysopterus,

Puntius ticto, Amblypharyngodon mola, Danio devario,

Labeo bata, Labeo boga, Labeo pangusia, Labeo

calbasu, Aspidoparia jaya and Tor tor Family Cobitidae

by Lepidocephalichthys guntea, Nemacheilus botia and

Nemacheilus duyi, Bagridae by Mystus bleekeri,

Heteropneustidae by Heteropneustes fossilis, Siluridae

by Ompok bimaculatus, Gobiidae by Glossogobius

giuris, Ambassidae by Chanda ranga, Ophiocephalidae

by Channa gachua and Channa striatus. From all the

stations, Cyprinidae formed the largest dominant family

contributing the 19 species (62.06%); Cobitidae formed

the subdominant family contributing three species

(10.32%) and rest of the family followed the order of

abundance.

During the studies 427 fish individuals were

collected from eight sites, belonging to three orders,

eight families, 17 genera and 29 species (Table -1). Out

of all these, Rasbora daniconius has the maximum

number of individuals found from all the sites. The



Map – 01: Map showing Sip river and its catchment

area in Narmada basin

dominant species, Rasbora daniconius has total 116

individuals (27.16%) followed by Danio devario with 59

individuals (13.81%) and Puntius conchonius with 47

individuals (11%) respectively. The least abundant fish

was Lepidocephalichthys guntea with one individual

(0.23%).

Among all these families Cyprinidae was the

most dominant family constituting (88.75%) which is

followed by Cobitidae (5.38%), Bagridae (2.81%)

Heteropneustidae and Ophiocephalidae (0.93%) and

Siliuridae and Ambassidae (0.46%) and Gobiidae

(0.23%) respectively (Figure-1). Vyas et al., (2006- 07)

reported, a total of 47 species of fishes belonging to 29

genera, 15 families and six orders in the Hoshangabad

stretch of River Narmada.

Vyas et al., (2012) worked on fish biodiversity of

Betwa River, a total of 60 fish species belonging to 18

families and 36 genera were recorded. Verma and

Kanhere (2007) revealed that at least 39 species in

Narmada River are declined and considered as threatened



S.No Order Family Species

1 Cypriniformes Cobitidae Lepidocephalichthys guntea

2 Nemacheilus botia

3 Nemacheilus duyi

4 Cyprinidae Oxygaster bacaila

5 Oxygaster gora

6 Rasbora daniconius

7 Garra gotyla

8 Puntius sophore

9 Puntius dorsalis

10 Puntius conchonius

11 Puntius sarana

12 Puntius chola

13 Puntius chrysopterus

14 Puntius ticto

15 Amblypharyngodon mola

16 Danio devario

17 Labeo pangusia

18 Labeo bata

19 Labeo boga

20 Labeo calbasu

21 Tor tor

22 Aspidoparia jaya

23 Bagridae Mystus bleekeri

24 Heteropneustidae Heteropneustes fossilis

25 Siluridae Ompok bimaculatus

26 Perciformes Gobiidae Glossogobius giuris

27 Ambassidae Chanda ranga

28 Ophiocephaliformes Ophiocephalidae Channa gachua

29 Channa striatus

Table - 1: Systematic Position of fish fauna of Sip River

species or endangered species.

Various workers have done work on main river

whereas very little is known about the tributaries of

Narmada river. First detailed work on Narmada was done

by Karamchandani et al., (1967) which recorded 77 fish

species belonging to 41 genera, 19 families and seven

orders. In a stretch from Jabalpur to Khalghat Anon

(1971) reported 46 species belonging to 27 genera, 14

families and seven orders. Rao et al., (1991) have

undertaken pre impoundment survey at Punasa,

Omkareshwar, Mandleswar, Maheshwar and Barwani

pertaining to the river and have enlisted 84 fish species

belonging to 45 genera, 20 families and six orders.

Hora and Nair (1941) Very first recorded 41

species of fish from River Narmada on the hill stream of

Satpura ranges. Vyas et al., (2009) studied on fish fauna

some tributaries of River Narmada and recorded 52

species belonging to 28 genera, 13 families and seven

orders. Bose et al., (2013) have reported 57 species,

belonging to 35 genera, 13 families and six orders from

middle stretch of river Tawa.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, increased fishing pressure exerted

from overfishing activity of the artisanal fishermen that

operating in this water body and farming activities

around the river as factors that were probably responsible

for low fish composition and diversity in Sip River. This

study could serve as baseline data in assisting relevant

bodies in the management and conservation of fisheries

resources of this river where there are dearth of

information related to its fish and fisheries. Moreover

formation of reservoirs on the main river course and on

its tributaries may result in the change in fish faunas in

due course of time.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Authors are thankful to Dr. Dinesh Damde and

Dr. Vivek Parashar for their kind support during the

work. Thanks are due to Mr. Ankit Kumar, Mrs. Reetu

Sharma and Mr. Shyam Panwar who helped during field

visits. Our special thanks are due to the University

Grants Commission, New Delhi for providing funds in

the form of Major Research Project during the course of

present investigation.

REFERENCES

Adoni AD, Joshi G, Ghosh K, Chourasia SK,

Vaishya AK, Yadav M and Verma HG. 1985.

Workbook on Limnology. Pratibha Publishers, Sagar

India, 1-127.

Anon. 1971. Fisheries Department, M.P. Fisheries

Survey in Narmda River, 1967-1971.

APHA. 1998. Standard methods for the examination of

water and wastewater, American Public Health

Association, Washington, DC.

Bose AK, Jha BC, Suresh VR, Das AK, Parasar A

and Ridhi. 2013. Fishes of the Middle Stretch of River

Tawa, Madhya Pradesh, India. J. Chem. Bio. Phy. Sci.

Sec., A, 3(1): 706-716.

Day Francis. 1994. The Fishes of India, Jagmander

Book Agency, New Delhi.

Hora SL and Nair KK. 1941. Fishes of Satpura Range,

Hoshangabad District, Central Province, Rec. Indian

Mus., 43.361-373.



Figure 1. Family wise fish species of Sip River

Jayaram KC. 1981. The Freshwater fishes of India,

Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Srilanka, A handbook

Edited by Zoological, Survey of India Calcutta-12.

Jhingran VG. 1991. Fish and Fisheries of India,

Hindustan Pub. Co., New Delhi, 727.

Karamchandani SJ, Desai VR, Pisolkar MD, and

Bhatnagar GK. 1967. Biological investigation on the

fish and fisheries of Narmada River (1958-66). Bull cent.

Inland Fish. Res. Inst. Barrackpore, 10:40 (Mimeo).

Qureshi TA and Qureshi NA. 1983. Indian fishes,

Publishers: Brij Brothers, Sultania Road, Bhopal. (M.P.)

5-209.

Rao KS, Chatterjee SN, and Singh K Anil. 1991.

Studies on preimpoundment fishery potential of

Narmada Basin (Western Region) in the context of Indira

Sagar, Maheshwar, Omkareshwar and Sardar Sarovar

reservoirs. J.Inland Fish India. 23 (1): 41-44

Shrivastava G. 1998. Fishes of U.P. and Bihar, Sevnth

edition, Vishwavidyalaya Prakashan, Chowk Varanasi

India Pub.

Verma D, and Kanhere RR. 2007. Threatened

Ichthyofauna of the River Narmada in Western Zone.

Life Sciences Bulletin, 4(1 and 2), 17-20

Vyas V, Bara S, Parashar V, Damde D and Tuli RP.

2006. Temporal variation in fish biodiversity of River

Narmada in Hoshangabad Region. Fishing Chimes.27:

49-53.

Vyas V, Parashar V, Bara S and Damde D. 2007.

Fish catch composition of River Narmada with reference

to common fishing gears in Hoshangabad area. National

Bulletin of Life Sciences, 4(1 and 2): 1-6.

Vyas V, Damde D and Parashar V. 2009.

Fish diversity of Narmada in submergence area of

Indra Sagar Reservair. Journal of Inland Fish

Soc.India.41(2`): 18-25.

Vyas V, Damde D and Parashar V. 2012. Fish

Biodiversity of Betwa River in Madhya Pradesh, India

with Special reference to Sacred Ghat. Int. J. Biodiv.

Con., 4(2): 71-77.




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Article Citation: Animesh Dey, Susmita Debnath, Biplab Debbarma and PS Chaudhuri. A preliminary study on spider diversity from a house hold garden (artificial mixed plantation) in West Tripura, India. Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1009-1017

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Biology

A preliminary study on spider diversity from a house hold garden

(artificial mixed plantation) in West Tripura, India

Keywords: Spider diversity, artificial mixed plantation, salticidae, insect predator

ABSTRACT: Insects are the largest taxonomic group in the animal kingdom and their significant role in ecology needs no description. Spiders are exclusively predatory, hence can play a very important role in regulation of insect population in any ecosystem. Comprehensive study of spider fauna of Tripura has not been carried out yet. In our present study, we are attempting to provide relevant information regarding spiders. This information may serve as the baseline documentation for future studies in Tripura. A survey was carried out during July 2011 to January 2012 in a house garden (artificial mixed plantation) in Khayerpur of west Tripura district. A total of 47 spider species belonging to 36 genera of 14 families were collected. Among all the families, Salticidae dominated the studied assemblage and represents approximately 38% of the total species collected.

1009-1017 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5




An International


Authors:

Animesh Dey1*,

Susmita Debnath1, Biplab

Debbarma1, PS Chaudhuri 2.

Institution:

1. Department of Zoology,

Maharaja Bir Bikram

College, Agartala - 799004,

West Tripura

2. Department of Zoology,

Tripura University,

Suryamaninagar – 799022,

West Tripura


Animesh Dey

Email Id:


Dates: Received: 24 June 2013 Accepted: 18 July 2013 Published: 16 Aug 2013


Original Research

INTRODUCTION

The arachnids are the second largest contributor

(8.3%) of total arthropod diversity after insects. Spiders

belong to the order Araneae of class Arachnida and are

one of the diverse and functionally important predators.

Hence, spiders can play a very important role in

regulating the terrestrial arthropod populations

(Coddington and Levi, 1991). Considering, the

potentiality of spiders as bio-control agents of insect

pests and bio-indicator as well, exploration of spider

diversity need to be done with immediate effect. Since

the distribution and occurrence of spiders are greatly

related to habitat structure and vegetation parameters

(Buddle et al., 2000; de Souza and Martins, 2004;

Greenstone, 1984; Uetz, 1991; Wise, 1993), study of

spiders can be very much helpful for understanding

biodiversity patterns (Platnick, 1999). Despite of their

enormous importance in the natural ecosystem, spiders

are largely ignored in conservational studies (Chetia and

Kalita, 2012).

Now-a-days, distribution and diversity of spiders

has been studied in different parts of the world. A well

illustrated account of the diversity, beauty and intricacies

of spiders has been documented by Taylor (1999).

Although few reports on spiders from southern part of

the country are available up to some extent (Charpentier,

1996; Jose and Sebastian, 2001; Jose et al., 2006; Smith,

2004; Sugumaran et al., 2005; Vijayalakshmi and

Ahimaz, 1993), there are scanty records on diversity and

distribution of spiders in India including its north east

part as compared to other regions of the world. In NE

India, diversity of spiders approximately unexplored and

have received least attention in conservation strategies

(Singh et al., 2012). A very few documentations

(Tikader, 1970; Biswas, 2000a, 2000b, 2003, 2004,

2006, 2007) are available on spiders of north east India.

As far as the spider diversity of Tripura is concerned, it

is still not completely explored or understood. The main

aim of this study was to explore the spider species

richness in a house hold garden. Considering the duration

and plot size, this study is far from the complete

exploration of spider fauna of the state. However, it

forms the basis for further investigations on this faunal

group and reveals the importance, as well as potentiality

Dey et al., 2013


Figure 1. Showing the study site (Khayerpur) near Agartala city

of house hold gardens as natural habitat of spider fauna.


The study was conducted during July 2011 to

January 2012 in a house hold garden having an area of

80 m2 in Khayerpur (23° 50' 37.9'' N, 91° 20' 39.9'' E;

elevation 24 m) near to the Agartala city of west Tripura

district (Fig. 1). Since, polyculture house hold gardens

with such type of size are very rare in the core city of

Agartala now a days, the above site is selected for this

preliminary survey of spider fauna near to the city.

Aerial and ground hand collection methods, along with

vegetation beating was mainly used for the collection of

spider specimens. Spiders were searched visually also

under fallen tree branches, leaf litters etc. Collected

specimens were preserved in 70% ethanol for further

identification. Keys and catalogs provided by Biswas and

Biswas (1992, 2003, 2004), Sebastian and Peter (2009)

and Tikader (1987) were followed for the identification

of spider specimen.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A total of 47 spider species were collected from

the studied house hold garden. Among the collected

species of spiders, eighteen species belong to the family

Salticidae, seven species to the family Araneidae, three

species each to the family Tetragnathidae, Lycosidae and

Thomisidae, two species each to the family Nephilidae,

Oxyopidae, Sparassidae, and Theridiidae, one species

each to the families Scytodidae, Hersiliidae, Uloboridae,

Corinnidae and Miturgidae (Table 1). India represents

438 genera (Keswani et al., 2012) from which 36 genera

were recorded during the study. Highest generic diversity

was found in Salicidae (12), Araneidae (6),

Tetragnathidae (3), Lycosidae (3) and Thomisidae (2)

(Fig. 2). Among the collected spiders, four (Cyrtophora

unicolor, Camaricus maugi, Nephila pilipes, Heteropoda

cervina) and one (Menemerus bivittatus) species of

spiders were also reported from Australia and USA

respectively (Framenau, 2013; Richman et al., 2005).

Rest are endemic to south-east Asia (Siliwal et al., 2005)

and distribution of four species (Thiania bhamoensis,

Argiope versicolor, Cyrtophora unicolor, Amyciaea

lineatipes) are reported in India for the first time

(Keshwani et al., 2012).

