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2014 24: 218 originally published online 7 November 2012Journal of Disability Policy StudiesMatthew R. Hoge, Carl J. Liaupsin, John Umbreit and Jolenea B. Ferro

SchoolsExamining Placement Considerations for Students With Emotional Disturbance Across Three Alternative

  

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The placement of a student into the appropriate educational environment is one of the most complicated and conten-tious issues in special education (Crockett, 1999; Simpson, 2004). Following the passage of the Education of All Hand-icapped Children Act (EAHCA) of 1975, later reauthorized as the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1990, guidelines were established to direct how to deter-mine the most appropriate, least restrictive educational environment for a student (Yell & Katsiyannis, 2004). Stu-dent placement is a component of the Individualized Educa-tion Program (IEP) and is to be determined annually. The decision should be based on consideration of the student’s educational needs as well as the impact of his or her behav-ior on the learning environment of peers (Yell, 1995).

School districts rely on an array of settings to provide instruction and services to address the various challenges associated with educating students with emotional distur-bance (ED). As noted by Gliona, Gonzales, and Jacobson (2005), schools depend on a continuum of placements inside and outside of the general education classroom. This continuum may include special education consulta-tion within regular education classrooms, a mix of resource and regular education classrooms, resource classes, special classes within a school, special day

schools, home-based schooling, residential schools, or hospital schooling.

When students with ED exhibit chronic behaviors that prevent learning for themselves or others, or are so dan-gerous that they pose a threat to self, peers, or staff, schools often choose to place these students in alternative educational settings to address their specific educational needs (Atkins & Bartuska, 2010; Kleiner, Porch, & Farris, 2002). Students with ED, when compared with all other disability categories combined, are more likely to be edu-cated in a setting that does not include nondisabled peers (Coutinho & Oswald, 1996).

Nationally, districts increasingly rely on alternative set-tings as a means to meet the challenge of educating stu-dents at risk of school failure. From 1997 to 2002, the number of public alternative schools in the United States more than tripled to nearly 11,000 (NCES, 2002). Students with ED are one of the populations most affected by this

461672 DPS24410.1177/1044207312461672Journal of Disability Policy StudiesHoge et al.© Hammill Institute on Disabilities 2011

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1University of Arizona, Tucson, USA

Corresponding Author:Matthew R. Hoge, MA, University of Arizona, College of Education, 1430 E. Second Street, P.O. Box 210069, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA. Email: mhoge@mac.com

Examining Placement Considerations for Students With Emotional Disturbance Across Three Alternative Schools

Matthew R. Hoge, MA1, Carl J. Liaupsin, EdD1, John Umbreit, PhD1, and Jolenea B. Ferro, PhD1

Abstract

The continuum of educational environments exists to ensure the most appropriate and least restrictive educational setting for students with disabilities. One setting schools use to provide services to students with an emotional disturbance (ED) is an alternative school. How schools make decisions regarding student placement into and out of this setting lacks examination. This study identifies factors considered when making placements into and out of three alternative schools for students with ED. A mixed-methods approach was used to collect data from key stakeholders from each school involved with decision-making authority regarding student placement. Findings include (a) limited transitioning of students back to less restrictive settings, (b) greater number of factors considered during exit decisions from alternative schools than entry, and (c) student’s return to a less restrictive setting not contingent on those factors considered when placing the student into the school.

Keywords

emotional disturbance, placement, alternative school, least restrictive environment, transition

Article

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Hoge et al. 219

shift. According to the U.S. Department of Education, nearly 13% of students classified as ED were served in public or private separate facilities (Data Accountability Center, 2005). The percentage of students with ED in non-traditional school settings increases when one includes those placed in residential facilities, juvenile correctional programs, or hospital-based schools. Finally, though stu-dents with ED comprised only 8% of the total special edu-cation population, they constituted 44% of all students with disabilities placed in private settings (Greene & Winters, 2007).

