Journal of Applied Learning in Higher Education...experiential education, and critical pedagogy....

J o u r n a l o f

Applied Learning in Higher Education

F a l l 2 0 0 9 , V o l . 1

J o u r n a l o f


Co-Editors:

Kelly Bouas Henry, Ph.D., Missouri Western State University

Roy Schwartzman, Ph.D., University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Editorial Board:

Robert G. Bringle, Ph.D., Indiana University - Purdue University Indianapolis

Patti H. Clayton, Ph.D., Indiana University - Purdue University Indianapolis

Brian C. Cronk, Ph.D., Missouri Western State University

Mary L. Crowe, Ph.D., University of North Carolina at Greensboro

John Falconer, Ph.D., University of Nebraska at Kearney

Ruthann Fox-Hines, Ph.D., University of South Carolina

Dwight E. Giles, Jr., Ph.D., University of Massachusetts Boston

Karen Fulton, Ph.D., Missouri Western State University

Cynthia Heider, Ph.D., Missouri Western State University

Susan A. Jasko, Ph.D., California University of Pennsylvania

Mitch Malachowski, Ph.D., University of San Diego

Greg A. Phelps, Ph.D., Lindsey Wilson College

J o u r n a l o f


CONTENTS

FromCelebrationtoCriticalInvestigation: ChartingtheCourseofScholarshipinAppliedLearning ROYSCHWARTZMANandKELLYBOUASHENRY 3

Generating,Deepening,andDocumentingLearning: ThePowerofCriticalReflectioninAppliedLearning SARAHL.ASHandPATTIH.CLAYTON 25

ExaminingtheDevelopmentoftheVictorianCertificate ofAppliedLearningandItsImplicationsforSchools andTeacherEducationinAustralia DAMIANBLAKEandDAVIDGALLAGHER 49 WillTheyRecognizeMyLectureintheField? TheJuvenileCorrectionsCritical AssessmentTourAppliedLearningExperience GREGLINDSTEADTandREGINAWILLIAMS-DECKER 73 StudentMotivationandAssessmentof AppliedSkillsinanEquineStudiesProgram K.I.TUMLIN,R.LINARES,andM.W.SCHILLING 93 DemographicTippingPoint: CulturalBrokeringwithEnglishLanguageLearnersasService- LearningforTeacherCandidatesandEducators WENDYL.MCCARTY,ROSEMARYCERVANTES, andGERALDINESTIRTZ 109

PublishedbyMissouriWesternStateUniversity,St.Joseph,Missouri

Fall2009Volume1

AimsandScope:TheJournal of Applied Learning in Higher Education(JALHE)isaninternationalandinterdisciplinaryjournalservingthecommunityofscholarsengagedinappliedlearningatinstitu-tionsofhighereducation.Itspurposeistoadvancescholarshiponappliedlearningbyprovidinganoutletforempiricalandtheoreticalworkrelatedtothispedagogicalpractice.

PeerReviewPolicy:AllpaperssubmittedtoJALHEundergoarigorouspeerreviewprocess,begin-ningwithaninitialscreeningbytheeditorpriortoananonymousreviewbyatleasttwoindependentexperts.Theeditorwillconveyafinaldecisiontotheauthor,alongwithconstructivefeedbackfromthetworeviewers.

Submission Guidelines: Each year, presenters at the annual Conference on Applied Learningin Higher Education are invited to submit manuscripts based on their work presented at the con-ference for consideration for publication in the Journal of Applied Learning in Higher Educa-tion. Manuscripts of up to 5000 words (excluding tables, figures, and references from the wordcount) should be submitted via e-mail to Kelly Henry, Missouri Western State University at:appliedlearning@missouriwestern.edu.ManuscriptsshouldbesubmittedasasingleMicrosoftWorddocumentandshouldfollowcurrent(6thed.)AmericanPsychologicalAssociation(APA)Publica-tionGuidelines.Submissionofamanuscriptimpliescommitmenttopublishinthejournal.Authorssubmittingmanuscriptstothejournalshouldnotsimultaneouslysubmitthemtoanotherjournal,norshouldmanuscriptshavebeenpublishedelsewhereinsubstantiallysimilarformorwithsubstantiallysimilarcontent.Authorsindoubtaboutwhatconstitutesapriorpublicationshouldconsulttheeditor.Uponnotificationofacceptance,authorsmustassigncopyrightandprovidecopyrightclearanceforcopyrightedmaterials.

TheJournal of Applied Learning in Higher Education(ISSN2150-8259)ispublishedannuallyeachFallbyMissouriWesternStateUniversity,4525DownsDr.,St.Joseph,MO64507;(816)271-5977;fax(816)271-5979;e-mail:[email protected];http://www.missouriwestern.edu/AppliedLearning.Copyright©2009byMissouriWesternStateUniversity.Allrightsreserved.Noportionofthecontentsmaybereproducedinanyformwithoutwrittenpermissionofthepublisher.Addressallpermissionstoappliedlearning@missouriwestern.edu.