A total of 1686 spider species accounts with

India (Keswani et al., 2012) and 47 species are recorded

during the study from a small house hold garden.

Records on spider diversity from the other parts of the

country viz. Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Sikkim,

Calcutta and Assam (Chetia and Kalita, 2012; Singh

et al., 2012; Tikader and Biswas, 1981; Tikader, 1970,

1977, 1980) are comparable with the observations of the

present study. Highest species diversity was shown by

Salticidae, followed by Araneidae, Tetragnathidae,

Lycosidae, Thomisidae etc. (Fig. 3). Plexippus paykulli

was found to be most abundant in the studied garden

followed by Phintella vittata, Myrmarachne sp1,

Neoscona sp, Araneus mitificus, Pardosa sp, Camaricus

formosus etc. Out of total spider species recorded, about

48 % (22 species) were found to be foliage runner, 28 %

(13 species) were orb web builder, 15 % (7 species) were

ground runner, 6 % (3 species) were ambusher and 4 %

(2 species) were scattered line weber (Fig. 4).

Dey et al., 2013


Figure 2. Showing the total number of genera

represented by different spider families

Dey et al., 2013


Table 1: List of spider species collected from the household garden during study

Family Species Distribution

Salticidae (Foliage runner)

1) Plexippus paykulli (Audouin, 1826) IND, CHN, LKA

2) Plexippus petersi (Karsch, 1878) IND, CHN, SGP

3) Phintella vittata (C. L. Koch, 1846) IND, CHN, MYS

4) Asemonea sp. IND, LKA, THA

5) Phintella versicolor (C. L. Koch, 1846) IND, CHN, MYS

6) Portia labiata (Thorell, 1887) IND, LKA, MYS

7) Epeus sp.1 IND,CHN,MYS,IDN

8) Epeus sp.2 IND,CHN,MYS,IDN

9) Menemerus bivittatus (Dufour, 1831) IND, USA

10) Thiania bhamoensis (Thorell, 1887) SGP, IDN, MYS

11) Telamonia dimidiata (Simon, 1899) IND, IDN, BTN

12) Brettus sp. IND, CHN, LKA

13) Siler sp. IND, LKA

14) Rhene danieli (Tikader, 1973) IND

15) Myrmarachne orientales (Tikader , 1973) IND, PAK

16) Myrmarachne plataleoides (Cambridge, 1869) IND, LKA, CHN

17) Myrmarachne sp.1 IND, LKA, CHN, PAK

18) Myrmarachne sp.2 IND, LKA, CHN, PAK

Araneidae (Orb web builder)

19) Neoscona sp. IND, PAK, CHN

20) Argiope versicolor (Doleschall, 1859) SGP, IDN, VNM

21) Cyclosa sp. IND, LKA, MYS

22) Cyclosa bifida (Doleschall, 1859) IND, LKA, MYS

23) Araneus mitificus (Simon, 1886) IND, PAK, BGD

24) Cyrtophora unicolor (Doleschall, 1857) LKA, PHL, AUS

25) Gasteracantha hasselti (C. L. Koch, 1837) IND, CHN

Tetragnathidae (Orb web builder)

26) Leucauge decorata (Blackwall, 1864) IND, LKA, SGP

27) Opadometa fastigiata (Simon, 1877) IND, PHL

28) Tylorida sp. IND, CHN, AUS

Lycosidae (Ground runner)

29) Lycosa mackenziei (Gravely, 1924) IND, PAK, BGD

30) Pardosa sp. SGP, THA, CHN

31) Hippasa greenalliae (Blackwall, 1867) IND, LKA, CHN

Thomisidae (Ambusher)

32) Camaricus formosus (Thorell, 1887) IND, CHN, PHL

33) Camaricus maugi (Walckenaer, 1837) IND, LKA, AUS

34) Amyciaea lineatipes (Cambridge, 1901) SGP, IDN

35) Nephila kuhlii (Doleschall 1859) IND, LKA, SGP Nephilidae (Orb web builder)

36) Nephila pilipes (Fabricius, 1793) IND, CHN, AUS

According to earlier reports, the spider fauna of

Tripura is represented by 6 families, 15 genera and 27

species (Biswas and Majumder, 2000). Present study

represents 14 families, 36 genera and 47 species (plate 1

and 2), collected from a small house hold garden during

a very small survey, among which 45 species were

reported for the first time from the state. Since, the

present study is not focused on specific spider families

like the previous authors, who studied only six families

(Araneidae, Oxyopidae, Tetragnathidae, Salticidae,

Lycosidae and Heteropodidae) and the survey is carried

out in a natural habitat of spiders, greater species

richness is observed. Hence this study reveals the

potentiality of Tripura state as the reservoir of large

Dey et al., 2013


Figure 4. Graph showing the number of species

represented by different types of spiders

Hersiliidae

Oxyopidae

(Foliage runner)

37) Oxyopes birmanicus (Thorell 1887) IND, LKA, MYS

38) Oxyopes javanus (Thorell 1887) IND, CHN, PHL

Sparassidae

(Ground runner)

39) Heteropoda venatoria (Latreille, 1802) IND, JPN

40) Heteropoda cervina (C. L. Koch, 1875) IND, AUS

Theridiidae

(Scattered line weber)

41) Chrysso sp. IND, CHN, JPN

42) Ariamnes sp. IND, AUS

Scytodidae

(Ground runner)

43) Scytodes pallida (Doleschall 1859) IND, CHN, PHL

Hersiliidae

(Foliage runner)

44) Hersilia sp. IND, LKA, MMR

Uloboridae

(Orb web builder)

45) Zosis sp. IND, TWN

Corinnidae

(Ground runner)

46) Castianeira sp. IND, BGD, BTN

Miturgidae

(Foliage runner)

47) Cheiracanthium danieli Tikader, 1975 IND

Abbreviations: IND – India, CHN - China, LKA – Sri Lanka, SGP – Singapore, MYS – Malaysia, THA –

Thailand, IDN – Indonesia, USA – United States, BTN – Bhutan, PAK – Pakistan, VNM – Viet Nam, BGD –

Bangladesh, PHL – Philippines, AUS – Australia, JPN – Japan, MMR – Myanmar, TWN – Taiwan

Figure 3. Percentage of total species diversity

shared by shared by different spider families

spider diversity. Inter-specific variation in coloration

among different spiders might be linked with different

environmental effects and behavioral patterns observed

on them (Craig and Ebert, 1994; Hoese et al., 2006;

Huber, 2002; Oxford and Gillespie, 1998).

CONCLUSION

Ecological as well as taxonomic information on

Indian spiders are lacking up to a great extent and studies

of spiders on these regards are completely untouched in

Tripura, NE India. Checklist or records of these spiders

are not yet prepared. However, spiders can be considered

as the most efficient one, among the few bio-indicator

species in ecological studies (Kapoor, 2008; Noss, 1990).

Relationship between spider distribution with habitat

patterns and its various patterns of responses to the

different disturbances create complexities in using them

as indicator species (Chetia and Kalita, 2012). This study


Dey et al., 2013

Plate 1. (1) Plexippus paykulli (2) Plexippus petersi (3) Phintella vittata (4) Asemonea sp. (5) Phintella versicolor

(6) Portia labiata (7) Epeus sp.1 (8) Epeus sp.2 (9) Menemerus bivittatus (10) Thiania bhamoensis (11)

Telamonia dimidiata (12) Brettus sp. (13) Siler sp. (14) Rhene danieli (15) Myrmarachne orientales (16)

Myrmarachne plataleoides (17) Myrmarachne sp.1 (18) Myrmarachne sp.2 (19) Neoscona sp. (20) Argiope

versicolor (21) Cyclosa sp. (22) Cyclosa bifida (23) Araneus mitificus (24) Cyrtophora unicolor

shows information related to the species distribution in a

particular habitat and the importance of house hold

gardens in maintaining and conserving spider diversity.

The study also reveals the potentiality of the state as the

reservoir of diversified spider fauna. Detailed studies on

the spider fauna of the state and inclusion of spiders in

conservational strategies are recommended.

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Article Citation: Reuben K. Esena Constraints in the control of animal trypanosomiasis by cattle farmers in coastal savannah of Ghana: Quality aspects of drug use Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1018-1031 Jou

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Constraints in the control of animal trypanosomiasis by cattle farmers in

coastal savannah of Ghana: Quality aspects of drug use

ABSTRACT: Cattle trypanosomiasis is a major constraint to livestock development in Ghana and is demonstrated by the fact that cattle farmers treat the disease by themselves. The main objective of this study is to identify the constraints associated with the control of trypanosomiasis by cattle farmers. To identify the constraints, 250 herdsmen were interviewed on the use of trypanocides to treat cattle trypanosomiasis. The interview focused on treatment procedures such as knowledge of diagnosis, trypanosomiasis treatment procedures, dilutions, injection techniques, volume of trypanocides used and prophylaxis use. The data were supplemented by relevant records and information from the following sources: Department of Veterinary Technical officers (Community Animal Health/Frontline Staffs), District veterinary doctors and the National Head of Tsetse and trypanosomiasis Control Unit. To empirically estimate the marginal effect of constraints affecting the control of trypanosomiasis, multiple regression equations were run on the PC-SPSS version 16 programme by Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) analysis. In this analysis, the “general to specific” approach of Hendry as found by Koutsoyiannis (1977) was adopted in order to arrive at a coherent regression results. This provided a reliable means of recommending appropriate and effective control strategies and good drug services for traditional husbandry systems. In this research, certain factors were identified as affecting cattle production. They are, inappropriate dosage of Berenil® used by farmers, selective treatments adopted, pour-on techniques and lack of extension training. Others were the criteria for treatments, inappropriate treatment intervals, underdosing of Berenil® used, and cost of inputs and services. Some others were injection techniques, lack of knowledge of trypanocides and dilution of drugs. These are factors that affect productivity and need to be addressed by policy makers especially by the Veterinary department to improve drug use by herdsmen.

1018-1031 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5



www.jresearchbiology.com

Journal of Research in Biology

An International


Authors:

Reuben K. Esena

Institution:

Department of Health Policy

Planning and Management,

School of Public Health, University of Ghana,

Legon - Accra, Ghana


Reuben K. Esena

Email Id:


Dates: Received: 13 July 2013 Accepted: 07 Aug 2013 Published: 20 Aug 2013


Original Research

Keywords: Trypanocides, Berenil® Trypanosomiasis, Constraints, Drug use, Quality Control.

INTRODUCTION

Certain policies have been instrumental in

affecting veterinary drug use, especially trypanocide in

Africa. Prominent among these policies is the Structural

Adjustment Programme (SAP) which has been a strong

factor in the move towards privatization in Africa. A

“free market policy” as a component of SAP, has

triggered privatisation and commercialisation of almost

all sectors of the economy including animal production

and the social marketing of Veterinary drugs (especially

trypanocides) by the private sector. The belief was that,

a free market with price flexibility could maximize the

effect of SAP and thereby stimulate economic growth.

But the decentralization of the ministry of food and

agriculture as a component of SAP created stagnation in

national livestock services projects because of unclear

responsibilities and lack of communication at national,

regional and district levels (Ghana, 1998a) and thereby

enabling cattle farmers to treat their own livestock –

especially animal trypanosomiasis.

The constraints inherent in SAPs does not only

affect the poorest sections of the population, but also

failing to steer the economy towards self-sustaining

development (Araka Morna et al., 1990). In the

agricultural sector for example, the rapid change in the

privatization of the veterinary services and provision of

drugs has serious implications on disease control. In

fact, the failure of livestock production to grow and

contribute to national development is not only due to

policy changes, nor lack of requisite drugs, inputs and

finance. Indeed it is related to drug use.

Until the problems and constraints associated

with drug use against animal diseases are recognised,

policy reforms promoting livestock production cannot be

implemented. This section discusses some important

aspects of veterinary drug use especially trypanocides for

cattle trypanosomiasis control and makes

recommendations. A comprehensive quantification of

the impact of trypanosomiasis control on productivity by

herdsmen has never been attempted mainly due to a

paucity of data on such important factors as diagnosis of

the disease, drug dosages, farmers’ knowledge of

trypanosomiasis and treatment strategies. Prominent

among these constraints is the lack of knowledge of on

the effects of the disease on livestock productivity;

especially the difficulties in quantifying the values of

livestock and their products in traditional husbandry

systems (ILCA, 1992a).

At the herd or household level, livestock

productivity can be measured in terms of the output of

meat, milk, inputs of preventive and curative treatments

using trypanocidal drugs (Swallow, 2000) whilst

incomes, expenditures and profits are commonly used

economic measures. Therefore this procedure, analyses

the annual costs of livestock products such as milk, meat,

manure, hides, and cost of cattle sales in economic terms.

Infact, cattle farmers are more concerned with

profitability of the use of trypanocide in relation to their

livestock and products rather than the products by itself.

The productivity in this study was therefore measured

and calculated for sales and profits and analysed in the

model.

African Trypanosomiasis is one of the most

important constraints to livestock development in sub-

Saharan Africa. Despite almost a century of research on

the subject, and considerable investments, little impact

has been made on its control. African trypanosomiasis

are caused by species of trypanosomes, protozoan

parasites (Trypanosoma congolense, T. vivax, T. brucei)

that are transmitted by tsetse flies. Currently, the only

effective treatment is the continuous dosage of

trypanocidal drugs such as Diminazene aceturate

(Berenil®) and Isometamedium chloride (Samorin®). In

an area of intensive tsetse challenge, each animal may

need several treatments per year.

This study examines the impact of a spectrum of

factors on sales, profits, drug use and the prevalence of

animal trypanosomiasis among cattle farmers in the

Esena, 2013


coastal Savannah zone of Ghana. This is necessary to

identify major factors influencing production and to

quantify the relationships. It will also help to inform

farmers on the appropriate choice of control measures for

cattle trypanosomiasis in the coastal savannah. The

objective is to establish a relationship between cattle

management practices and cattle productivity as found in

the village production systems where animal

trypanosomiasis is controlled by cattle farmers

themselves. Identifying the procedures and constraints

associated with the control of animal trypanosomiasis by

cattle farmers is what this research seeks to answer. The

models used for the analysis consist of trypanosomiasis

prevalence, drug use and sales and variable profit

functions.