Although a common definition for alternative schools does not exist, generally they involve the provision of spe-cialized educational services for an at-risk population (Atkins & Bartuska, 2010). As school districts continue to rely on alternative schools to educate students with ED, it is critical that researchers explore all aspects of these pro-grams, as is being done regarding other nontraditional edu-cational settings. For example, researchers examining education in residential placements and juvenile correc-tional facilities have reported on students’ academic charac-teristics (Foley, 2001; Krezmien, Mulcahy, & Leone, 2008), placement factors (Baker, Archer, & Curtis, 2007; Cook & Hill, 1990), outcomes (Hornby & Witte, 2008; Risler & O’Rourke, 2009), program practices and services (Gagnon & Barber, 2010; Miller, Hunt, & Georges, 2006), partici-pant attitudes (Harriss, Barlow, & Moli, 2008; Houchins, Shippen, & Jolivette, 2006), and transition from setting (Clark & Unruh, 2010; Trout et al., 2010).

Examinations of alternative schools specifically for stu-dents with ED, although recently receiving more attention from the research community, have been less comprehen-sive. To date, researchers have primarily investigated differ-ences in students placed in self-contained schools versus self-contained classrooms (Lane, Wehby, Little, & Cooley, 2005a, 2005b; Mattison, 2011), but have also evaluated pro-gram effectiveness (Mattison & Schneider, 2009), and the use of targeted behavioral (Turton, Umbreit, & Mathur, 2011) and academic interventions (Bowman-Perrott, Greenwood, & Tapia, 2007).

Despite the use of alternative schools to educate students with ED, there is little research examining how students enter and exit these programs (Atkins & Bartuska, 2010; Frey, 2002). Although alternative schools typically serve students whose needs are not being met in the general educational environment, they suffer from a lack of “institutional legiti-macy” (Raywid, 1994), often operating in isolation and inde-pendence (Atkins & Bartuska, 2010). As school districts continue to rely on these placements, there is a need for more targeted investigations into the variables considered when determining educational setting. The goal of this study was to examine decision making at the points of entry and exit by identifying factors considered by staff in three alternative schools when determining placement of students with ED.

MethodResearch DesignThe present pilot study used a sequential exploratory mixed-methods approach (Creswell, 2003). The quantita-tive method was guided by the results of the qualitative stage. In turn, the quantitative results were used to extend the qualitative findings (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2008). A five-stage process, modified from the paradigm for an integra-tive mixed-methods research approach (Castro, Kellison, Boyd, & Kopak, 2010), was used to collect and interpret findings. The stages (see Figure 1) consisted of (a) participant selection, (b) qualitative data collection, (c) interpretation of findings, (d) quantitative data collection, and (e) data analysis. Using this process, the lead researcher (first author) conducted interviews with staff at three alternative schools exclusively serving students with ED to identify factors used in determining student placement into and out of the programs. This mixed-methods approach allowed the researcher to collect qualitative and quantitative data in unique yet similar settings to examine the programs, their differing abilities to return students to less restrictive set-tings, and the features that contributed to differences.

Participant SelectionSchool characteristics. Three school sites located in the

Southwestern United States were selected to participate in the study. The state licensing the three alternative schools provides a broad definition of the components required to operate a school for students with ED. To qualify for the study, a site had to (a) be approved by the state as an alterna-tive school for students in the special education category of ED, (b) be included in the continuum of service delivery options within the local educational agency (LEA), (c) be housed in a classroom or building on a general education campus or a separate site within the LEA, (d) provide a cur-riculum aligned with state standards, (e) be populated by no more than 12 students per classroom, (f) be staffed by at least one teacher and one full-time paraprofessional, (g) be able to regularly provide a mental health component, and (h) be able to provide local case management for students. Each school is described below. Table 1 provides a sum-mary of school information.

The first participating school, located on the campus of a public middle school, operated as a separate, alternative educational school for students with ED. It consisted of a single classroom populated by seven middle school and one fifth-grade student with ED. The students were referred from a single school district of nearly 20,000 students, pri-marily Caucasian (70%) and Hispanic (25%). The eight stu-dents in the class were primarily male (n = 6, 75%) and Hispanic (n = 3, 38%); 38% (n = 3) had been in the program for at least 1 year. Although students spent the majority of

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220 Journal of Disability Policy Studies 24(4)

their academic day in the classroom, they were provided the opportunity to interact with peers from general education in shared settings like hallways and cafeteria. One lead teacher and two paraprofessionals worked in the classroom.