Subscriptions:Regularinstitutionalandindividualratesare$50peryear.SubscriptionsareavailablefromtheOfficeofAppliedLearning,203PopplewellHall,MissouriWesternStateUniversity,4525DownsDr.,St.Joseph,[email protected],individualsubscriptionsareincludedaspartoftheConferenceonAppliedLearninginHigherEducationregis-trationfee.Limitedbackissuesmaybeavailablebycontactingappliedlearning@missouriwestern.edu,butfreeaccessisavailabletoalljournalcontentonthejournalwebsiteathttp://www.missouriwestern.edu/AppliedLearning/JALHE.

Advertising:CurrentratesandspecificationsmaybeobtainedbywritingtothetheOfficeofAppliedLearning,203PopplewellHall,MissouriWesternStateUniversity,4525DownsDr.,St.Joseph,[email protected]:Claimsforundeliveredcopiesmustbemadenolaterthan12monthsfollowingthepublicationdate.Thepublisherwillsupplymissingcopieswhenlosseshaveoccurredintransitandwhenthereservestockwillpermit.

Changeofaddress:Sixweeksadvancenoticemustbegivenwhennotifyingofachangeofaddress.SendchangeofaddressnotificationstoOfficeofAppliedLearning,203PopplewellHall,MissouriWesternStateUniversity,4525DownsDr.,St.Joseph,[email protected].

Disclaimer:Theviews,opinions,orfindingsexpressedintheJournalrepresentthoseoftheindividualauthors of the respective works and do not represent the views, opinions, or findings of MissouriWesternStateUniversity.

3

From Celebration to Critical Investigation:

Charting the Course of Scholarship in Applied Learning

Roy SChwARtzmAn UniversityofNorthCarolinaatGreensboro

KeLLy BouAS henRy MissouriWesternStateUniversity

Applied learning refers to learning experiences that take place outside traditional class-room settings. Examples include study away, service-learning, undergraduate research, and internship/practica/clinical experiences. As these pedagogies have increased in fre-quency over the past twenty years, the number of outlets devoted to the publication of scholarly work related to them has not kept pace. The JournalofAppliedLearning inHigherEducation(JALHE) attempts to fill that gap, providing an outlet for research and theory that critically examines applied learning’s impact and purpose using multiple meth-odological and disciplinary approaches. The initial volume of JALHE showcases work in this vein from a wide variety of disciplinary backgrounds and highlights areas ripe for future research.

Nowisthetime,weconclude,tobuildbridgesacrossthedisciplines, andconnectthecampustothelargerworld.Societyitselfhasagreat stakeinhowscholarshipisdefined.(Boyer,1990,p.77) Ernest Boyer’s provocative epigraph captures much of what theJournal of Applied Learning in Higher Education (JALHE)seekstoac-complish.Appliedlearningfiguresprominentlyinnationalhigheredu-cationreformefforts.Inanerawhenfew,ifany,ofhighereducation’s

JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducationVol.1,Fall20093-23©2009MissouriWesternStateUniversity

JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall20094

long-heldpresumptions,suchasthevalueoftheliberalartsandoftenuredprofessors,canbetakenforgranted,educational leadershavebecomemore responsive to the demands of various stakeholders—businesses,governingboards,legislatures,parents,communityorganizations,localresidents, regional accreditation agencies, and students. In particular,highereducationinstitutionsarelearningtousescarceresourcesmoreefficientlytoadapttomultiplelearningstylesandtoproducemeasurablelearningoutcomesthatmeettheneedsofindustryandsociety. Thereformofscholarlyresearchchartsasimilarpath.Boyer(1990)commentsthat“futurescholarsshouldbeaskedtothinkabouttheuse-fulness of knowledge, to reflect on the social consequences of theirwork,andinsodoinggainunderstandingofhowtheirownstudyrelatestotheworldbeyondthecampus”(p.69).Hegoesontopraisefieldworkexperiencesinvariousdisciplines“thatinvolvestudentsinclinicalex-perience and apprenticeships” (Boyer, 1990, p. 70). The evolution ofscholarshipclearlyinvolvesadeepeningconcernfortheexperientialas-pectsofeducation.ThisessaywillchartthecourseofJALHEbybrieflytracingitshistoricalandintellectuallineage,thenembarkonnavigatingitthroughtheongoingscholarlydialoguesrelatedtoeducationaltheoryandpractice.