METHODOLOGY

Trypanocide usage and the constraints in the control

of trypanosomiasis by livestock keepers

Knowledge of diagnosis and treatment

procedures of trypanosomiasis by 250 herdsmen was

assessed by questionnaire to interview respondents on

the use of trypanocides to treat cattle trypanosomiasis.

Records included the volume of berenil administered to

cattle. The data were supplemented by relevant records

and information from the following sources: Department

of Veterinary Technical officers (Community Animal

Health/Frontline Staffs), District veterinary doctors and

the National Head of Tsetse and trypanosomiasis Control

Unit.

The Models

The research problem discussed in this section

considers the impact of farming practices associated with

sales and profits on cattle farms. Sales turnover is a

measure for defining the scale of enterprises (Harper,

1984). Value added or profit, which is the difference

between sales and the cost of purchased material

supplied or labour, is a further refinement and

theoretically preferable version of sales turnover. The

reason is that profit measures the scale of what actually

happens in the businesses and excludes the value of

materials which are merely bought and sold (Harper,

1984).

This study is the type needed at the micro-level

for the successful implementation of agricultural

economics and drug use policies. Another advantage of

this model is that it helps in the forecasts on sales and

profits of cattle productivity as well as factors associated

with the control of trypanosomiasis. The research

problem is linked to a policy question and the approach

to the policy question is in turn embedded in the

econometric framework.

Variables used for the Models

The collection and organization of data for this

model is described and presented below. Data were

required for the dependent variables (sales, profit,

trypanosomiasis prevalence, Berenil® dose rate) and

independent variables and are presented as follows:

s = Dependent Variable 1: Sales ($)

π = Dependent Variable 2: Profit ($)

λ=Dependen t Var iabl e 3 :Tr ypan osomiasi s

Prevalence (%)

σ = Dependent Variable 4: Dosage of Berenil (mg/kg

body wt)

Independent Variables:

VAL.INPUTS: Value of Inputs (in US$)

COST.SERVICES; Cost of Veterinary Services

(in US$)

AGE.ENTPRISE: Age of enterprise or kraal (years)

MANAGEMNT.EXP : Management Experience (years)

HERD.SIZE : Herd size (number of cattle)

DOSE Dosage: Estimated Berenil® dosage (milligrams/

kg body weight of cattle)

0 = < 1.9 1 = 1.9-3.4 2 = 3.5-7.0

EDUCATN: Education of herdsman

0=No education, 1 = Basic/primary/JSS,

2 = Secondary/Technical, 3= Training College/Diploma/

University

Esena, 2013


EXTN.TRG : Extension training (1 if herdsman received

extension training, 0 if otherwise)

BUSS.OWN: Business Ownership of livestock (1 if

partnership, 0 if sole ownership)

ENCOUNTER.TSETSE : Encounter tsetse during

migrations, movements or grazing (1 if cattle do not

encounter tsetse flies during cattle migrations, 0 if

encounter tsetse flies during cattle migrations or grazing)

KNOW.TRYPANOCIDE : Knowledge of Trypanocides

( 1 if farmer has knowledge of Trypanocides, 0 if

otherwise)

PROF.ADVICE : Professional advice. (1 if farmer seeks

or adopts Veterinary Technical advice on trypanocide

use, 0 if farmer does not seek professional advice

prior to trypanocide use).

DILUTION : Dilution of trypanocides (1 if correct

dilution of trypanocide-Berenil® i.e. 1 sachet of Berenil®

in 125mls of distilled water, 0 if otherwise)

INJECTION.TECNIQUE: Injection Techniques

(1 if farmer uses appropriate needles ie 4 cm (16G)

1.5 mm and injects at appropriate sites i.e. neck or rump

and excess injected at two separate sites; or injection by

Veterinary Technical officer and 0 if otherwise).

TREATMT.INTERVALS: Treatment Intervals. Correct

intervals (3 to 4 months) between Treatments 1,

prolonged intervals (> 6 months) between treatments 0)

SANATIVE.PAIR: Sanative pair. Uses sanative pair of

drugs (Isometamedium and Diminazene)for

trypanosomiasis treatment 1; does not use sanative pair

of drugs, 0)

SELECTIVE.TREATMT: Selective treatment. Adopts

selective treatment of infected cattle only 1; adopts mass

treatment of all animals whenever trypanosomiasis cases

are detected 0)

PROPHYLAXIS: Prophylaxis use (1 if farmer treats all

animals with samorin® prior to the Period for highest

risk such as rainy season and movement of cattle, 0 if

otherwise).

ANTIBIOTICS.USE: Antibiotics use (against secondary

infections) in conjunction with Trypanocides (1, does not

use antibiotics in conjunction with trypanocides for

trypanosomiasis treatments; 0 if otherwise)

POURON.TECHNIQUE: Pour-on technique. (Use

integrated vector control strategies of pour-on for disease

control 1, does not use pour on technique 0)

CRITERIA.TREATMNT: Criteria for trypanosomiasis

treatment (ie for drug use). (1 drug used when animal has

all the following characteristics: lean, off-feed,diarrhoea,

watery eyes, or clinically diagnosed; 0 if drug is used

only when animal is lean, weak, off-feed or whenever

drug is available).

Production or sales

The sales production function is specified as:

Equation 1.1

S = ƒ ( V A L. I N P UT S , C O S T . S E RV I C E S ,

AGE.ENTERPRISE, MANAGEMT.EXP, HERD.SIZE,

DOSE, EDUCATN, EXTN.TRG, BUSS.OWN,

ENCOUNTER.TSETSE, KNOW.TRYPANOCIDE,

P R O F . A D V I C E , D I L U T I O N ,

INJECTION.TECHNIQUE, TREATMT.INTERVALS,

SANATIVE.PAIR, SELECTIVE.TREATMNT,

P R O P H Y L A X S , A N T I B I O T I C S . U S E ,

POURON.TECHNIQUE, CRITERIA.TREATMNT)

where,

S = Sales

VAL.INPUTS = Value of inputs (US$)

COST.SERVICES = Cost of Services (US$)

AGE.ENTERPRISE = Age of enterprise/kraal (years)

MANAGEMNT.EXP = Management experience (years)

HERD.SIZE = Herd size (number of cattle)

DOSE = Dosage of Berenil® used by farmer

EDUCATN = Education of herdsmen

EXTN.TRG = Extension training

BUSS.OWN = Business ownership of livestock

ENCOUNTER.TSETSE = Encounter tsetse (during

migrations, movements or Grazing)

KNOW.TRYPANOCIDE = Knowledge of trypanocides

Esena, 2013


PROF.ADVICE = Professional advice

DILUTIONN = Dilution of trypanocides

INJECTION.TECHNIQUE = Injection technique

TREATMNT.INTERVLS = Treatment intervals

SANATIVE.PAIR = Sanative pair

SELECTIVE.TREATMNT = Selective treatment

PROPHYLXS = Prophylaxis

ANTIBIOTICS.USE = Antibiotics use

POURON.TECHNIQUE = Pour-on technique

CRITERIA.TREATMNT = Criteria for treatment

Variable Profit Function

The variable profit function is specified as:

Equation 1.2

π=ƒ (VAL.INPUTS, COST.SERVICES,

AGE.KRAAL, MANAGEMT.EXP, HERD.SIZE,

DOSAGE, EDUCATN, EXT.TRAING, BUSS.OWN,

HUS BN D RY. T YPE, C ATTLE. MO VEM NT,

ENCOUNTER.TSETSE, ORIGIN.TSETSE, DIAGNS,

C L I N . D I A G N S , K N O W. T R Y P A N O C I D E ,

P R O F . A D V I C E , D I L U T I O N ,

INJECTION.TECHNIQUE, REGULAR.TREATMNT,

T RE AT M T. I NTE RV A LS , S A N AT V . P AI R,

SELECTIVE. TREATMNT, PROP HY LA XS,

A N T I B I O T I C S . U S E , S T E R I L I T Y ,

POURON.TECHNIQUE, CRITERIA.TREATMNT

Where,

π= profit

The other independent variables are the same as in

(Equation 7.1) above

Functional Forms

In terms of functional forms, equations (Equation

7.1) and (Equation 7.2) are estimated as log-linear

equations. The log-linear sales function is shown as:

Equation 1.3

LogS=logb0+b1logVAL.INPUTS+b2logCOST.S

ERVICES+b3ENTRPRSE+b4logMANAGEMNT.EXP+

b5logHERD.SIZE+b6logDOSE+b7logEDUCTN+b8logE

XTNSN.TRG+b9logBUSS.OWN+b10logENCOUNTER.

TSETSE+b11logKNOW.TRYPANOCIDE+b12logPROF.

ADVICE+b13logDILUTN+b14logINJEC.TECHNQ+b15lo

gTREATMNT.INTERVALS+b16logSANATV.PAIR+

b17logSELECTV.TREATMNT+b18PROPHYLAXS+

b19logANTIBIOTICS.USE+b20logPOURON.TECHNQ+

b21logCRITERIA.TREATMNT

Equation 1.4

Logπ=logb0+b1logVAL.INPUTS+b2logCOST.S

ERVICES+b3logENTRPRSE+b4logMANAGEMNT.EX

P+b5logHERD.SIZE+b6logDOSE+b7logEDUCTN+b8log

EXTN.TRG+b9logBUSS.OWN+b10logENCOUNTER.T

SETSE+b11logKNOW.TRYPANOCIDE+b12logPROF.A

DVICE+b13logDILUTN+b14logINJEC.TECHNIQUE+

b15logTREATMNT.INTERVALS+b16logSANATIVE.P

AIR+b17logSELECTIVE.TREATMNT+b18PROPHYLA

XS+b19ogANTIBIOTICS.USE+b20logPOURON.

TECHNIQUE+b21logCRITERIA.TREATMNT

Equation 1.5

Logλ=logb0+b1logVALINPUTS+b2logCOST.

SERVICES+b3logENTRPRSE+b4logMANAGEMNT.E

XP+b5logHERD.SIZE+b6logDOSE+b7logEDUCTN+

b8logEXTN.TRG+b9logBUSS.OWN+b10logENCOUNT

ER.TSETSE+b11logKNOW.TRYPANOCIDE+b12logPR

OF.ADVICE+b13logDILUTN+b14logINJEC.TECHNIQ

UE+b15logTREATMNT.INTERVALS+b16logSANATIV

E.PAIR+b17logSELECTIVE.TREATMNT+b18PROPHY

LAXS+b19logANTIBIOTICS.USE+b20logPOURON.TE

CHNIQUE+ b21logCRITRIA.TREATMNT

Equation 1.6

Logσ=logb0+b1logVALINPUTS+b2logCOST.SE

RVICES+b3logENTRPRSE+b4logMANAGEMNT.EXP

+b5logHERD.SIZE+b6logDOSE+b7logEDUCTN+b8logE

XTN.TRG+b9logBUSS.OWN+b10logENCOUNTER.TS

ETSE+b11logKNOW.TRYPANOCIDE+b12logPROF.AD

VICE+b13logDILUTN+b14logINJEC.TECHNIQUE+

b15logTREATMNT.INTERVALS+b16logSANATIVE.P

AIR+b17logSELECTIVE.TREATMNT+b18PROPHYLA

XS+b19logANTIBIOTICS.USE+b20logPOURON.TECH

NIQUE+ b21logCRITRIA.TREATMNT

Esena, 2013


Estimation Procedures

The Ordinary least Squares (OLS) was applied to

the data regressions in equations (Equation 1.1) and

(Equation 1.2). When ordinary least squares is

appropriately applied to data, the choice among all

possible lines is normally done on the basis of the least

squares criterion. The rationale for this criterion is easy

to understand:

It is intuitively obvious that the smaller the

deviation from the line, the better the fit of the line to the

scatter of the observations. Consequently from all

possible lines, we choose the one for which the deviation

of points is the smallest possible. The least squares

criterion requires that the regression line be drawn

(i.e. its parameters be chosen) in such a way as to

minimize the sum of squares of the deviation of

observations from it.

Test of Significance

Test of significance of parameter estimates was

carried out by the use of the student t-test. Traditionally,

in econometric applications, researchers (Koutsoyiannis,

1977; Wonocott and Wonocott 1979) test the null

hypothesis H0 : b = 0 for each parameter, against the

alternative hypothesis H1 : b1 ≠ 0

This type of hypothesis implies a two-tail test of

a chosen level of significance, usually at the 5 % (and

more rarely at the 1% level). We compute the t ratio for

each b1. This is the observed (or sample) value of the t

ratio which we compare with the theoretical value of t

obtainable from the t-table with n-k degrees of freedom

(where n = number of observations and k = number of

independent variables). The decision rule (for

significance tests) is that the t-values associated with

independent variables that are equal to or greater than

theoretical value (t.05 (2)n-k) are considered to have

significant effects on the dependent variables (eg. sales,

profits) and are retained in the model (Koutsoyiannis,

1977).

Testing for the overall significance of a

regression, we generalize the test for models including

any number of explanatory (independent) variables.

Such tests aim at finding out whether explanatory

variables do actually have any joint significance

influence on the dependent variable. Formally the test of

overall significance of the regression implies that the null

hypothesis

Against the alternative hypothesis

H1 : not all b1’s are zeros

If the null hypothesis is true, that is, if all the true

parameters are zeros, there is no linear relationship

between Y and the regressors. To test for the overall

significance of the regression, F ratio is computed and

compared with the theoretical F* (at p = 0.5 level of

sinificance) with v1 = k-1 (numerator) and v2 = n-k

(denomenator) degrees of freedom. If F* > F, we reject

the null hypothesis, ie. we accept that the overall

regression is not significant: not all b1’s are zeros. If F*

< F, we accept the null hypothesis, that is, we accept that

the overall regression is not significant. In general,

higher values of F* suggest significant relationships

between the dependent variable and the independent

variables.