Transition was based on the individual need and objec-tives for each student. School 1 met twice monthly to evalu-ate the progress of all students in the school. Student review teams at School 1 consisted of program personnel, a repre-sentative of the possible receiving school, and a district representative.

The second participating school, housed on a separate campus, consisted of six classrooms. The school received students from a single district of nearly 130,000 students, with a population largely Caucasian (48%) and Hispanic (46%). The 29 students included in the study were primarily male (n = 27, 93%), Caucasian (n = 13, 45%), and in Grades 6 to 8 (n = 17, 59%); 66% (n = 19) had attended the school for at least 1 year. Each classroom was assigned one lead teacher and at least one paraprofessional to provide support. Students spent their entire academic day on campus and did not have access to nondisabled peers during their school day.

The third participating school, with four classrooms, was a private self-contained school for students with ED that contracted with multiple school districts. No data were pro-vided as to the population size or demographics of the refer-ring school districts. The student population included in this study, 13 in total, was primarily male (n = 12, 92%), Caucasian (n = 7, 54%), and in Grades K-5 (n = 8, 62%); 69% (n = 9) had been in the program for at least 1 year. Each classroom had one lead teacher and at least one para-professional. Students’ school day included social skills, technology, and vocational education. Students did not have opportunities to interact with nondisabled peers during the course of their school day.

To determine student advancement toward transition, Schools 2 and 3 used a level system based on daily point sheets and common schoolwide goals. Occasionally, an indi-vidualized goal was provided in addition to set schoolwide

goals. Student progress reviews were conducted on a quar-terly basis, with transition being considered for students who had met level system criteria for schoolwide behavior goals. Criteria consisted of obtaining 90% on four-to-five behavior goals for 9 consecutive weeks. Consideration for transition began only after criteria were met. Review teams for Schools 2 and 3 consisted of program-based personnel. When a stu-dent was determined to be ready for transition, a separate meeting was scheduled with a representative from the receiving school.

Student populations. Students were not direct participants in this study. However, the focus of interviews with staff participants centered on factors leading to transition of ele-mentary and middle school–aged students enrolled in their alternative schools. The study was conducted at the begin-ning of the school year. Statistics for student populations came from the previous school year. The lead researcher limited the discussions to elementary and middle school students to exclude additional considerations related to transition at the secondary level, such as a student dropping out of school or choosing an alternative diploma option.

Staff participants reported demographic data for elemen-tary and middle school-age student populations served at their individual site (see Table 2). The following data reflect the collective totals for all three self-contained schools (N = 50). The majority of students were male (n = 46, 92%) with a larger proportion (n = 29, 58%) in middle school than in Grades K-5 (n = 21, 42%). Student populations represented a variety of ethnicities with Caucasian being the most com-monly enrolled (n = 22, 44%), followed by Hispanic (n = 13, 26%), African American (n = 8, 16%), Native American (n = 3, 6%), Asian (n = 2, 4%), and unspecified (n = 2, 4%). Overall, 62% (n = 31) had maintained their current place-ment in the self-contained school for at least 1 year.

Staff participants. Staff participants were selected from among the program staff working in the three alternative

Figure 1. Research process.

Table 1. School Descriptions.

School 1 School 2 School 3

Student population

M E, M, H E, M, H

Number of classrooms

1 4 4

Received from One district One district Multiple districtsLocations Public school

campusSeparate school

siteSeparate school

siteStudent goals Individualized Schoolwide

systemSchoolwide

systemStudent reviews Biweekly Quarterly QuarterlyReview team Local and district Local LocalTransition

decision basisTarget behavior

from referralSet of behaviors:

Level systemSet of behaviors:

Level system

Note. M = middle school; E = elementary; H = high school.

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Hoge et al. 221

schools for students with ED. The criteria for participation were designed to recruit individuals with experience and specific program knowledge. Participants were required to have (a) worked at the specific site during the 2009-2010 school year and (b) participated in the decision-making pro-cess for all students from their program who were included in the study. Participants from the three schools included the lead classroom teacher (School 1), the school psycholo-gist and principal (School 2), and the school principal (School 3).