ConCEPTuALToPoGRAPhyoFAPPLIEDLEARnInG Beforeproceeding,adefinitionofthecentralterminthisjournal’stitlerequiresclarification.“Appliedlearning”refersmoretoaspiritormovementineducationthantoadefinitivelyboundedsubjectmatter.Itdesignatesthekindsofpedagogicalprinciplesandpracticesassociatedwithengagedscholarship,communitiesofpractice,civicengagement,experientialeducation,andcriticalpedagogy.Diverseasappliedlearn-ingmayappear,allitsmanifestationssharecertaincharacteristics.Con-creteexperience,“learningbydoing,”liesatthecoreofappliedlearn-ing.Thispedagogyrepresentsactivelearningatitsmostliterallevel,theactivityofputtingintellectualprinciplesintopractice. Appliedlearningmaybecurricularorco-curricular,connectedwithcourseworkora learningexperience thatoccurs throughother institu-

AUTHOR NOTE: Roy Schwartzman, Ph.D., Department of Communica-tion Studies, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Kelly Bouas Henry, Ph.D., Department of Psychology, Missouri Western State University, St. Joseph, MO. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to: Roy Schwartzman, Dept. of Communication Studies, 109 Ferguson Building, Uni-versity of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27402-6170; e-mail: [email protected]

Schwartzman,Henry/SCHOLARSHIPONAPPLIEDLEARNING 5

tionalmeans(suchasstudentserviceprojects).Thesepracticesalwayshave a central educational component that—as service-learning prac-titioners quicklyobserve—distinguishes them fromvolunteerismcon-ductedsolelyforitsintrinsicvalue.Althoughtheyextendbeyondcon-ventionalclassroomeducation,applied learningpracticescomplementratherthanreplaceotherpedagogicalmethods.Appliedlearningtypical-lybecomesmanifestinhighereducationasoneormoreofthefollowingkindsofpedagogicalpractices:studyaway(inanoff-siteenvironment,such as studying abroador community-based learning), service-learn-ing,independentresearch,andinternships/practica/clinicalexperiences.Thesepracticesalwayshaveacentraleducationalcomponentwhichdis-tinguishes them fromout-of-class activities conducted solely for theirintrinsichumanitarianvalue. Thedistinctionbetweenappliedlearningandmoreabstracttheoreti-calknowledgeisarticulatedmostcrisplybyphilosopherGilbertRyle.AccordingtoRyle(1949),intelligencemeldstwokindsofknowledge,whichhelabeled“knowingthat”and“knowinghow.”“Knowingthat”encompasses theoretical understanding, the propositional knowledgetypically reflected inmasteryof factsandprinciples.“Knowinghow”involvesthedemonstrationofskillinperformingatask.Theintegrationofthesetwotypesofknowledgeprovescrucialinwhatcountsasintel-ligence.Imaginesomeonelearninghowtoplayagame.The“knowingthat”componentdealswith internalizingtherules toenableplay.The“knowinghow”aspectreferstotheabilitytoexecutemovesinthegame.Scholarship on applied learning investigates this relationship betweenintellectualunderstanding(comprehendingtherules,knowingthesys-tem)andskillfulpractice(takingappropriateaction). Theoretical knowledge without practical application creates theIvoryTowerintellectualincompetenttofacetheeverydaychallengesoflife.InthefilmDefiance (2008),aJewishrefugeewhocannothammeranaildescribeshisvocationas“anintellectual,”whichgeneratesthepuz-zledreplyfromhiscomrade:“Thisisajob?”Ontheotherhand,practicalskillwithout theoreticalunderstandingcannotgeneratedesired resultsconsistently.Theswiftestrunnercannotwintheracewithoutknowingwhichdirectiontorun.Ryle(1949)suggeststhatblendingtheorywithpracticeenablesalearnertotranscendmeretrainingandmovetowardinitiatingtheself-disciplinethatcharacterizeslifelonglearning:“Tobeintelligentisnotmerelytosatisfycriteria,buttoapplythem;toregulateone’sactionsandnotmerelytobewell-regulated”(p.28). The concepts of applied learning often infused the educational lit-erature indiscussionsofvocationaleducation.Researchersnoted thataknowledge-basedeconomywouldrequiretheflexibilitytoapplyknowl-edgetoavarietyoftasks,andthisversatilitycouldariseonlythroughput-tingtheoryintopracticebyengaginginconcreteactivitiesbeyondthecon-


finesofthetraditionalclassroom(Kolde,1991).Ongoingcallsforgreaterrelevanceofhighereducationhavehelpedtoacceleratethepaceofappliedlearningandextenditbeyondjobtraining.Formostofsocietybeyondaca-demia,thetruetestofknowledgeliesinitsconnectiontolivedexperience.