The generalization of the formula of the

coefficient of multiple determination maybe derived by

inspection of the values of R2 (goodness of fit). It should

be noted that the inclusion of additional independent

variables in the function can never reduce the coefficient

of multiple determination and would usually raise it. By

introducing a new regressor, (independent variable) the

value of the numerator of the expression for R2 is

increased, and the denominator remains the same

(Koutsoyiannis, 1977). It is important to adjust R2 (Ř2)

by taking into account degrees of freedom [df] which

decrease as new regressors (independent variables) are

introduced into the function. The R2 expresses the

Esena, 2013


H0 : b1 = b2 =……………….bk = 0

goodness of fit or the coefficient of multiple

determination. In this case it expresses the proportion of

the total variability on dependent variables (sales and

profits) attributable to the dependence of sales and profit

on the joint independent variables. The greater the

proportion (near unity), the better the goodness of fit of

the values of joint independent variables around their

mean.

In conclusion, it should be noted that, while the t

values determine the significance of the respective

independent variables, the F-value determines the overall

(or collective) significance of the independent variables

of the results obtained from the computer. The R2

determines coefficient of multiple determination of the

regressors (independent variables).

Economic Theory and “a Priori” Expectations

Certain independent variables were included in

the sales (Equation 1.1) and the profit functions

(Equation 1.2). The reasons for inclusion of these

variables may be explained by the fact that some were

variables to be tested in the hypotheses. Others were

findings from the field research while the rest were

derived from literature review and also responses from

respondents as factors affecting the control of animal

trypanosomiasis.

Among the variables included in the equations,

expectations were made on the signs of each as they

could affect sales and profit. For example, in equation

1.1 coefficients b1 (value of inputs) and b2 (cost of

services) were expected to have negative signs. This is

because profitability of the use of trypanocides is

determined by the cost of inputs (drugs) and services/

treatments (Brandl, 1988). Jahnke (1974) and Adelheim

(1980) estimated the cost of treatment to be between 50

and 100% of the cost of drugs. In Uganda for example,

(Jahnke, 1974) estimated that the cost for trypanocides

used by pastoralists amounted to 50% of their family

incomes. The age of cattle business b3 (Enterprise) and

b4 (management experience) were expected to be

positive because most of the herdsmen have many years

of experience. Hisrich and Peters (1992) have explained

that entrepreneurial experience is one of the best

predictors of success, particularly when the new venture

is in the same field as the entrepreneur’s (herdsman’s)

new experience.

The herd size (coefficient b5) was expected to be

positive and the dose rate b6 negative. Appropriate

dosage rate in the field is difficult because procedures

depend on the accurate estimation of body weight

(Connor, 1992). The coefficients b7 (education of

herdsmen) was expected to have positive signs because

as noted by Harper (1984), educational background or

training normally equip the entrepreneur (farmer) with

knowledge to plan and manage his business and thereby

survive in economically turbulent times (Anheier and

Siebel 1987). Furthermore Swallow (2000) found that

migratory pastoralists with higher education raise more

livestock as compared with less educated. Extension

training (b8) was expected to be positive because this

could assist the farmer with the knowledge to increase

productivity. Business ownership type (b9) was expected

to be negative in the area. Sole and family

proprietorships are unable to meet adequately the

financial needs of Small Scale Enterprises SSEs (Popiel

1994; Soyibo 1996; Aryeetey 1995). On credit they are

constantly being discriminated against obtaining credit

(Liedholm and Mead 1987) and they are unable to meet

the cost of inputs.

The presence of tsetse (b10) is expected to be

negative because as livestock pass through high-risk

areas they are infected with trypanosomiasis that could

deteriorate animal health and decrease productivity

(Brandl, 1988). Knowledge of trypanocides (b11) and

professional advice (b12) are both expected to be negative

because the herdsman or owner carries out the treatment

without regular Government Veterinary supervision.

Dilution (b13) of drugs and injection techniques (b14) are

both expected to be negative because of the difficult


Esena, 2013

nature of making up solutions correctly on the field

(Connor, 1993) and the difficulty of getting access to the

use of appropriate needles.

Treatment interval (b15) and the use of “sanative

pairs” of drugs (b16) are expected to be negative because

they are generally done without regular Veterinary

supervision. The amount of trypanocidal drugs used in

Africa is known to be small in relation to the numbers of

animals at risk (Anheier and Siebel 1987). (Trail, Murray

et al., 1984). Although the concept of a “sanative pair”

of drugs is known to be effective against trypanosomes

(Brandl, 1988) drug use among farmers depends on

availability. Selective treatment (b17) is expected to be

positive because mass treatment is now known to have

led to the appearance of resistant trypanosomes (Geerts

and Holmes 1998). Prophylactic drug use (b18) is

expected to contribute positively in the control of the

disease (Lee and Maurice 1983). Antibiotic use (b19) is

expected to contribute negatively because of the

likelihood of drug misuse (Roderick, Stephenson et al.,

2000). The use of the pour-on (b20) is expected to be

positive because it prevents infection with trypanosomes

and thereby improve animal health to increase

productivity (Brandl, 1988). Trypanosomiasis control

requires an integrated approach using drugs and vector

control to reduce the tsetse challenge (Peregrine, 1994).

Criteria for treatment (b21) are expected to be negative

because farmers were not trained to identify the disease.

Sales and Profit Function Results

The findings of sales and profit functions

indicate that the signs of the coefficients were all similar

except for cost of services (b2), education of herdsmen

(b7) and the criteria for trypanosomiasis treatments (b21)

which were positive for profit models. Contrary to

expectations, the coefficient b1 (value of input) was

positive. The cost of service (b2) was negative for the

profit model as expected. Management experience (b4)

was positive as expected and herd size (b5) was positive

for both sales and profit. Other findings were that: age

of enterprise (b3), dosage of Berenil® (b6) and business

ownership (b9) were positive while education of

herdsmen (b7), Presence (or encounter) of tsetse were

negative as expected. Contrary to expectation,

Knowledge of trypanosomiasis (b11) was positive for

both sales and profit. Dilution of drugs (b13), injection

techniques (b14) and treatment intervals b15 were all

positive in the model. Furthermore, it was observed that

the following coefficients were positive as expected:

sanative pair of drugs (b16), selective treatments (b 17),

prophylaxis (b18), and pour-on technique (b20). The

criteria for treatment (b21) was negative as expected.

Antibiotic use (b19) turned out to be positive.

Re-estimation of the models

In this study, only certain variables turned out as

expected in the previous equations (Equation 1.2 and

1.4), Apart from the variables that were dropped by the

computer itself probably due to collinearity, those

variables that had very low t-values (p > 0.05) were also

dropped from the subsequent equation to re-estimate the

model. The reason was that, these variables were

unreliable.

Re-estimated Sales and profit function results

The re-estimated sales model is presented in

Table 1 and while the re-estimated model for profit is

presented in Table 2. The re-estimated models for

trypanosomiasis prevalence and dosage of Berenil® by

herdsmen are presented in Table 3 and Table 4

respectively.

DISCUSSION

Constraints associated with drug use by herdsmen

The findings of this model have been compared

to the objectives, hypothesis, and literature review and

are discussed below. The focus of this discussion is

mainly on the constraints associated with the use of

Diminazene aceturate (Berenil®) by herdsmen for the


Esena, 2013

control of cattle trypanosomiasis.

Important issues have emerged in this model.

Firstly, it has been observed that, there is a significant

(p < 0.05) impact of the joint regression between sales

and the independent variables and also a significant (p <

0.05) impact on the joint regression between profit and

the independent variables. Similar findings were

observed for trypanosomiasis prevalence and dosage of

Berenil® as dependent variables in relation to the

respective independent variables. However only certain

independent variables were identified to have significant

(p < 0.05) impacts on sales, profit, trypanosomiasis

prevalence and dosage of Berenil®. Although some

variables were insignificant (p > 0.05) others had

positive impacts on productivity. For example, it was

observed that cattle management experiences (p <

0.001), age of kraal (p < 0.001), farm size (p < 0.001),

dosage of Berenil® (p < 0.001) and prophylactic use of

drug (p < 0.001) had positive impacts on sales. This

establishes an important equation which explains that

those who adopt prophylaxis and an increased dosage of

Berenil® have higher chances of increasing their output

for sales and profit margins.

Farm size was observed to have a positive impact

on productivity (Table 1). In other words large scale

farmers (> 99 cattle) appear to have more outputs and

benefits than medium (50-99 cattle) and small scale

farmers (<50 cattle). The results show that for every unit

of increase (1%) in farm size increases sales by 0.002

and profit increases by 0.00176. This is an encouraging

finding for farmers whose priority is cattle population

increase. However some workers believe that as

livestock population increases and/or tsetse free areas

are taken up by other forms of land use, it may become

necessary for livestock owners to enter tsetse infested

areas and there is a tendency for some of the cattle to

acquire trypanosome infections (Lee and Maurice, 1983).

Jordan (1986) explained that as challenge increases the

problem of administering drugs effectively and the

consequent risk of a high incidence of drug resistance

developing also increase. The result further shows that

farm management experience had a significant (p <

0.001) impact on profit. The issue of farm management

has been noted by other researchers (Trail, Sones et al.,

1985). They showed that a good farm management and

an efficient trypanosomiasis monitoring programme

(chemoprophylaxis) is highly effective in maintaining

cattle in areas of high tsetse challenge.

On the issue of farm management, (Sadhu and

Singh 1995) explained that the farmer normally acts as

entrepreneur or proprietor of the farm business and is

responsible for framing the general policy or plan of his

business or his system of farming. Indeed some writers

(Haaijer-Ruskamp and Dukes 1993) have noted that

these social and cultural setting influence peoples’

response to the drug. They further explained that

pharmacology, epidemiology and social sciences

determine drug use. There is no doubt that in areas of

ariables Beta t-value p-value

Constant (K) 2.3420 24.219 0.001

Farm size 0.1760 7.488 0.001

Age of enterprise (kraal) 0.2640 3.545 0.001

Prophylaxis 0.0082 2.761 0.006

Management experience 0.1680 2.655 0.008

Dosage of Berenil® 0.0074 3.105 0.002

Extension training -0.0071 - 2.376 0.018

Business/cattle ownership 0.0035 2.117 0.035

Table 2: Re-estimated Profit model of herdsmen


Esena, 2013

Variables Beta t-value p-value

Constant (K) 2.3890 26.5500 0.001

Farm size 0.2000 8.9810 0.001


Prophylaxis 0.1000 3.5990 0.000

Age of enterprise (kraal) 0.2060 2.9840 0.003


Table 1: Re-estimated sales model of herdsmen

low trypanosomiasis challenge, it is more economical to

control the disease by chemotherapy than by tsetse

control (Jordan, 1986).

Brandl (1988) has added that, the prevention of

loss of performance of animals as a consequence of

trypanosomiasis has economic significance for the

livestock enterprise and for the national economy. The

cultural setting determines how society views drug use in

terms of its social acceptability and its social

significance (Haaijer-Ruskamp and Hemminki, 1993).

Non-compliance has become an important issue in

medical, veterinary and socio-scientific research. It

becomes more pronounced where the prescribed

treatment is complex (Hingson, 1981) and long (Sackett

and Snow 1979) or where there are side effects

(Christensen, 1978). Haaijer-Ruskamp and Hemminki

(1993) clarified this issue by explaining that health care

systems vary widely from country to country because

they are embedded in different historical, social, cultural

and political values of the country. For example, the

principle of equal access to drugs is associated with a

more general emphasis on social equality and with a

socio-political structure that more readily accepts

governmental control.

Prominent among the constraints associated with

drug use was the dose of Berenil® used by farmers and

its positive impact on trypanosomiasis prevalence. For

the fact that dosage of Berenil® had a positive impact on

trypanosomiasis prevalence suggests that there could be

a threat of resistance of trypanosomes to the drug

(Berenil®) in the study area. Dosage of Berenil®

however had a significant (p < 0.05) impact on both sales

and profit. Although dosage was expected to have a

negative (p < 0.001) impact on both sales and profit, it

was contrary. But the survey showed that only two

districts (Akatsi and AMA) used the appropriate dose

(3.5 to 7.0 mg/kg body weight of Berenil®). One of the

main difficulties in the field is to achieve correct dosage

rate because appropriate dose depends on the accurate

estimation of body weight which is difficult to achieve.

When subcurative doses of trypanocides are

given by livestock owners or herdsmen, there is the

danger of selecting resistant trypanosomes (Connor,

1993). Weight estimation by eye is a method which is

prone to inaccuracy and perhaps the greatest source of

error in the accurate administration of drugs (Boyt,

1984). This method is ineffective (Connor, 1993)

especially with trypano-susceptible cattle. The reason is

that the animals have to be treated several times if sub-

therapeutic doses are given. In fact it is a method which

requires skills that can only be acquired by training

which only few livestock owners and veterinary staff

have the opportunity to acquire (Connor, 1993). The risk

associated with frequent treatment of cattle with

trypanocidal drugs especially in cattle with poor body

condition has been noted in Kenya by Stevenson and

Sones et al., (1995).

The effects of trypanocide dilution and treatment

intervals on trypanosomiasis were both inversely

proportional and tend to decrease trypanosomiasis


Constant (K) 1.1530 17.984 0.001

Treatment intervals -0.0088 - 3.080 0.002

Dilution -0.2140 - 2.992 0.003


Selective treatment 0.1110 2.084 0.038

Table 3: Re-estimated trypanosomiasis

prevalence model


Esena, 2013


Constant (K) 3.131 6.833 0.001

Education of herdsmen 0.543 4.919 0.001

Pouron technique -0.652 -3.683 0.001

Districts 0.00528 2.161 0.032

Ownership of business -0.177 -1.990 0.048

Table 4: Re-estimated model; dosage of Berenil®

usedby herdsmen

prevalence (Table 3). The survey indicates that most

farmers had two blanket treatments yearly; the dilution

was a sachet of Berenil® in 125 mls of distilled water. It

was usually measured with a syringe that were

recommended for the appropriate amounts. Therefore

preparation of injectable solution was not a problem

among farmers in the study area as expected. However

the appropriate dose was not administered by all farmers.