Qualitative Data CollectionThe lead researcher conducted interviews using the narra-tive inquiry process (Marshall & Rossman, 2010). In narra-tive inquiry, the participant retells a personal experience. In this case, the participant shared why each individual stu-dent was placed into the program (entry) and how the staff member or transition team came to determine whether the student was prepared to transition to a less restrictive edu-cational environment (exit). Although the participants were encouraged to use notes and school records when needed, they often recounted factors from memory, relying on past and current assumptions about the student. The researcher implemented this method to produce responses of a more reflective and personal nature.

Following agreement to participate in the study, the researcher conducted a 1- to 2-hr interview with the partici-pants at each individual school site. Interviews were con-ducted in a setting of the participants’ choice. Prior to the interview, a document with the questions to be asked was provided to allow participants the opportunity to address any concerns preceding the session, as well as to allow prepara-tion of necessary reference materials. All interviews were recorded, transcribed, and interpreted by the lead researcher.

Participants answered questions related to their alternative school and specific to each individual student attending from

the previous school year. The researcher asked closed-ended and open-ended questions. Closed-ended questions, used to collect specific responses, produced data pertaining to demo-graphics and educational experiences for each individual stu-dent. The responses included (a) each student’s age, grade level, ethnicity, and gender; (b) the number of months edu-cated in the current self-contained placement; (c) whether the student was ever considered for transition during the school year; and (d) whether the student transitioned to a less restrictive setting. The final question produced three possible responses with respect to student transition. Generally, stu-dents were or were not transitioned to a less restrictive set-ting. However, one school offered the option of partial transition, defined as a student attending at least one class with nondisabled peers while still being enrolled in the alter-native school. An example would be a student participating in a general education gym or science class for one period of the academic day, while receiving the remainder of their educa-tional services in the alternative school.

Open-ended questions asked the participants to state (a) their school’s mission and approach to working with students with ED, (b) the rationale(s) for each student’s referral to the program, (c) the specific exit criteria related to that individual student, and (d) if the student did not exit the program, why that decision was made. In many cases, the respondents provided brief answers, often citing a stu-dent’s failure to meet a schoolwide benchmark criterion. In these situations, participants were encouraged to elaborate and identify specific factors that contributed to the team’s decision to maintain the student’s placement in the alterna-tive school.

Interpretation of FindingsThe researcher transcribed the interviews and a member-check was conducted with participants reviewing the initial transcripts for accuracy. One participant made revisions to the transcript to modify responses. All participants approved final transcripts prior to coding.

Following participant approval of the transcribed materi-als, the researcher reviewed and coded the interviews for fac-tors associated with a student’s entrance to, maintained placement, and/or exit from the self-contained ED program. Among the three participating schools, five factors were iden-tified as reasons students were placed in the self-contained schools. These included (a) aggression, (b) defiance, (c) running (either from class or school grounds), (d) concerns about the student’s mental health, and (e) student performance of behav-iors resulting in harm to self.

Twelve factors were identified as reasons students were not ready to be transitioned to a less restrictive edu-cational environment. Those factors, in no specific order, were (a) failure to meet program goals as determined by a schoolwide level system, (b) parent resistance to transition,

Table 2. Student Demographics.

School 1 School 2 School 3 Composite

Male/female 6/2 27/2 12/1 46/4Elementary/

middle1/7 12/17 8/5 21/29

Caucasian 25% 45% 54% 44%Hispanic 38% 28% 15% 26%African

American0% 17% 23% 16%

Native American 13% 7% 0% 6%Asian 13% 3% 0% 4%Unspecified 13% — 8% 4%In program > 1

year38% 66% 69% 62%

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222 Journal of Disability Policy Studies 24(4)

(c) behavior regression, (d) aggression, (e) more evaluation time needed, (f) program determined to be the least restric-tive environment (LRE), (g) student resistance to transi-tion, (h) concerns as to the mental health of the student, (i) instability in student’s living situation, (j) no available placement options for transition, (k) defiance, and (l) run-ning from class or school grounds.

Quantitative Data CollectionFollowing coding, the researcher created a single-question checklist consisting of the 12 items participants identified as factors resulting in decisions to maintain student place-ments in the alternative schools. The purpose was to allow participants to add, substitute, or subtract factors previously identified as the rationale for maintaining a student’s place-ment in the self-contained school.