RATIonALE:WhyThISJouRnAL?WhynoW? Thedevelopmentofanynewscholarlyjournalrespondstoanintel-lectualneed,theproverbial“gapintheliterature”recognizedineverythesis or dissertation. The need for this journal is both profound andpersistent.Appliedlearningprogramshaveproliferatedfarmorerapidlythan the scholarly tools to examine themeritsof theirdesignand themeasuresoftheireffectiveness.WhilethepopularityofappliedlearninggeneratescelebrationthattheIvoryTowerisbecomingpartofthesur-roundingneighborhood,italsotriggersconsternation.Asmushroomingnumbersofindividualcasestudiesaccumulate,thespeedofimplement-ingvariousappliedlearningpracticeshasoutpacedtheabilitytodeter-minesystematicallywhatworksbest,when,andwhy(Densmore,2000;Eyler,2002). ThechronologicalhistoryofthisjournalbeginswiththeConferenceon Applied Learning in Higher Education (CALHE), developed andhostedbyMissouriWesternStateUniversityinSt.Joseph.Theconfer-encewasbornoutofWestern’sstatewidemissionasMissouri’s“appliedlearning” institution, a designation that became official in 2005. Likemanyuniversities,Westernalreadyhadinstitutionalizedmanyformsofapplied learningexperiences.Beyondsimplypracticingapplied learn-ing,theuniversitysoughttoimplementitsmissionbyprovidingavenuetopromotebestpracticesofappliedlearningthatcouldservethestate,region,andnation.Theconferenceemergedasawaytomeldtheoftenabstractrealmofinstitutionalmissionstatementswiththeoftenunder-theorizedandunder-analyzedpracticeofappliedlearning.CALHEof-fered to bring state-of-the-art training, research, and analysis throughthetopexpertsinvariousareasofappliedlearning—therebyputtingtheuniversity’s mission into practice through scholarship and intellectualdialogue. ShortlyafterthefirstCALHEin2006,webegantoseethatarelatedwaytosupporttheuniversity’smissionandtodeepentheconversationsregardingapplied learningwas todevelopapeer-reviewedoutlet thatfacultyandpractitionerscouldturntoasawaytoengageinscholarlydiscussionsrelatedtoappliedlearning.Theconferencewasbecomingaprovocativeavenueforsharingideasaboutappliedlearningacrossvari-ousdisciplines.Unfortunately, itwas limitedby theephemeralnatureofsuchevents.Energeticexchangesofideasoccur,stimulatingfurtherreflection, and then those exciting conversations gradually fade aftertheconferenceconcludes.Thenarcoticeverydayroutineofpaperwork


andothermundanetasksquellsthemomentumbuiltatthemeeting.Thejournaloffersanongoing,permanentresourceforrestoringandsustain-ingvibrantintellectualdiscourse. Thejournalalsoaddressesanissuethathasemergedonmanycollegeanduniversitycampuses.CALHEemergedatatimewhenhighereduca-tionwas(andstillis)embroiledinoneofmanydilemmasthatpittra-ditionalacademicperceptionagainstcurrentacademicpractice.Ononehand,therealitiesofacademiclifeatalllevelsplaceincreasingdemandsonfacultytoserveandteach.Thechronicshortageofpersonnelwillingtoengageingovernanceandleadershipmeansthatabroaderrangeoftheseadministrativedutiesfiltersintotheeverydaydutiesoffacultyandstaff. Increasingteachingandservice loadsdrivenbydemandsforef-ficiencytranslatetomorestudentsandmoretaskswithfewerresources.Time fordiscipline-based researchmayerode in the faceof thesede-mands,especiallyinasocialclimatewhereonlyclassroominstructionisconceivedas“genuine”academic labor.Ontheotherhand,promo-tionandtenurecommitteesstilltendtoprioritizescholarship,especiallyat research-oriented institutions. How can these competing demandsbereconciled? Applied learning often falls through the cracks of faculty evalua-tion and reward systems in higher education. If understood solely asa pedagogical practice, it remains segregated in the “teaching” realmofevaluation.Theconferenceandthe journal treat theboundariesbe-tween teaching, research, and service as permeable. Too often, espe-ciallyatresearch-orienteduniversities,teachingandserviceoccupydis-tinctlylowerlevelsintheevaluativehierarchy.TheJournal of AppliedLearning in Higher Education isdedicated todemonstrating thatped-agogical practice—much of which involves service—and rigorousresearch are not only compatible, but symbiotic. The nature of thejournalreflects themutualfertilizationamongthefour typesofschol-arship Boyer (1990) articulates: scholarship of discovery, scholarshipof integration, scholarshipof teaching,andscholarshipofapplication.Withinthepagesofthisjournal,thepracticesandprinciplesofdifferentdisciplinesareintegratedbytheirsharedgoal: toprobethetheoreticalgrounds, best practices, and implicationsof applied learning in all itsforms.Thisjournalalsoprovidesascholarlyforumforconductingthescholarshipofengagement(Boyer,1996),theexaminationofpedagogi-calpracticesthatimplementthetraditionalinstitutionalmissiontoserveits communityandconstituencies.This scholarlyapproach to service-relatedactivitiesreunitesthepublicserviceactivitiesofhighereducationwiththecriticalanalysisthatconstitutesthecoreofacademicresearch. Some excellent peer-reviewed journals currently address differentaspectsofappliedlearning,butfewscholarlyavenueshaveprovidedasingleforumtoengagemultipledisciplinesindiscussionsofallaspects