Surveillance is necessary in addressing the problem of

dosage and in determining the treatment intervals of

chemoprophylactic regimes. Although drug surveillance

schemes were set up in 1964 to identify risks WHO

(1972) it is not effective in developing countries. The

need for treatment is judged by the farmer. The farmer’s

response generally is to treat only problem animals i.e

those with clinical disease that are recognised as sick and

whose productivity or life is visibly threatened (Connor,

1993).

(Brandl, 1988), explained that under normal

circumstances herd treatment should be carried out

through regular administration of a curative dose of

Berenil® or Samorin® as a prophylaxis. But the cost of

monitoring and logistical requirements limit the

efficiency of prophylactic regimens. The requirements

today of farmers to pay for such treatments make it less

likely that herd prophylaxis will be widely practised

under traditional management systems. The explanation

is that, there is a general belief that the cost of

trypanocidal drugs and their use is high. Trail et al.,

(1985) argued that “notions” of high cost of trypanocidal

drugs and their use is a reasonable but unfounded

assumption because there is little published information

on the economics of use of trypanocidal drugs on

livestock productivity. But some writers (Haaijer-

Ruskamp and Dukes 1993) believe that alongside the

medical/veterinary and social determinants of drug use

economic factors play an important role. They argued

that money has always been relevant to the use of drugs

and indeed the best medicines were available only to the

wealthy. On the cost factor, Kimbel (1993) added that

although it concerns national administration it is a matter

that must concern the health professionals as a whole. In

the light of this argument one observes that drug

utilisation can make an important contribution by

striking a balance between the benefits and the risk of

drug use (Haaijer-Ruskamp and Dukes, 1993).

The age of cattle business/enterprise (Kraal)

(Tables 1 and 2) had positive impacts on sales and profit

respectively. In fact the entrepreneurial age (age of

herdsmen reflected in experience) and their

chronological age are the best predictors of success

particularly when the new venture is in the same field as

enterpreneur’s (herdsman) new experience (Hisrich and

Peters, 1992). Cattle farming as an enterprise has been

noted to be an old business among Fulani herdsmen in

particular (Dickson and Benneh, 1995) and this could

have an advantage in enhancing productivity.

Certain factors had positive impacts on the

dosage of drug use (Table 4): Education of herdsmen had

positive impacts on the use of Berenil®. Extension

training was inversely correlated with profit. Extension

training and educational background in general normally

equip the herdsman with knowledge to plan and manage

a business. This is however not the case in the study area

where extension training has not yet been given to most

of the farmers.

Pour-on techniques and farm/business ownership

had negative impacts on drug use. In other words farmers

with a higher education level who used pour-ons (jointly

with drugs) tend to decrease the dosage of Berenil® used

and communal farms did not comply with appropriate

doses as compared to farms that were family owned or

solely owned. It is like farms that where farms were

communally owned, different farmers attempted to

influence the herdsmen’s practices. Other constraints

were identified in the model and are were presented in

the model itself. Antibiotic use in conjunction with

Berenil® had some positive impacts on sales and profit


Esena, 2013

and even decreased trypanosomiasis prevalence. The use

of antibiotics mixed with trypanocides has had also been

noted among cattle farmers (massai pastoralists) in

Kenya by (Roderick, Stephenson et al., 2000). These

farmers used homidium or diminazene in conjunction

with oxytetracycline in the absence of Veterinary

supervision. There were other factors correlated with

trypanosomiasis prevalence in the model but these were

not significant (p > 0.05). These were the poor injection

techniques and criteria for treatment. Other factors had

negative impacts on trypanosomiasis prevalence. These

factors were: knowledge of trypanocides, professional

advice, sanative pair of drugs and prophylactic drug use.

The variable “criteria for trypanosomiasis treatment”

tends to increase trypanosomiasis prevalence. This

implies that the diagnosis and treatment of cattle

trypanosomiasis among farmers have been questionable.

Farmers normally attribute anaemia to trypanosomal

infection but it is important to note that there are other

important anaemia causing pathogens such as

gastrointestinal helminths that affect cattle productivity

(Agyemang, Dwinger et al., 1997). Farmers and

veterinarians normally resort to treatment of only sick

animals with trypanocides based solely on certain

retrospective symptoms (Connor, 1993), but the presence

of concurrent diseases could mask trypanosomiasis and

complicate the clinical picture. However, some of the

basic symptoms generally adopted by farmers in the

study area are anaemia, rough hair coat and diarrhoea

(Aning, Karbo et al., 1998).

CONCLUSION

This research has shown that there is no control

of drug use, especially trypanocide (Berenil®) by cattle

farmers. The effect is that there are constraints

associated with trypanosomiasis control limiting the

expansion of livestock expansion in the study area. This

model has identified some constraints associated with

trypanocide drug use by herdsmen. Some of these

constraints pose threats to the emergence of resistance

strains of trypanosomes. To address these problems,

there is the need for a trypanocide classification system

as a tool for comparative studies of both supply/

marketing and use. Such a system will provide a solid

basis on which to compare trypanocide drug use among

farmers in the study area. Furthermore, the veterinary

department and the Ghana standards board in

consultation with the government should promote the

accreditation of Veterinary drug stores at national,

regional and district levels. The Ghana Veterinary

Medical Association should be encouraged to promote

professional ethical standards by formulating a code of

ethics assuring quality of services provided for the

community.

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Article Citation: Girish Chopra, Anil K. Tyor and Seema Kumari A study on the wetland avian species of Sultanpur National Park Gurgaon, Haryana (India) Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1032-1040

Jou

rn

al of R

esearch

in

Biology

A study on the wetland avian species of Sultanpur National Park

Gurgaon, Haryana (India)

Keywords: Wetland, Wetland Species, Water Birds, Water Associated Birds, Sultanpur National Park.

ABSTRACT: The present study was conducted in Sultanpur National Park Gurgaon, Haryana (India) from February, 2011 to January, 2013 to analyze the avian diversity along with its status and abundance. During the study period, a total of 79 wetland species belongings to 10 orders, 23 families and 56 genera were identified. The order Anseriformes was the most dominant represented by 18.9% of the total identified wetland avian species followed by Charadriiformes (17.72%), Passeriformes (16.45%), Ciconiiformes (15.18%) and Pelecaniformes (5.06%). The order Apodiformes and Podicipediformes were the least represented order (1.26%) with one species each, namely, Swift, Apus apus and Little Grebe, Tachybaptus ruficollis respectively. Out of total 79 wetland avian species, 31 were ‘occasional’ species, 13 were ‘uncommon’ species, 12 were ‘abundant’ species, 11 were ‘common’ species and 12 were ‘rare’ species. Based on the frequency of sighting, Pied King Fisher, Ceryle rudis; Chestnut Headed Bee-Eater, Merops leschenaultia; Cotton Pygmy Goose, Nettapus coromandelianus; Eurasian Spoonbill, Platalea leucorodia; Little-ringed Plover, Charadrius dubius; Pheasant-Tailed Jacana, Hydrophasianus chirurgus were ‘rarely sighted’ wetland species.

1032-1040 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5




An International


Authors:

Girish Chopra,

Anil K. Tyor and

Seema Kumari*

Institution:

Department of Zoology,

Kurukshetra University,

Kurukshetra- 136119,

Haryana (India)


Seema Kumari

Email Id:

Web Address: http://jresearchbiology.com/

documents/RA0370.pdf. Dates: Received: 24 July 2013 Accepted: 30 July 2013 Published: 23 Aug 2013


Original Research

INTRODUCTION

The wetlands can be defined as transitional lands

between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem where the

water table is near the surface or land is covered by

shallow water (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986). One of the

best functions of wetlands is that these provide the best

preferred ground for feeding, breeding, nesting, roosting

for birds as well as rearing site for their young ones

(Stewart, 2007). According to Vyas, (1992), freshwater

wetland alone support 20% of known range of

biodiversity in India Therefore, monitoring of these sites

provides valuable information about the ecological

health and status thereof, which can be a key tool for

developing awareness regarding the importance and

conservation value of wetlands. wetlands are used by

birds for the purpose of feeding, nesting and roosting and

these birds are generally classify as „water birds‟ or

popularly known as waterfowls and waders. According

to Kumar et al., (2011), bird groups like kingfishers,

raptors and some passerines are also ecologically depend

on wetlands, hence known as wetland dependent/

associated birds. These birds are the essential component

of wetland ecosystem, as they form important links in the

food web and nutrient cycles.

From time to time various ornithologists have

studied flora and fauna in various wetland ecosystems in

protected areas (Saxena, 1975; Hussain et al., 1984;

Singh and Roy, 1990; Hosetti et al., 2001; Bhat et al.,

2009; Chopra and Sharma, 2012).

Sultanpur National Park is one of the famous

wetlands in northern India. This national park is

considered as a major habitat for the cross boundary

migratory birds. Keeping in view of the conservational

values of wetland birds, systematic efforts have been

made during the present study with an objective to

prepare the exhaustive checklist of wetland and wetland

dependent/associated birds of Sultanpur National Park.


Sultanpur National Park (28°28‟ N latitude and

76° 53‟ E longitudes) (Fig. 1) is located in a

predominantly agricultural landscape with an area of

13,727 ha and includes its core area of 143 ha of low-

lying marshes, which were notified as a bird sanctuary

Chopra et al., 2013


Fig. 1(a) Location of study site within the

map of Haryana Fig.1(b) Diagrammatic presentation of

Sultanpur National Park

by the Haryana State Government in 1971 (Kalpavriksh,

1994). Sultanpur Lake is a seasonal lake with irregular

margins and fluctuating water level throughout the year,

being maximum water level in rainy season and winters,

and nearly dried condition during hot summer season.

Periodic fortnightly visits were conducted from

February, 2011 to January, 2013 in terrestrial and aquatic

habitats in the area in the early morning and later in the

evening to record avian species. Line transects method

(Sale and Berkmuller, 1988) and point count methods

(Blondel, et al., 1981) were used to enumerate the

population of birds‟ species. Binoculars (Nikon 7×50

CF) were used to locate/identify the distant birds, Sony

handy cam models DCR-HC-42E and digital camera

Nikon L-120 model were used to take photograph of the

birds encountered. Later, the wetland populations were

identified with the help of different field guides (Ali and

Ripley, 1987; Grimmett et al., 1998 and Inskipp et al.,

1999).

Seasonal variation in avian diversity was

recorded in different season‟s viz., winter, summer,

monsoon and autumn seasons. On the basis of frequency

of sighting, the observed birds were segregated following

Srinivasulu and Nagulu (2002), as Ab-abundant

(encounter rate 95 % to 100 %); Cm- common

(encounter rate 65% to 95%); Uc- uncommon (encounter

rate 40% to 60%) Oc - occasional (encounter rate 20% to

40%); and Rr- rare (encounter rate less than 20%).

Status of the birds were categorized as: RS- resident

species (found in the study area throughout the year);

WM- winter migrant species (found in the study area

only in winter season); LM- local migrant species (found

irregularly in study site but resident of India); SM-

summer migrant species (found in the study area only

during summer season) and SU- status unknown species

(not observed in any of the above mentioned categories).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Besides being ideal indicators of the health of

wetland, the wetland birds play a significant role in

human lives culturally, socially and scientifically

(Stewart, 2007). As a wetland ecosystem, Sultanpur

National Park provided varied habitats, including forest

patch and low laying marshy areas for nesting and

feeding of various types of birds.

During the study period of two years from

February, 2011 to January, 2013, 79 wetland species

belongings to 10 orders, 23 families and 57 genera were

reported from Sultanpur National Park (Table 1). These

include both water bird species and water associated bird

species; former were significantly more than latter. A

checklist of the wetland birds observed during the study

period along with their conservation status and

abundance is represented in Table 1.

Earlier studies have also revealed the existence

of significant number of wetland avian species in the

wetland area of Haryana (Harvey, 2003; Gupta and

Kaushik, 2008; Gupta et al., 2011 and Chopra and

Sharma, 2012). Harvey (2003) reported a total of 102

wetland avian species which includes 58 species

occasional and 44 species of uncommon bird in the

wetland of Sultanpur region of Gurgaon district

(Haryana). Gupta and Kaushik, (2008) reported a total of

80 wetland avian species belonged to 10 orders and 20

families in northern Haryana. Gupta and Kaushik, (2011)

reported 47 species of wetland birds belonging to 9

orders and 13 families in the wetland area of

Yamunanagar District (Haryana). Chopra and Sharma,

(2012) reported 88 wetland avian species belonging to 17

orders and 32 families in the wetland area of Panchkula

district of Haryana.