A second interview, lasting 30 to 45 min, was conducted with the participants from each self-contained school within a 4-week period of the initial interview. Participants used the factor list to review their reporting on students who did not transition. Participants were asked to reanswer the ques-tion, “Why did the student not transition during the previ-ous school year?” for each individual student. Using the factor list, participants identified all factors used in the rationale for maintaining the student’s placement.

Data AnalysisThe data from the closed-ended questions (first interview) and the responses generated by participants using the factor list (second interview) were analyzed and communicated using descriptive statistics. The categories reported include (a) student demographics, (b) degree of placement change, and (c) factors considered in a student’s change of place-ment. Data are reported as a percentage in relation to the total student population.

ResultsEntry Into Alternative School

Participants were asked questions to identify factors lead-ing to the placement of students into their alternative school. Findings reflect a composite of all three programs (N = 50). Individual program results are provided in Table 3. Six unique factors for entry were identified. In many cases, schools identified multiple factors for each student, thus the identified factors add up to more than the total number of participants. “Aggression” was the primary reason identi-fied by participants (n = 43, 86%) for placement of students in the alternative school setting. “Defiance” was the second most commonly identified factor (n = 12, 24%), followed by “running from classroom or school grounds” (n = 10,

20%), “performing behaviors resulting in danger to self” (n = 7, 14%), “placement by transfer from residential treat-ment program or changing of school district” (n = 7, 14%), and “mental health concerns” (n = 6, 12%).

Exit From Alternative SchoolParticipants reported whether a change in placement was considered for each individual student (N = 50). To be con-sidered, a meeting needed to be held specifically to discuss a change of placement for the student. Individual program results are found in Table 4. Across all three programs, 34% of students (n = 17) were considered at some point during the school year for transition to a less restrictive setting. Based on all students in the study, 22% (n = 11) attempted transition at some point during the school year. An attempt at transition was defined as the student participating in at least one class with nondisabled peers. Some students (n = 4, 8%) were provided the option of a partial transition. Among all students, 14% (n = 7) fully transitioned by the end of the school year.

Continuation in Alternative SchoolParticipants were asked to identify factors resulting in a decision to maintain the student’s placement in the alterna-tive school. Twelve factors were identified. Findings reflect the percentage of occurrence across all students determined not ready to transition (N = 43). Individual school results are found in Table 3. Across all schools, the primary factor contributing to maintaining placement in the alternative program was the student’s “failure to meet programwide goals based on a level system” (n = 33, 77%). Other factors cited were “aggression” (n = 18, 42%), “defiance” (n = 18, 42%), “home instability associated with frequent changes in living placement” (n = 8, 19%), “parent concern with placement change” (n = 8, 19%), “alternative placement determined as LRE for student” (n = 7, 16%), “more time needed to evaluate student progress” (n = 6, 14%), “behav-ior regression” (n = 5, 12%), “student resistance to transi-tion” (n = 5, 12%), “mental health concerns” (n = 4, 9%), “running from class or school grounds” (n = 3, 7%), and “no openings in less restrictive settings” (n = 1, 2%).

Full Transition From Alternative SchoolAcross all settings, seven students were fully transitioned to a less restrictive setting. The primary reason identified as the deciding rationale for transitioning a student was he or she having met a programwide standard in accordance with the school’s level system (n = 5, 71%). The other two cases represented unique approaches. One school was able to integrate a student back into mainstream classes following a progressive partial transition approach that ultimately

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resulted in full transition. In another case, a student was transitioned to a less restrictive setting after the alternative school reviewed factors contributing to the disability and determined the more restrictive, alternative placement was not appropriate.

In the schools studied here, transition decisions were influenced by program- and non-program-related features. Among program-related features, transition was more likely to be considered or attempted if the school (a) implemented partial transition, (b) was located with or near the returning school, and (c) frequently involved personnel at the receiv-ing school both prior to and during the transition process.

DiscussionThis study examined program decision making at the points of entry and exit by identifying factors staff considered

when determining placement of students with ED into or out of three alternative schools. Findings generally showed similar patterns across the three schools. First, limited tran-sitioning occurred for students from alternative schools back to less restrictive settings. Only seven students (14%) transitioned. Second, although six specific factors led stu-dents to be placed into the alternative schools, a broader list of 12 factors was considered when deciding to maintain or change student placement. Third, a student’s return to a less restrictive setting was not necessarily contingent upon those factors considered when placing the student into the program and often included factors unrelated to student academic or behavioral performance.