ofappliedlearning.Byprovidingsuchavenue,thisjournalbroadensthereachofscholarshipbeyonddisciplinaryrestrictions(therebyfosteringintegration)andaddsdepthtoscholarshipofteachingbycoveringmul-tiple pedagogical practices (not only undergraduate research, service-learning, etc.). In many ways, the movement of engaging students inexperientiallearninghasgrownupinsiloform,withdifferentformsofapplied learninghaving their ownorganizations and emphasizingdif-ferences between disciplines and practices rather than seeking sharedconcernswiththenatureandpracticeofappliedlearningperse. Thedifferent formsofapplied learningcan informeachotherandneednot remain segregated in separate journals.Forexample, facultywhohaveformanyyearsengagedinundergraduateresearchhaveusedcritical reflection to further student learning (though often such workwascouchedinanalysisofmethodologicaldesignandstatisticalinfer-ence).Practitionersofservice-learningwhowishtogobeyondreflectionbasedonsharingreactions tomoreanalytical reflectivepracticecouldprobablylearnagreatdealfromtheworkofundergraduateresearchdi-rectorsandpractitionersonhowtointegratethatsortofcriticalreflec-tionintoaservice-learningproject.Inaddition,undergraduateresearchdirectorsmightbepushedbyfacultywhothinkalotaboutfindinggoodinternshipsitestoconsiderwaystointegrateundergraduateresearchintointernshipexperiencethatrelatestheresearchtopotentialemployment. In its fetal stages, CALHE began as an internal, single-institutionposter session with fewer than ten poster presentations. In 2009, theconferencehadmore than200 registrants from 17statesandAustra-lia.ThroughJALHE,thosewhoarecommittedtoappliedlearning,andthe scholarshipof teachingandapplication,will haveaway todocu-ment and disseminate their work. The journal’s promotion of deeperdiscoursebetween thedifferent formsof applied learning canbuild afoundationforunderstandingandfurtheringbestpracticesinallformsofexperientialeducation.

ThEoRETICALMILIEuoFAPPLIEDLEARnInGRESEARCh

Many years of reviewing conference papers, journal manuscripts,and grant proposals reveal a narrative structure that has become toocommoninthescholarshiponappliedlearning.Thestructureconstituteswhatcouldbecalledthecheerleadingmodelofself-advocacy.Toomanysubmittalstoconferences,journals,andgrantreviewboardsuseaposi-tiveexperiencewithaparticularappliedlearningexperiencetomakeagenericargumentinfavorofappliedlearningperse.Theseself-congrat-ulatorynarrativesofunqualifiedsuccessinvitereaderstoworshipatthealtarofappliedlearning.Thescholarshiponappliedlearning,however,


mustmovefromlovefesttoknowledgequest.Aproductivefirststepinthisdirectionistorecognizeanddiscussthepitfallsofprojects,thelim-itsofexperientiallearning,andmorenuancedwaystoevaluatequalityofoutcomes.Forexample,theproblemsassociatedwithteachingabouttheHolocaustviasimulatedstarvationdietsandmockpersecutionshasledtheAnti-DefamationLeague(2006)toissueastatementcondemn-ing simulation-based Holocaust education. Research on best practicesshould offer insight about what to avoid as well as what to emulate.Ratherthanofferaone-shotcasestudywiththenarrativepattern“Lo,wedidit,andbehold:itwasgood,”researchmustprobetherationalefor the results it reports. How does a particular project fit within thebroaderintellectualconversationregardinghowtostructure,administer,andassessappliedlearning?Anotherwaytoposethisquestionwouldbetoinquire,alongthelinesofFink(2003),abouthowaspecificstudyisdrivenbyandexpandsupontherelevantpedagogicalanddisciplinarytheories. Part of this larger conversation concerns the role applied learningcanplayinthediscourseregardinghighereducation.Severalexamplesillustratetheintriguingissuesstudiesofappliedlearningmightconfront.One issue involves equipping students to become more independent,lifelonglearners.Earlyexposuretoadirectedresearchexperiencemightenablestudentswhoareconditionedtobecomereceivedknowers—pas-sivelyandobedientlyrespondingtoauthoritybutnotinitiatingideas—toacquire greater ownership over their ideas. Guided research activitiescouldreconditionstudentstobecomemoreindependentthinkersbypri-oritizinginventionoverretention.Ratherthanimplementamasterplanof“pleasetheteacher”byrepeatingwhatevertheauthorityfigurewantstohear,researchcouldguidethecapacityforcreativerisk-taking,akeyfactor in critical thinking and problem solving. Future studies mightinvestigate the connection between such research experiences andinnovativestudentachievementsbeyondtheclassroom. Apprehensionaboutthecompetingforcesofefficiencyandeffective-nessloomsoverthehighereducationlandscape.Thenarrowconstraintsofcommodificationhavepositionedstudentsasconsumerstobeplacat-ed,butascheaplyandquicklyaspossible(McMillan&Cheney,1996;Schwartzman,1995;Schwartzman&Phelps,2002).Thisdiscourseofefficiencyclasheswiththecompetingpressuresofdemonstrableeffec-tiveness. The result: paradoxical mandates to increase class sizes butalsoincrease“customerservice”toeachstudent,orbroadenaccesstohigher education but improve standardized test scores and accelerategraduationrates.Thelistcouldcontinueindefinitely.Appliedlearning,however,offerspedagogicalpracticesthathavenavigatedthecontrast-ingdemandsofhighereducationandexternalconstituencies.Forexam-ple,what lessons fromsustainablecampus-communitypartnerships in


service-learningprojectsmightgeneralizetocampus-corporateadminis-trationofinternships?Howdoesappliedlearningdemonstratethepracti-calrelevanceofeducationalexperience(asine qua non ofcommodifica-tion)whilealsoimprovingfield-specificintellectualexpertise(theessenceofacademe)?