During the present study, out of total reported 79

wetland avian species, 20 (25.3%) were „resident‟

species and 59 (74.6%) were „migrant‟ species. The

migrant species included 11 (14%) local migrants, 43

(55%) winter migrants and only 5(6%) summer migrants

Chopra et al., 2013


Chopra et al., 2013


Order Family Common name Zoological name Status Abundance

1.Podicipediformes Podicipedidae Little Grebe 1.Tachybaptus ruficollis RS Oc

2.Pelecaniformes Phalacrocoracidae Little Cormorant 2.Phalacrocorax niger RS Cm

Great Cormorant 3. Phalacrocorax carbo LM Oc

Indian Cormorant 4. Phalacrocorax fuscicollis RS Cm

Darter 5. Anhinga melanogaster LM Oc

3.Ciconiiformes Ardeidae Grey Heron 6. Ardea cinerea LM Uc

Purple Heron 7. Ardea purpurea RS Oc

Indian Pond Heron 8. Ardeola grayii RS Ab

Great Egret 9. Casmerodius albus LM Oc

Little Egret 10. Egretta garzetta LM Uc

Cattle Egret 11. Bubulcus ibis RS Ab

Intermediate Egret 12. Mesophoyx intermedia LM Oc

Ciconiidae Painted Stork

Black Necked Stork

13. Mycteria leucocephala

14. Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus

RS

WM

Ab

Rr

Open Billed Stork 15. Anastomus oscitans LM Uc

Threskiornithidae Black headed Ibis 16. Threskiornis melanocephalus WM Oc

Eurasian Spoonbill 17. Platalea leucorodia SM Rr

4.Anseriformes Anatidae Greylag Goose 18. Anser anser WM Ab

Bar Headed Goose 19. Anser indicus WM Ab

Spot Billed Duck 20. Anas poecilorhyncha WM Ab

Common Pochard 21. Aythya ferina WM Cm

Eurasian Wigeon 22. Anas penelope WM Ab

Tufted Pochard 23. Aythya fuligula WM Uc

Cotton Pygmy Goose 24. Nettapus coromandelianus WM Rr

Ruddy Shelduck 25. Tadorna ferruginea WM Uc

Northern Pintail 26. Anas acuta WM Oc

Mallard 27. Anas platyrhynchos WM Cm

Gadwall 28. Anas strepera WM Cm

Northern Shoveler 29. Anas clypeata WM Ab

Lesser Whistling Duck

30.Dendrocygna javanica WM Cm

Common Teal 31. Anas crecca WM Cm

Garganey 32. Anas querquedula WM Cm

5.Falconiformes Accipitridae Black Kite 33. Milvus migrans LM Oc

Black Eagle 34. Ictinaetus malayensis LM Rr

Shikra 35. Accipiter badius RS Uc

Brahminy Kite 36. Haliastur Indus LM Oc

Black winged Kite 37. Elanus caeruleus WM Uc

Sparrow Hawk 38. Accipiter nisus WM Oc

Pied Harrier 39. Circus melanoleucos LM Oc

Table 1: Systematic position, status and abundance of wetland species in Sultanpur

National Park Gurgaon, Haryana (India).

(Fig 2). The present study revealed that local migrants

such as, Great Egret (Casmerodius albus), Open Billed

Stork (Anastomus oscitans) and Pacific Reef Egret

(Egretta sacra) were observed irregularly from the study

site. Maximum numbers of migrant species were

reported in the winter season because migratory water

birds species like Bar headed Goose (Anser indicus),

Grey Leg Goose (Anser anser), Cotton Pygmy Goose

Chopra et al., 2013


6.Gruiformes Gruidae Sarus Crane 40.Grus antigone RS Oc

Rallidae White Breasted Waterhen 41.Amaurornis phoenicurus WM Oc

Common Moorhen 42.Gallinula chloropus WM Oc

Purple Swamphen 43.Porphyrio porphyrio WM Cm

Common Coot 44.Fulica atra WM Ab

7.Charadriiformes Charadriidae Little-ringed Plover 45.Charadrius dubius WM Rr

Red-wattled Lapwing 46.Vanellus indicus RS Ab

White-tailed Lapwing 47.Vanellus leucurus WM Oc

Jacanidae Pheasant-Tailed Jacana 48.Hydrophasianus chirurgus SM Rr

Scolopacidae Common Redshank 49.Tringa tetanus WM Uc

Spotted Redshank 50.Tringa erythropus WM Uc

Common Sandpiper 51.Actitis hypoleucos WM Oc

Wood Sandpiper 52.Tringa glareola WM Oc

Green Sandpiper 53.Tringa ochropus WM Oc

Marsh sandpiper 54.Tringa stagnatilis WM Rr

Little Stint 55.Calidris minuta WM Rr

Ruff 56.Philomachus pugnax WM Uc

Recurvirostridae Black-winged Stilt 57.Himantopus himantopus RS Ab

Black-necked Stilt 58.Himantopus mexicanus WM Rr

8.Apodiformes Apodidae Swift 59.Apus apus RS Oc

9.Coraciiformes Alcedinidae White Throated Kingfisher 60.Halcyon smyrnensis RS Cm

Pied Kingfisher 61.Ceryle rudis WM Rr

Meropidae Green Bee-eater 62.Merops orientalis RS Cm

Blue Cheeked Bee-eater 63.Merops persicus R Oc

Chestnut Headed Bee-eater 64.Merops leschenaulti SM Rr

Coraciidae Indian Roller 65.Coracias benghalensis RS Oc

Bucerotidae Indian Grey Hornbill 66.Ocyceros birostris RS Oc

10.Passeriformes Hirundinidae Red Rumped Swallow 67.Hirundo daurica WM Oc

Plain Martin 68.Riparia paludicola RS Oc

Oriolidae Eurasian Golden Oriole 69.Oriolus oriolus WM Uc

Dicruridae Black Drongo 70.Dicrurus macrocercus RS Ab

Muscicapidae Hodgson Bush Chat 71.Saxicola insignis WM Oc

Orange Headed Thrush 72.Zoothera citrina WM Oc

Blue-throat 73.Luscinia svecica WM Oc

Rusty-tailed Flycatcher 74.Muscicapa ruficauda SM Uc

Red -throated Flycatcher 75.Ficedula parva SM Oc

Motacillidae Paddy-field Pipit 76.Anthus rufulus RS Oc

White Wagtail 77.Motacilla alba WM Oc

Large -pied Wagtail 78.Motacilla maderaspatensis WM Uc

Yellow Wagtail 79.Motacilla flava WM Rr

RS = Resident species LM = local migrant species SM = summer migrant species WM = winter migrant species

Ab = abundant species Oc = occasional species Cm= common species Uc = uncommon species Rr rare species

(Nettapus coromandelianus), Gadwall (Anas strepera)

and Eurasian Wigeon (Anas Penelope) visit this place

from December to February. Minimum numbers of water

bird were observed in the month of May and June.

Wetland species adapt differently to different

water levels as the food preference of water birds

changes with fluctuation in the water level (Mukherjee,

1972). Red Wattled Lapwing (Vanellus indicus) and

Black Winged Stilt (Himantopus himantopus) (Order-

Gruiformes) were observed at variable water levels of

the lake but other representatives of this avian order,

namely, Spotted Sandpiper (Tringa erythropus),

Common Red Shank (Tringa tetanus) and Ruff

(Philomachus pugnax) occupied the lake only in shallow

regions. Their arrival coincided with the reduction in

water level in the lake so that, they could avail the food

easily by probing into the mud. Similar observations

were made earlier on water birds of Sunderban

(Mukherjee, 1972) and Anekere wetland of Karnataka

(Bhat et al., 2009). The present study also revealed that

Painted Stork (Mycteria leucocephala) (Order-

Ciconiformes) was observed throughout of the year even

when the water level in the lake was drastically reduced

in summer months (May and June), while another

representative of this order, i.e., Black neck Stork

(Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus) was sighted during the

starting of winter season when the water level in the

Sultanpur lake was elevated.

During the present study among 79 wetland

species, 12 (15%) species were „abundant‟, 11(14%)

species were „common‟, 31 (39%) species were

„occasional‟, 14 (18%) species were „uncommon‟ and 11

(14%) species were „rare‟ (Fig 3). On the basis of

frequency of sighting common wetland species included

Little Cormorant (Phalacrocorax niger), Indian

Cormorant (Phalacrocorax fuscicollis), Common

Pochard (Aythya ferina), Mallard (Anas platyrhyncos),

Gadwall, (Anas strepera), Lesser Whistling Duck

(Dendrocygna javanica), Common Teal (Anas crecca),

Garganey (Anas querquedula), Purple Swamphen

(Porphyrio porphyrio) on the other hand, Grey Heron

(Ardea cinerea), Little Egret (Egretta garzetta), Open

Billed Stork (Anastomus oscitans), Tufted Pochard

(Aythya fuligula), Ruddy Shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea),

Common Redshank (Tringa tetanus), Spotted Redshank

(Tringa erythropus), Ruff (Philomachus pugnax) were

the „uncommon‟ wetland birds and Pied King Fisher

(Ceryle rudis), Chestnut Headed Bee-Eater (Merops

leschenaultia), Cotton Pygmy Goose (Nettapus

coromandelianus), Eurasian Spoonbill (Platalea

leucorodia), Little-ringed Plover (Charadrius dubius),

Pheasant-Tailed Jacana (Hydrophasianus chirurgus)

were „rarely sighted‟ wetland species. Maximum wetland

bird species in the study area belonged to order

Chopraet al., 2013


Fig 2: Percentage composition of residential status of

wetland bird species of Sultanpur National Park,

Gurgaon (India)

Fig 3: Percentage composition of abundance status

of wetland bird species of Sultanpur National Park,

Gurgaon (India)

Anseriformes (15, 18.9%) followed by Charadriiformes

(14, 17.72%), Passeriformes (13, 16.45%),

Ciconiiformes (12, 15.18%), Falconiformes (7, 8.86%),

Gruiiformes (5, 6.32%) and Pelecaniformes (4, 5.06%)

while the representative of the order Apodiformes and

Podicipediformes were represented by single species, i.e,

Swift (Apus apus) and Little Grebe (Tachybaptus

ruficollis) respectively (Tables 1 and 2). All the 15

members of order Anseriformes belonged to the single

family, i.e., Anatidae constituting 18.9% of the total

wetland avian species, whereas representative of the

order Charadriiformes belonged to 4 families namely,

Charadriidae (3), Jacanidae (1), Scolopocidae (8) and

Recurvirostridae (2) consitituting 3.79%; 1.26%; 10.12%

and 2.53% respectively. The families, Bucerotidae,

Coraciidae (Order- Coraciiformes); Oriolidae, Dicruridae

(Order- Passeriformes); Apodidae (Order- Apodiformes);

Gruidae (Order- Gruiiformes) and Jacanidae (Order-

Charadriiformes) were represented by single species

(Table-2). In the terrestrial habitats, majority of the

reported avian species belonged to order Passeriformes

and representative of this order utilize grassland and

terrestrial ecosystem for feeding, breeding and roosting

purpose (Sundar, 2005; Urfi et al., 2005 Shahabuddin et

al., 2006; Sultana et al., 2007; Pande et al., 2007, Chopra

et al., 2012). However, during the present study in

Sultanpur National Park only 13 wetland avian species,

i.e., 16.45% of the total sighted wetland avian fauna

represented this order (Table 2).

During the present study most of wetland avian

species were observed near the submerged vegetation of

wetland area and utilized these vegetation for nesting,

roosting and feeding ground whereas, Painted Stork

(Mycteria leucocephala), Open Billed Stork (Anastomus

oscitans) and Black-headed Ibis (Threskiornis

melanocephalus) were found to utilize the wetland area

for feeding purpose and trees were mainly used for

nesting and roosting by these species.

CONCLUSION

It is revealed that a total of 79 wetland species

were observed which includes 12 species of abundant


Chopra et al., 2013

Order No. of species (%) Family No. of species (%)

1.Podicipediformes (1) 1.26 % Podicipedidae (1) 1.26 %

2.Pelecaniformes (4 ) 5.06 % Phdlacrocoracidae (4) 5.06 %

3.Ciconiiformes (12) 15.18 % Ardeidae (7) 8.86 %

Ciconiidae (3) 3.79 %

Threskiornithidae (2) 2.53 %

4.Anseriformes (15) 18.90 % Anatidae (15) 18.90 %

5.Falconiformes (7) 8.86 % Accipitridae (7) 8.86 %

6.Gruiiformes (5) 6.32 % Gruidae (1) 1.26 %

Rallidae (4) 5.06 %

7.Charadriiformes (14) 17.72 % Charadriidae (3) 3.79 %

Jacanidae (1) 1.26 %

Scolopacidae (8) 10.12 %

Recurvirostridae (2) 2.53 %

8.Apodiformes (1) 1.26 % Apodidae (1) 1.26 %

9.Coraciiformes (7) 8.86 % Alcedinidae (2) 2.53 %

Meropidae (3) 3.79 %

Coraciidae (1) 1.26 %

10. Passeriformes

(13) 16.45 %

Bucerotidae

Hirundinidae

(1) 1.26 %

(2) 2.53 %

Oriolidae (1) 1.26 %

Dicruridae (1) 1.26 %

Muscicapidae (5) 6.32 %

Motacillidae (4) 5.06 %

Table 2: Per cent distribution of avian species belonging to different orders and families

category, 11 species of common category, 31 species of

occasional category, 13 species were of uncommon

category with 12 species were rare sighted wetland

species. Though, Sultanpur National Park has a rich

diversity of flora and fauna and important attracting

wetland area for Anseriformes, increased anthropogenic

factors such as habitat fragmentation and destruction,

tourism pressure and scarcity of water during the

summer season impose threats to these avian fauna.

Besides, the herds of Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus),

Stray dogs and wild cattle also occasionally trampled the

chicks and eggs of water birds in this national park.

Successful conservation of the avian species will depend

on improved understanding of ecological requirements

and number of visitor birds. Further survey and intensive

studies in different seasons will be helpful in drafting

conservational strategies of the wetland in general and

wetland birds in particular.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors are grate full to Wildlife Department

Panchkula for giving permission to work in protected

area. The corresponding author dully acknowledges

UGC fellowship for financial support.

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Article Citation: Reuben K. Esena Empirical validation of reliability of triangulation methods of mixed-method mode research: Quality improvement strategies for trypanosomiasis control. Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1041-1053

Jou

rn

al of R

esearch

in

Biology

Empirical validation of reliability of triangulation methods of mixed-method

mode research: Quality improvement strategies for trypanosomiasis control

Keywords: Triangulation, Tsetse, Trypanosomiasis, Berenil, Dosage, Mixed-Method.