IDEA mandates the provision of a free and appropriate public education in a student’s LRE. For students with ED, the phrases “appropriate” and “least restrictive” can leave room for varied interpretations about learning environ-ments, especially when those terms are applied to nontra-ditional educational settings. Alternative schools may provide an important resource by offering unique educa-tional services specifically tailored for students with ED during those times when these students cannot be educated with nondisabled peers. However, the need for intensely restrictive settings as part of a continuum of placements also warrants scrutiny through investigations of program practices.

Aggression was the most frequently cited reason stu-dents were referred for placement into the alternative

Table 3. Transition Factors.

Factor for entry Factor for exit

School 1 (n = 8)

School 2 (n = 29)

School 3 (n = 13)

Composite (N = 50)

School 1 (n = 7)

School 2 (n = 24)

School 3 (n = 12)

Composite (N = 43)

Aggression 75% 83% 100% 86% 29% 50% 33% 42%Defiance 0% 34% 15% 24% 14% 58% 25% 42%Running from classroom/

school13% 17% 31% 20% 0% 0% 25% 7%

Mental health concerns 25% 7% 8% 10% 14% 8% 8% 9%Danger to self 37% 10% 8% 14% — — — —Transfer from other setting 0% 24% 0% 14% — — — —Failure to meet

programwide goals— — — — 0% 100% 75% 77%

Parent concern — — — — 43% 8% 25% 19%Behavior regression — — — — 14% 17% 0% 12%Student resistance to

transition— — — — 43% 0% 17% 12%

More evaluation needed — — — — 29% 8% 17% 14%Current placement is LRE — — — — 14% 13% 25% 16%Home instability — — — — 14% 25% 8% 19%No placement openings — — — — 0% 4% 0% 2%

Note. LRE = least restrictive environment.

Table 4. Transition Outcomes.

School 1 (n = 8)

School 2 (n = 29)

School 3 (n = 13)

Composite (N = 50)

Considered 75% 31% 15% 34%Attempted 63% 17% 8% 22%Partial 50% 0% 0% 8%Full 13% 17% 8% 14%

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224 Journal of Disability Policy Studies 24(4)

schools (86% across all programs). However, it was not identified as the most common reason for maintaining a stu-dent in the alternative placement. In fact, aggression was named a factor for only 42% of students when transition was determined not to be appropriate. The primary purpose of alternative schools for students with ED is to address the problem behaviors leading to the placement so that students can return to a less restrictive setting. Therefore, a need exists for more information about why factors unrelated to the initial placement seem to prevent students from transi-tioning back to less restrictive environments.

Failure to meet the requirements of a schoolwide level system was the most common reason students were denied transition (77% across all programs). In Schools 2 and 3, the level system required students to “qualify” out of the more restrictive placement by performing program-specific behaviors at a prearranged level (often 90% of the time) for a set period (up to 9 weeks). If a student was unable to meet the goals of the level system, he or she was deemed to be in the LRE. Teachers working with students with ED rely heavily on level systems (Bauer, 1986). Unfortunately, most of these systems are developed through staff collaboration or teacher creativity rather than research, fail due to lack of implementer knowledge, and may not even include neces-sary components that would enable successful transition back to less restrictive settings (Cancio & Johnson, 2007; Farrell, Smith, & Brownell, 1998). The use of a level sys-tem as the primary method to determine student educational placement is of some concern.

Perhaps the most significant concern with the use of level systems is their legality. Scheuermann (1994) identified two ways level systems may restrict student access to main-streaming and impact placement decisions. First, restricting transition to only students who have achieved the highest tier of a level system frames placement as an earned privi-lege, a violation of a student’s rights under IDEA. Placement decisions are to be based on the student’s educational needs, not student status. Second, level systems may violate a stu-dent’s IEP if they use a universal entry point, starting all stu-dents at Level 1, and fail to provide individualized conditions for movement through the system. Programs that construct level systems not based on goals identified in a student’s IEP risk violating special education law.