METhoDoLoGyMATTERS

Thusfar,wehavediscussedthe“what,”“when,”and“why”ofschol-arshiponappliedlearningbytracingitstheoreticalparameters,intellec-tualhistory,andsocialjustification.Attentionnowturnstothe“how,”whichconstitutesthemodesofconductingresearchrelatingtoappliedlearning. Much scholarship on applied learning relies on self-reports,especiallyfromstudentparticipants,asamajorsourceforevidenceoflearningoutcomesandsocialeffects.Suchself-reports,especiallywhenusedasthesoledatapoints,raisesignificantmethodologicalconcerns.These challenges should generate further scholarly reflection on howself-reportsareusedandshouldstimulateresearcherstoemploymultiplemethodsthatcanproducemorediversedocumentationofappliedlearn-ingexperiences.Thefollowingconcernsshouldurgescholarstoemployavarietyofevaluativemeasureswhenseekingtodeterminethevalueofappliedlearning. Eyler(2002)notesthatself-reportsfromstudentparticipantsdonotconstitutesufficientevidenceofsuccessfuleducationaloutcomesorso-cialimpact.Sheraisesthefundamentalissueofvalidity:anecdotalself-reportscannotconsistentlyorsystematically linkexperiential learninginputs(e.g.,programdesign,studentdemographics,natureofthelearn-ingexperience)withpersonalorsocietalbenefits.Schwartzman(2002)detailssomeofthemethodologicalchallengeswhenheexpressescon-cernsovertheheavyrelianceonself-reportsintheservice-learninglit-erature.First,manysurveyinstrumentsmeasureattitudesregardingtheappliedlearningexperience.Itbecomesdifficulttocorrelateattitudinaltendencieswithbehavioraloutcomes,especiallywhenthedesiredout-comesincludelong-rangeorongoingbehavioralchanges.Forexample,studiesmayattempt to showaproject increasedcivicengagementbyreportingasignificantincreaseinlikelihoodtoparticipateinactivitiesassociatedwithresponsiblecitizenship,suchasvoting.Yet,howmanyofthesestudiesactuallytrackwhetherparticipantseventuallyengageinthedesiredactivities?Morestudiesofobservableeffectsthroughdirectobservationandlongitudinaldatacollectioncandocumentnotonlytheimmediatesuccessbutthelong-termstayingpowerofappliedlearning. Excessive reliance on self-reports also invites systematic bias.Gelmon(2003)observesthatcommunitypartnersarelikelytooverem-phasizepositiveservice-learningexperiencesandunderplayanydraw-


backs, because they fear that any negative feedback might jeopardizefuture supplies of labor. This concern could extend to other appliedlearningactivities.Hostuniversitiesmightbereluctanttoreportnegativeexperienceswithstudyabroadstudentsastheycouldendangerrecipro-calagreementswithinstitutionsthatsentthestudents.Sitesupervisorsofinternsmightofferoverlypositiveperformanceappraisalstoprotectthecontinuedinfusionoflow-costlabor. Self-reportsfromstudentsmaysufferfromdistortiononseverallev-els,includingsocialdesirabilitybias,self-justification,andreciprocity.Eachofthesedifficultiesdeservesfurtherreflection.Discussingresearchon service-learning, Pritchard (2001) identifies social desirability andself-justificationas factors thatmight taint results:“Whensurveysareusedtoevaluatethesuccessofaneffort,particularlyatitscompletion,therespondentsusuallyknowwhatanswerstheevaluatorswantandarealsopredisposedtorationalizingtheirowninvestmentoftimeandeffort”(p. 24). Most applied learning projects include a rather explicit state-mentofdesiredoutcomes.Evenwithoutapre-establishedoutcomeforthespecificproject,thesocialandeducationalgoalstendtobetranspar-ent:studyabroadincreasesculturalawareness,undergraduateresearchenables acquisition of discipline-specific knowledge, service-learningaidsclientsofcommunityorganizations,internshipsdevelopjob-relatedskills.End-of-projectsurveysalsoinvitefalseorexaggeratedpositivesaswaystoavoidcognitivedissonancethatmightarisefromadmittingfailuretoachievetheproject’sobjectives.Finally,reciprocityintroducespotentialdistortionsifrespondentsfeelmorallyobligatedto“returnthefavor”ofastakeholderbyskewingevaluationstowardthepositiveside.Evenwithproperlydesignedquestionnaires,astudyabroadstudentmayrankahostuniversity’sacademicprogramsasoutstandingbasedontheinstitution’shospitalityratherthanitsacademicquality.Infact,manyas-sessmentsofappliedlearningexperiencesmayrequiresubstantialrecon-siderationtoimprovetheirvalidity.Minimally,thetendencytogenerate“falsepositives”shouldraiseconcernsaboutreportingself-evaluationsabsent some type of comparative scales with control populations thatestablishevaluativenorms(Darby,2008). Anothermethodologicalchallengeliesindistinguishingsatisfactionfromlearningoutcomesandsocialimpact.Toooften,successofappliedlearning initiatives tends to be judged by measures of positive affect.Putmoredirectly,popularitypresumablyprovessuccess.Especiallyintimesofeconomicconstraint,appliedlearningmustpaymoretangibledividends than spreading happiness. Neil Postman (1984) has offeredongoingcautionsaboutconfusingentertainmentwitheducation,notingthathighlyengagedstudentsmaynothavelearnedmuchdespite theirexpressingdeepsatisfactionwithalearningexperience.