ABSTRACT: This paper presents a continuum of triangulation designs ranging from Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), surveys, parasitological to satellite data for a holistic approach to a research on trypanosomiasis – a disease affecting human and livestock. The purpose is to combine several methods to improve the quality of trypanosomiasis control in the coastal savannah. This is the most extensive work on trypanosomiais in an African coastal savannah ecosystem, covering eleven districts in Ghana. In this study, quantitative results were supplemented by qualitative methods to improve on the validity and reliability. The study focused on farmers’ production objectives, constraints associated with the use of Berenil® to control trypanosomiasis, and satellite data for mapping areas at the risk of diseases for appropriate targeting, predictions and control. This mixed-method studies seeks convergence (triangulation), of results by examining different aspects of a phenomena (complementarity) on using methods sequentially (development) on discovering paradox and fresh perspectives (initiation), and on adding breadth and scope to a project (expansion). In this paper, issues of triangulation, validity and reliability has been discussed.

1041-1053 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 5




An International


Authors:

Reuben K. Esena

Institution:

Department of Health Policy

Planning and Management,

School of Public Health,

University of Ghana, P. O.

Box LG 13 Legon – Accra,

Ghana


Reuben K. Esena

Email Id:


Dates: Received: 13 July 2013 Accepted: 07 Aug 2013 Published: 28 Aug 2013


Original Research

INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM STATEMENT

Multiple methods have in social science

a distinct tradition of research strategy. This study

adopts a multimethod/multitrait (Campbell and Fiske,

1959; Creswell, 1994), or “triangulation” (Webb et al.,

1966). These notions share similar conception that there

is the need to combine qualitative and quantitative

methods as complementary. But combining methods

alone has been viewed as somewhat controversial

(Hilton, 2002) because there are other types of

triangulation that need to be addressed for confirmation

and completeness. Some of these triangulations are

theory, data sources, methods and analysis. The reason

for such mixed-methods is that limitations in single

methods do not manifest in mixed-methods

(triangulation) and this could improve the validity of

research findings (Mathison, 1988). It is not the simple

combination of different kinds of data that matters but

the attempt to relate them so as to complement each

other and counteract the threats to validity in each. This

is what the current paper seeks to explain. It gives an in-

depth analysis and explanation and exemplifies how

multi-methods could be used to converge and validate

data for a holistic approach as evidence for decision

making on trypanosomiasis planning and control.

Problem Statement

Tsetse and trypanosomiasis control are public

health programmes in Ghana, but sustainable control

has not yet been achieved. Several unsuccessful

attempts have been made in the past to control

the disease (Stewart, 1937, 1946, 1954;

Nowosielki-Slepowron, 1962; Ghana Ministry of Food

and Agriculture, 1996) but currently some 60 % of the

country is still infested with various species of tsetse flies

(Ghana Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 2009).

The control of the disease is a complex

(and multifaceted) and requires investigation into

several aspects for a holistic approach. This study is

one such example adapting several methods

to arrive at a coherent result for targeting and control.

RESEARCH METHODS AND RESULTS

Rationale for Research Approach and Methodology

This research, combines qualitative and

quantitative design as the most appropriate method of

analysis. In support of the mixed methodology design in

procedure and data analysis, Morse (1991) stated, “a

project must be either theoretically driven by the

qualitative methods incorporating a complementary

quantitative component, or theoretically driven by the

quantitative method, incorporating a complementary

qualitative component”.

The main purpose of this research was to explore

the views of cattle farmers on the importance of

trypanosomiasis in relation to their production objectives

and to find out how farmers controlled cattle

trypanosomiasis in the area. This research was to develop

a model that could identify the constraints affecting

control of trypanosomiasis by farmers in the study area

as well as predictions of the disease. Therefore a mixed-

methodology design of both qualitative and quantitative

approaches was adopted. As qualitative research occurs

in natural settings where human behaviour and events

occur, it was rightly used for certain aspects of the study

although supplemented occasionally with quantitative

tools.

In certain aspects of the research, the qualitative

suggestions of (Marshall and Rossman, 1989) and the

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) Techniques

(Grandin and Young 1994; Hadgu, Yisehak, and Tekle

1992; Kirsopp-Reed and Hinchcliffe, 1994) were

adopted. This is because the focus of this research was

on respondents’ perception and experiences (Locke,

Spiriduso, and Silverman, 1987, Fraenkel and Wallen,

1990; Merriam, 1988; IAEA, 1998) especially of major

animal health problems (Catley, 1997), and to assess the

success of disease control measures (Catley, 1997;

Esena, 2013


Ghirotti, 1993; McCracken, Pretty, and Conway, 1988).

This approach is appropriate for understanding multiple

facts, characteristics and constraints of trypanosomiasis

control, livestock diseases and the development of a

forecasting tool. Therefore the purpose of this

methodology design was to seek convergence

(triangulation) by examining different aspects of the

research and adding breadth and scope to the project

(Greene, Caracelli, and Graham, 1989).

The quantitative method of this research are

concerned with measurements and evaluation of the use

of Berenil® and the prevalence of trypanosomiasis (lab

studies) as well as the use of satellite data for prediction

and control. Therefore, the emphasis is on numerical data

and measurable variables. It was appropriate to use

multivariate analysis and GIS (ArcView) to analyse

certain aspects of the data to develop epidemiological

models. Hence a multi-method approach was adopted

for this research as a strategy for validation.

Population and sample

The respondents consisted of 250 herdsmen

representing 15.14% of the total population of herdsmen

in the study area. The number of cattle farms owned in

the study area is 1651 (Ghana, 2009). They were grouped

into various districts as follows:

In the central region there are 112 farms at

Awutu-Efutu-Senya (AES) district and 139 in Gomoa

District. In the Greater Accra Region, there are 20 in the

Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA); 185 in Dangme

East 429 in Dangme West and 205 in Tema District. In

the Volta region, 198 in Akatsi district 33 in Keta district

46 in Ketu and 119 in Sogakope (South Tongu) district.

Of this total number of farms, 250 were selected for the

study and the respective herdsmen were identified as

respondents and interviewed. In a survey design, a

sample of 10 to 20% of the accessible population is

enough to generate confidence in the data collected and

the subsequent generalization (Ary, Jacob, and Razavieh

1979). It was noted that 30 cases is minimum for

statistical data analysis (Bailey, 1982), and some

techniques can be used with fewer than 30 cases

(Champion, 1970). For the Participatory Rural Appraisal

(PRA) technique, 850 farmers comprising drovers,

herdsmen and owners were interviewed for matrix-

scoring of the production objectives and the effect of

animal diseases on livestock and their products.

For the purpose of trypanosomiasis prevalence

studies a current cattle population census of the various

districts was obtained from records of the respective

Veterinary Offices. A minimum sample size of all herds

(kraals) was chosen at a 95% confidence level, an

assumed (estimated) prevalence of 20% (Ghana, 1999)

and within a precision (margin of error) of 5%

(Lemeshow et al., 1990; Lwanga and Lemeshow, 1991).

In each herd (within the kraals) the required

number of animals was selected by simple random

sampling so as to ensure that each animal had an equal

chance of being selected.

In this survey, 1,830 cattle were sampled. But

the research also adopted a total of 6,902 samples for

analysis as secondary data from the Tsetse Control Unit

(Veterinary Department of the Ministry of Food and

Agriculture) to strengthen the validity of the research

findings.

Procedure

Participatory Rural Appraisal Surveys (PRA)

The PRA survey relied on a technique known as

preference ranking of variables within a matrix (Kirsopp-

Reed and Hinchcliffe, 1994). Participants were asked to

rank the importance of different cattle production

parameters and also their perceptions of the importance

of livestock diseases. Parameters included hide, beef,

milk, manure as well as customary and ceremonial uses.

The criteria were listed in the rows of a matrix with the

classes of livestock in columns. Within each cell of the

matrix, participants could specify the relative importance

of every category by placing between zero and ten maize

seeds within the matrix. The production objectives,

Esena , 2013


farmer’s perceptions of the importance of livestock

diseases, livestock disease types in relation to

trypanosomiasis and cattle diseases affecting

productivity (i.e. the rows of a matrix) were determined

after discussion and pre-testing with farmers.

The survey was carried out in 75 villages within

11 districts (Figure 1) as follows: five districts in the

Greater Accra Region, four districts in the Volta Region

and two districts in the Central Region.

In each village, participants were asked to divide

themselves into groups according to their ethnic origin

and wealth relative to cattle herd size: small < 50 herds,

medium 50-99 herds and large > 99 herds (Ghana, 2009).

Each completed the matrix separately. Contract

herdsmen completed the matrices as groups separate to

the owners of the herd. Herders were also asked to

complete the matrices according to herder types and the

type of ownership (sole ownership, family ownership

and communal ownership). Prioritization process was

followed by informal discussions to clarify issues

relating to the matrices, cattle disease, treatment and

constraints for each type of livestock.

Ground Surveys:

Glossina spp. Tsetse fly sampling was done in

the study area (where PRA surveys and parasitological

studies were conducted) using 20 unbaited biconical

traps (Challier and Laveissiere, 1973) in each area for

24 hours. The species, sex and numbers of tsetse were

identified (Geoffoy et al., 1993; WHO, 1988) and

photographed, recorded and stored in the database as

flies per trap per day. The data were supplemented with

those of the National Livestock Survey Project. The

Global Positioning System (GPS) was used to locate the

longitudes, latitudes and altitudes of the study sites.

Land use and climatological data

It is important to examine the interaction

between trypanosomiasis risks and agricultural activities

such as crop and livestock production. To achieve this,

digitized land use maps of the study area were obtained

from the Department of Geography and Resource

Development (University of Ghana, Legon), while

Climatological data were obtained from the Ghana

Meteorological Headquarters (Accra) for analysis.

Satellite data

Normalised Difference Vegetation Indices

(NDVI) (Rouse et al., 1974) derived from the Advanced

Very High Resolution Radiation (AVHRR) on board the

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

(NOAA) satellites were used for the period 1999. The

indices were simplest and most convenient way to

monitor vegetation cover, and allowed rapid estimation

of vegetation cover properties from remotely sensed

data.

The significant (p < 0.05) Normalised Difference

Vegetation Index (NDVI) band affecting tsetse

distribution was RANGEDVI and the equation could be

represented as,

Equation (1) shows that for a unit (1.0 %)

increase in RANGEDVI, the tsetse density increased by

0.0033. The relationship between NDVI and tsetse was

represented by,

Equation (2) shows relationships between

RANGEDVI, MINNDVI and trypanosomiasis

prevalence. A unit increase (1.0 %) of RANGEDVI

increases trypanosomiasis risk by 0.0186 and with a 1.0

% decrease in MINNDVI decreases Trypanosomiasis

risk by 0.01364. Thus the distribution of tsetseflies

Glossina palpalis and trypanosomiasis risks were

influenced by changes in RANGEDVI and MINNDVI

bands respectively.

The indices were simplest and most convenient

way to monitor vegetation cover, and allowed rapid

estimation of vegetation cover properties from remotely

sensed data.

Esena , 2013

1044 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5):1041-1053

TSETSEDistribution = - 3.097 + 0.33 RANGEDVI….. (1)

= 0.993+1.186 RANGEDVI–1.364 MINNDVI…(2)

Trypanosome identification in cattle

The techniques adopted (Murray et al., 1983) are

based on the premise that following blood centrifugation,

trypanosomes are concentrated mainly in the buffy coat

zone. Each animal was bled from the jugular vein into a

herparinized vacutainer tube (10 mls) and from the ear

vein into a haematocrit capillary tube which were

transported to the laboratory on ice at 4° C. The capillary

tubes containing blood were microscopically examined

for trypanosomes using the Buffy Coat Technique, BCT

[Woo method] (Woo, 1969). The buffy coat prepared in

a microhaematocrit capillary tube and centrifuged as for

measurement of Packed Cell Volume (PCV) was

examined for trypanosomes as follows:

The capillary tube was cut with a diamond

pointed pen 1mm below the buffy coat to include the

upper layer of the red blood cells, and 3cm above to

include the plasma. Using a microhaematocrit capillary

tube holder, the contents of the capillary tube were

gently expressed on a slide, mixed and covered with a

cover slip (22 x 22 mm). The preparation was then

examined using the following microscopic set up:

A Leitz SM microscope, periplan GF x 10 eyepieces,

P.V. 25/0.50m objective and Heine phase contrast

condenser. The entire coverslip area was then examined

for about five minutes.

The identification of trypanosome species were

made on morphology of the parasites (Hoare, 1972;

Itard, 1989) the behavioural pattern observed in the

buffy coat dark ground illuminated preparations, and

mensural characteristics: The species identified were:

Trypanosoma congolense, T. vivax and T. brucei.

Trypanocide usage and the constraints in the control

of trypanosomiasis by livestock keepers

Knowledge of diagnosis and treatment

procedures of trypanosomiasis by herdsmen was

assessed by questionnaire and results presented in

Figure 2. Respondents, were interviewed on the use of

trypanocides to treat cattle trypanosomiasis. Records

included the volume of Berenil® administered to cattle.

The data were supplemented by relevant records and

information from the following sources: Department

of Veterinary Services, Veterinary Technical officers

(Community Animal Health Officers/Frontline Staffs),

District veterinary doctors and the National Head of

Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Control Unit.

Quality of care of Veterinary drug services

Farmers were asked to rank quality of drug

services using Likert scale. The farmers’ view of drug

services were presented in tabular form and ranked

as follows: excellent [5], good [4], fair [3], undecided [2]

and poor [1]. The variables used were: general

satisfaction, coverage of needs, satisfaction of needs,

Esena , 2013


Fig 1. The study area showing Gomoa, AES, Ga, AMA, Tema, Dangbe West, Dangbe East,

Sogakope (Tongu) Akatsi, Keta and Denu (Ketu) Districts in Ghana

presentation of treatment methods, effectiveness

of treatment, information given, understanding of

drugs, language gap, seller’s follow up and regularity of

follow up.