In the schools studied here, factors unrelated to the pro-gram, student’s behavior, or academic deficits influenced transition decisions. These included the receiving school’s perception of safety, student or parent preferences, and home environment. These factors not identified during the original placement into the alternative school frequently inhibited the student’s return to a less restrictive setting.

Students with ED are often placed in restrictive settings because they present a danger to self or others. Once removed, school districts may be resistant to reintegrate stu-dents because of parents’ concerns, insufficient staffing to

serve students with ED, or lack of a less restrictive option in the school system. As a result of growing concern over school safety, the burden of proof often lies on the displaced student to demonstrate he or she will not present the same problem behaviors that led to placement in the alternative setting.

Participants reported that some parents and students pre-ferred the alternative school setting due to the services it pro-vided, the staff’s willingness to work with more challenging behaviors, and the decreased frequency with which the parent had to be called in. Even though the school felt some students were prepared to transition out of the program, they adhered to the requests of the child or parent. Participants also described several instances of maneuvering by either student or parent to ensure a change of placement did not occur.

Although an exact percentage was not collected for this study, many students were part of the state’s foster care system. Participants considered stability in home life to be a desirable asset to successful reintegration. Frequent changes in home placement, termed instability, were a fac-tor in deciding against transition for 19% of students. In these cases, the school’s decision to provide stability by maintaining the current educational placement took prece-dence over predetermined conditions for transition to a less restrictive setting.

Two particular limitations should be noted. First, we rec-ognize that districts may benefit financially from placing stu-dents into alternative settings. This topic has received previous attention in regard to placement of students into spe-cial education with researchers finding financial incentives boost special education enrollment and may lead to manipu-lation of student disability classification (Greene & Forster, 2002; Wishart & Jahnukainen, 2010). As part of a state’s spe-cial education funding formula, school districts often receive dramatic increases in their funding when serving students in alternative schools versus self-contained classrooms. Coutinho and Oswald (1996) found higher per pupil reve-nues related to placement in more restrictive settings. We are not suggesting self-serving behavior by school districts but acknowledge that factors outside the scope of this investiga-tion may also contribute to a school district’s decision to return students to less restrictive settings. Although this study focused solely on the perspective of the alternative school attempting to exit a student, future research focusing on the receiving school might shed light on this issue.

Second, as with most studies examining students with ED, the size of the population included is relatively small (schools N = 3; students N = 50). Findings add to the litera-ture regarding students with ED but should not be used to make generalizations. One challenge in generalizing research on alternative schools serving students with ED is that the characteristics and requirements in programming have great variability. Although the schools included here shared a common definition for alternative schools

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for students with ED outlined by the state in which they operated, programs in other states may differ based on the populations they serve, the staffing they provide, and the format by which they deliver services.

RecommendationsDetermining where students fit best along the continuum of placements presents considerable challenges to special edu-cators. Although it accounts for the variety of environments needed to educate students with ED, no clear rationale exists as to how these students should move from setting to setting. The findings here show this to be especially true for students placed into alternative schools. Placement deci-sions were influenced by a multitude of factors, only some of which related to student academic and behavioral perfor-mance. As the operation of these programs undoubtedly will continue, sustained research into their practices, com-positions, and policies is needed to ensure appropriate and effective educational services for students with ED.

Policies at the state and local levels should be revised to better address placement issues. Effective policies might focus on district accountability and require increased docu-mentation of their efforts to educate students with ED in the LRE. Determining why students are not transitioning from restrictive settings and how districts will address these fac-tors must be a priority. In doing so, the onus of moving a student to less restrictive placements falls on the school, not the student with a disability.

Finally, the use of level systems must be under increased scrutiny. As noted, questions exist as to the legality of this practice for determining student educational setting. In addition, programs are not held to a standard of reliability and validity for the practice. It should be expected that mea-surement tools will be based on evidence, used frequently, and implemented by practitioners who have received train-ing and demonstrated mastery in their use.

These policy recommendations address the gray area of determining educational placement for students with ED. By providing more oversight and accountability to those working with our most challenging students, we hope the quality of intervention delivered in restrictive settings results in improved outcomes for students with ED.

Authors’ Note

The manuscript has been reviewed and edited to ensure no acknowledgments, financial disclosure information, author notes, and/or other text could identify the authors to reviewers.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

FundingThe author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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