In fact, enthusiastic appreciation of applied learning needs to betempered by carefully determining which measures would suffice tosupportthepositiveimpactofanappliedlearningexperience.Thesup-port invokedhere refers towhatwouldcount as evidence forvariousconstituencies,includinglegislatorsandfundingagencies.Frankly,fewpeopleoutsidethewallsofacademiafindtheresultsofstudentfeedbackparticularlycompellingbecausetheyrecognizethesubjectivityofeventhe most statistically saturated evaluations. One pedagogical strengthofappliedlearningisthatitoffersmanyothertypesofmeasuresfrommultiplestakeholdersthatcandocumentoutcomes.Forexample,aser-vice-learning project could document the number of clientele a com-munityorganizationservedpriortotheprojectcomparedtothenumbertheprojectreached.Thiskindofdocumentationprovidesdemonstrableevidence that a project extended the capacity of a service agency, anespeciallypowerfulstatementiftheagencyalreadyhasbeenrecognizedasvitaltothecommunity. Whenseveralindicatorsdemonstratesimilaroutcomes,theconclu-sionbecomesmuchstronger.Appliedlearningexperiencesareamenabletomanyassessmentmeasures inaddition to (or insteadof) subjectiveself-reportsfromstudents.Severalacademicfieldshavedevelopedquiterefined measures of learning outcomes, and these field-specific mea-surescouldbeadministeredtocomparestudentswhoundergoappliedlearningwiththeircounterpartswhoparticipateintraditionalclassroominstruction.Externalconstituencies,suchascommunitypartnersforser-vice-learning or professional practitioners for field experiences, coulddocumenthowstudentinvolvementaffectedorganizationalpracticesoradministerindependentassessments(suchasknowledgeoffieldmanu-als) todetermine levelsofpractical knowledge. Internsmight receiveperformanceappraisalsfrommultipleevaluatorsratherthanonlyfromasitesupervisorwhofeelscompelledtomaintainapositiverelationshipwiththeacademicinstitution.Along-termassessmentofanyparticipantinappliedlearningcouldconsistofmakingthatstudentamentorforsub-sequentstudents,whowouldthenevaluatethequalityofthepreparationtheyreceivedfortheireducationalexperience. Researchonappliedlearningcancatapultbeyondthe“testimonialofsuccess”modebygoingbeyondaone-dimensionalpre-test/post-testde-sign.Thismethodologymeasuresstudentopinionsorlearningoutcomesbeforeandafteranappliedlearningexperienceandattributesimprove-mentstotheproject.Frequentlythesedesignsfailtoincorporatecontrolsor benchmarks that would enable the researcher to isolate the “valueadded”uniquelyfromtheprojectitself.Forexample,wouldsimilarout-comeshaveresultedfromlessexpensive,lesslabor-intensive,lessriskyinstructional techniques? How do the experiential project’s outcomescompare with the same material taught in a non-experiential format?