Data processing and analysis

Participatory Rural Assessment (PRA)

The data were analyzed using a linear-mixed-

model that included the effects of regions, districts,

villages within districts, ethnic groups, herd size and

whether the respondents were cattle owners or herdsmen,

business-ownership of cattle (sole, family, communal)

and vegetation type of each study site.

regions, districts, ethnic group, herd size and vegetation

were regarded as fixed factors, whereas village within

district was regarded as a random factor. The data were

standardized to ensure that relative ranking of objectives

and disease type by different groups of respondents was

similar. For example, one group of farmers might only

use a range of zero to five maize seeds, whereas another

group the full range of zero to 10. In the first group, a

trait with a score of five is the most important, although

it will be an intermediate score in the second group. The

data for each herd and animal group were transformed

using the formula:

Where Yorg = original score of trait

n = number of recorded traits

Thus the standardized trait measures the

importance of this trait relative to all scored traits within

each herd. An F-test was used to test the significance of

the various factors and the LSD-test to investigate the

differences of levels within a factor. The results are

presened in Table 1 and clearly shows that among

herdsmen, the production objectives were ranked as

milk, acquisition of cattle, beef, manure and hides. The

importance attached to milk by herdsmen might be

Esena , 2013


Yijklmno = Regioni + districtj + villagek + ethnic groupl +

herd sizem + ownershipn+ vegetationo+ eijklmno

Ystd = Yorg/(n/∑Yorg

Fig 2. Trypanocide (Berenil®) usage in relation to Trypanosomiasis prevalence in Ghana’s coastal savannah

motivating factor to control trypanosomiasis without

technical guidance.

Constraints associated with the control of

trypanosomiasis by herdsmen

To empirically estimate the marginal effect of

constraints affecting the control of trypanosomiasis,

multiple regression equations were run on the PC-SPSS

programme by the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS)

analysis. In this analysis, the “general to specific”

approach of Hendry (Johnston and DiNardo, 1997;

Kennedy, 1998; Koutsoyiannis, 1977; Thomas, 1993;

Zar, 1984) was adopted in order to arrive at coherent

regression results. The results as presented in Table 2

shows the factors and relative impacts.

Quality of care of drug services

The data were transformed semi-quantitatively

by assigning values to the variables. The qualities of the

likert-scale were assigned values as follows: excellent =

5, good = 4, fair = 3, undecided = 2 and poor = 1. The

PC Programme SPSS was used to run multiple

regression to test the significance of the impact of the

farmers’ view of the qualities of drug services.

Furthermore, the Spearman’s rho (ρ) was used

for a two-tailed test for possible correlations between the

variables. The results showed that although cattle

farmers were generally satisfied with the “effectiveness

of treatment” using trypanocide drugs purchased, yet

their perception on drug effectiveness is not very

satisfactory. In some districts, the cattle farmers ranked

drug services as “poor” or “undecided”.

Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis surveys

The GIS ArcView and ArcInfo Programmes

were used to map the current distribution of the flies

(Figure 3) and trypanosomiasis (Figure 4) in the study

area. Glossina palpalis was the only species found in the

area Trypanosomiasis vivax was found in 61% of cattle.


Esena , 2013

Pro

du

cts

Dro

vers

Herd

sma

n

Ow

ner

Cash

O

wn

Co

nsu

mp

tio

n

Cerem

on

ial

Use

Mean

Ran

k

Cash

O

wn

Co

nsu

mp

tio

n

Cerem

on

ial

Use

Mean

ran

k

Cash

O

wn

Co

nsu

mp

tio

n

Cerem

on

ial

Use

Mean

ran

k

Hid

e 0

.47

0.3

6

0

0.2

8

1.6

8

0.9

5

0

0.8

8

1.0

9

0.8

1

0

0.6

3

Bee

f 4

.59

1.2

7

0

1.9

5

6.0

8

2.3

2

0

2.8

0

6.7

3

2.1

5

0

2.9

6

Mil

k

7.8

5

1.9

6

0

3.2

7

9.6

1

4.4

9

0

4.7

0

4.1

9

1.7

6

0

1.9

8

Man

ure

2

.08

0.7

4

0

0.9

4

1.2

7

2.6

4

0

1.3

0

0.6

5

1.8

7

0

0.8

4

Wh

ole

Co

w

4.2

6

0

1.3

8

1.8

8

6.8

9

0

2.4

1

3.1

0

8.9

7

0

2.1

7

3.7

1

Mean

Usa

ge

3.8

5

0.8

7

0.2

8

1.6

6

5.1

1

2.0

8

0.4

8

2.5

6

4.3

3

1.3

2

0.4

3

2.0

3

Tab

le 1

: F

arm

er P

erce

pti

on

s of

Catt

le P

rod

ucti

on

Ob

jecti

ves

an

d t

he

Imp

orta

nce o

f H

ide,

Bee

f, M

ilk

, M

an

ure a

nd

Cere

mon

ial

Use

s

Cryopreservation of Trypanosome-infected blood

samples for future drug (trypanosome) susceptibility

analysis

This section was conducted at The Noguchi

Memorial Institute of Medical Research (Legon-Accra,

Ghana) as follows:

Trypanosome-infected blood samples from cattle

in selected areas were treated with anticoagulant, heparin

(0.005%). One volume of dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO)

sterilized stock (20%) solution was added to three

volumes of blood, to give a final concentration of 5%

and mixed well. The samples were aliquoted in 0.8 mls

[8 x 10-3 litres] cryotubes, screwcapped, labelled with

stabilate codes and frozen in liquid nitrogen by

progressively sinking the tubes in the vapourphase of the

liquid nitrogen container.

DISCUSSION AND POLICY IMPLICATION OF

STUDY

Multimethod approach, convergence of results and

tests for validity and reliability

The various mixed-method of techniques

comprising data sources, methods, analysis theory and

instruments generated a rich and comprehensive picture

of trypanosomiasis prevalence in the study area. It is a

range of quantitative and qualitative perceptions

designed to converge results. The output of the analysis

were presented as maps, tables, graphs, statistical

analysis, and models then tested for validity and

reliability.

In seeking explanations for diverse results, the

researcher may come out with unexpected findings. For

example the Participatory Rural Appraisal [PRA] data in

this research helped to explore the reason for

indiscriminate use of trypanocides by herdsmen: they

were rewarded mainly with milk (by cattle owners) as

the main source of remuneration. The ground surveys

1048 ournal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(5): 1041-1053

Esena , 2013


Constant (K) 2.342 24.219 0.001

Farm size 0.176 7.488 0.001


Prophylaxis 0.0082 2.761 0.006



Extension training -0.0071 -2.376 0.018

Business/cattle ownership) 0.0035 2.117 0.035

Table 2: Re-estimated profit model of herdsmen

Fig 3. Glossina palpalis distribution (catches/trap/day) in relation to mean for decadal

NDVI for year 1999 in the Coastal savannah;

together with satellite data made it possible to accurately

map areas most affected by trypanosomiasis for

predictions, it was also a relevant information for land

use patterns. The cryopreservation of Trypanosome-

infected samples was for future drug susceptibility

analysis and to test for probable identifications of

resistant strains associated with the control procedures.

In effect, multi-method approach gives a holistic view of

the disease and identifies the appropriate strategies for

targeting control.

In effect, the triangulation seeks a logical pattern

in results and to test for validity and reliability of the

findings. The belief is that once the researcher merges

qualitative and quantitative methodologies, the internal

validity of the research is strengthened (Bowen, 1996).

It has been argued that one can rely on the use of only

two methods for maximizing the credibility of research

findings (Bowen, 1996), But expanding on this notion,

some researchers have suggested the need to statistically

test the validity and reliability of research findings

(Schmidt, Hunter, and Urry, 1976).

Validity and Reliability

The issue of validity is to draw attention to the

extent that the findings really measure the concept that it

purports to measure and reliability (repeatability)

measures the accuracy and consistency of the tests. All

approaches to investigate validity have been designed to

establish convergent validity (Campbell and Fiske

(1959). But this notion of validity is currently

controversial (Trochim, 2002) and has been argued as the

best available approximation to the truth of a given

proposition, inference or conclusion (Trochim, 2002).

But the concept of validity and reliability should be seen

as a collective whole (comprising all components) with

the view to ensuring consistencies. This paper therefore

examines the tests and accuracies of these measurements.

In this research, the reliability of the tests

(internal validity) were calculated using Crobanch’s

alpha (a) for possible split-half reliability (Bryman and

Cramer, 1997) and found to be 0.81. For convergent

validity of this research the maximum possible validity

coefficient test (French and Michael, 1966) was used to

test for the internal validity of the samples. The result

was 0.78 and indicates a good validity.


Esena , 2013

Fig. 4 Trypanosomiasis prevalence (%) in relation to mean of decadal NDVI for year 1999 in the study area

Residual (difference between the observed and

expected) probability plots followed a normal

distribution; the data were found to fit the assumptions of

the research model. Residual analysis was used to

identify individual subjects whose values on the outcome

variable do not fit with other subjects (outliers). With

large samples, (250 as in this research) multivariate

models are sufficiently robust (Katz, 1999) and therefore

the results can be generalized to another situation in the

new situation.

In this study, econometric model was developed

to explore the views of herdsmen on the quality of drug

use and the impact of control procedures on profit

margins. In this model, the test of significance of

parameter estimates was carried out by the use of the

student t-test. In econometric applications, researchers

(Koutsoyiannis, 1977) test the null hypothesis for each

parameter against the alternative hypothesis. The

decision rule (for significance tests) is that the t-values

associated with independent variables that are equal to or

greater than theoretical value (t.05 (2)n-k) are considered to

have significant effects on the dependent variables and

are retained in the model. While the t-values determine

the significance of the respective independent variables,

the F-values determine the overall significance of the

independent variables of the results. In this study, only

certain variables turned out as expected in the equations.

Apart from variables that were dropped by the computer

itself (probably due to collinearity) variables with very

low t-values (p 0.05) were also dropped from the

subsequent equation to re-estimate the model.

Findings of the PRA indicate that milk is the

most dominant production objective of farmers

(normally sold for cash or savings) and were most

affected by trypanosomiasis. Some of the constraints

identified as associated with the use of trypanocide were

inappropriate dosage of Berenil® and “pour-on”

techniques, the lack of extension training and wrong

dilution methods of trypanocide drugs. Others were

inappropriate criteria for treatment and wrong treatment

intervals. Constraints associated with quality of drug

services were inadequate information given to farmers,

language gap, and inability of drug sellers to follow up

and the lack of presentation of treatment methods.

An aspect of this research focused on the quality

of drug services among the 250 farmers. Some of the

variables were: general satisfaction of services, coverage

of needs, presentation of methods and effectiveness of

treatment. Others were: information given, understanding

of drugs, language gap, seller’s follow up and regularity

of follow up.

Contrary to the relevance of validity and

reliability for ensuring the strengths of researches, some

writers (Trochim, 2002) have criticized the notion of

validity as measures, and that samples and designs don’t

have validity; only propositions, inference or conclusions

can “have” validity. Instead, Trochim (2002) subdivided

validity into four types as (external, construct, internal,

conclusion) that build on one another. The external

validity relates the ability to generalize to other persons,

places and time; the construct validity concerns the

ability to generalize to other constructs and the internal

validity concerns the causal relationships.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

This article has discussed the need for multiple

triangulation methods and exemplified the theory of

triangulation and analysis to enhance the quality and

validity of research findings. Each taps a different

dimension of a problem and captures a more complete

and holistic view of research. An illustration of a mixed-

methodological triangulation involved the use of

Participatory Rural Appraisal technique (PRA) to

explore farmer’s production objectives and their

perceptions of the importance of diseases in relation to

trypanocide use. Ground surveys (using unbaited

Challier-Laveissier biconical traps) determined the

distribution and density of Glossina palpalis and


Esena, 2013

trypanosomiasis prevalence obtained from cattle.

Econometric model assisted in identifying the constraints

associated with drug use by cattle farmers while The

Geographical Information System (GIS) – ArcView

programme was used to map the risk areas for accurate

targeting and control. All these multi-method approach

helped to give a holistic view of cattle trypanosomiasis in

the study area and convergence of information on

trypanosomiasis risk areas for predictions, monitoring

and planning of policy and control.

It is evident from this research that, the multi-

method approach is the most appropriate strategy for

disease control because it enhances the validity and

reliability of the findings. Furthermore, it gives all-round

information to inform decision in planning and

appropriate policy for integrated disease control

programmes.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to acknowledge the following

people for various contributions to this work: Professor

D.H. Molyneux, of the Liverpool School of Tropical

Medicine, UK for his comments on this project. I also

wish to express my thanks to Dr David Haran and Julia

Kemp both at the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine

for their good advice and useful comments on the

qualitative aspects of this research.

I thank Professor Bob Cheke of the NRI, UK for

useful advice and comments on the ecological aspects of

this work and to Dr J. J. Bennison, Livestock specialist

formerly at NRI, who assisted with technical advice and

for introducing me to the Linear–Mixed Model and

Preference Ranking techniques of the Participatory Rural

Appraisals (PRA).

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Materials and Methods

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Results and Discussion

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Reference Style

References should be cited in the text in the form (Author et al, 1987) and listed in alphabetical order at the end of the article as follows:

Schernewski G, Neumann T. The trophic state of the Baltic Sea a century ago: a model simulation study. J Mar Sys. 2005;53:109–124.

Kaufman PD, Cseke LJ, Warber S, Duke JA and Brielman HL. Natural Products from plants. CRC press, Bocaralon, Florida.

1999;15-16.

Kala CP. Ecology and Conservation of alphine meadows in the valley of flowers national park, Garhwal Himalaya. Ph.D Thesis,

Dehradun: Forest Research Institute, 1998;75-76.

http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/pdf/1746-4269-1-11.pdf.

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Journal of Research in Biology Volume 3 Issue 5

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