Does the study control for the instructor or supervisor of the project,orareoutcomes theartifactof theadministrator rather thanstemmingfromtheprojectitself?Whichdemographicfactorsarecontrolled?Forexample,doesastudydiscussingtheimpactofastudyabroadprograminclude comparisons or controls across different nations? Could thedemonstrated impactof a studyabroadprogram resultmore from thenatureofaparticularnationalcultureoruniversitysystemthanfromtheinternationalexperience? Theappliedlearningliteraturealsocouldbenefitfrommorevigorouslongitudinalstudies,especiallythosethattracklong-termbehavioralpat-ternsattributabletoappliedlearningexperiences.Someexcellentworkhasbeendoneon trackingspecificprograms,suchasservice-learningpartnerships, over time (e.g., Keen & Hall, 2009; Kiely, 2005). Still,fewfindingshaveaccumulatedthatdocumenttheextenttowhichstu-dentsindependentlyembarkonactivitiesconsistentwiththeobjectivesoftheirappliedlearningexperiences.Inshort,arestudentsapplyingthelessons of their applied learning? The research questions in this areaseem deceptively obvious, yet they have paramount significance forthelong-termjustificationofappliedlearningpractices.Consideronlya few examples. Do students who study abroad initiate or participatemorefrequentlyinorganizationsthatfurtherinterculturalawarenessandcollaboration?Towhatextentdointernationalexperiencesreduceeth-nocentric attitudes and behaviors? How are the membership numbersof international studentgroups correlated to the ratesof studyabroadexperiences? Do study abroad participants exhibit distinctive patternsintheircareerchoicesthatleveragethevalueoftheirinternationalex-perience?Havefieldexperiencesbeencorrelatedwithbetterqualifiedapplicantsforpositionsinthosefields?Howdoin-fieldplacementratesofstudentresearcherscomparewiththoseofstudentswhodidnoten-gage in undergraduate research? How has the undergraduate researchexperienceequippedalumnito(a)conductresearchoutsidetheirfield,or(b)embarkonprofessionaldutiesthatdonotinvolveresearchintheacademicsense?Closertrackingofstudentparticipantsaswellasotherconstituenciesoveranextendedperiodoftimewouldbegintoanswerthesequestionsandmanymorethatlinger. Research on applied learning could reap substantial benefits frommining the rich but often untapped data from voices rarely heard inscholarship that plucks the low-hanging fruit of student self-reports.Moreextensiveexplorationsofinputfromconstituenciessuchasappliedlearningprogramadministrators(e.g.,service-learning,studyaway,andinternship coordinators), community members, site supervisors, clien-teleservedincommunity-basedprojects,orstudentsandfacultyinhostuniversitiesabroadwouldbroadentheconversationbeyondfacultyre-portingtheirstudents’opinionstootherfaculty.Theimpactofapplied


learningresearchalsowouldintensifyifitembracedpublicpolicyissuesmore directly. For example, how do legislators and funding agenciesdefine successful applied learning? How do their criteria and percep-tionssquarewiththoseofacademics?Whatmightaccountfororcorrectmisalignments?Howcouldacademicexpectationsforappliedlearninginterfacebetterwithdesiredpoliticalandsocialoutcomes?

InThISISSuE…AnDBEyonD

Thecontentsof this issue spanabroad scopeof applied learning,illustratingtherangeofpedagogicalpracticesthatcangenerateproduc-tive intellectual discussion. The articles begin with an analysis of theroleofreflectioninappliedlearningandhowtodevelopreflectiontoolsthatcanfacilitatelearningwhileaccuratelydocumentingthenatureofthelearningexperience.Thescholarshipintherestoftheissuecoversawidearrayofconcerns:analternativecertificationprogramcenteredonexperientialcomponents,afieldexperiencethatconnectscourseworkwithprofessionalpractice,theimpactarubrictoassessstudentlearningcanhaveonstudentmotivationinanexperientialsetting,andaservice-learningprojectthatenablesteachercandidatestodeveloptheirSpanishskills while teaching basic English. Together, these articles provide asampleof the rangeof scholarship thatapplied learningcangenerate.Individually,eacharticleraisesissuesandquestionsthatcanstimulateongoingresearch. “Generating,Deepening,andDocumentingLearning:ThePowerofCriticalReflectioninAppliedLearning,”bySarahL.AshandPattiH.Clayton,addressestheimportanceofthecarefulandpurposefuluseofreflectiontomotivateandmeasurestudentlearningoutcomes.AshandClayton(2009)notethattheterm“reflection”issomewhatproblematicinthatitsuggestsareactive,emotionalanalysistotheeventsthattakeplace inanapplied learningsituation rather thanacritical analysisofthoseevents.Thustheyusetheterm“criticalreflection”toconnotethismoreanalyticalprocessthathasbeenlinkedsocloselytostudentlearn-ing(Eyler&Giles,1999).HenryandKempf(2005)foundthatfacultymay use critical reflection far less than they actually prefer. Ash andClaytoncallforfacultywhosuperviseappliedlearningtointentionallydesigncritical reflectionaround learninggoals.Thepieceprovidesanenormousresourcetofacultywhotoooftenrelyonanend-of-termre-flectionpaper(whichrarelygetsfeedbacktostudentsinatimelyfash-ion)orjournalingthatdegeneratesintosharingobservationsratherthananalyzingthoseobservationsinlightoflearninggoalsforthecourse. In addition to providing a powerful pedagogical tool, Ash andClayton’sworkinspiresustothinkintermsofhowstudentassessmentmight not just feed into a gradebook, but into a scholarly analysis of


howwellourinstructionaldesignworkedintermsoffacilitatinglearn-ing goals. Student learning assessed using their Describe-Examine-ArticulateLearning(DEAL)modelinformsafacultymember’sassess-mentofhisorherownwork.Forinstructorswhowanttopublishtheirworkasscholarshipofteaching,theDEALmodelcangeneratecompel-lingevidenceoftheeffectivenessofagivenappliedlearningexperiencebeyondLikert-typeevaluationsthatmaymeasurestudentsatisfactionasmuchaslearning(Greenwald&Gillmore,1997;Snare,2000).Theabil-itytogeneratesuchanargumentisincreasinglytiedtofundingsupportforactivityinhighereducation.Particularlyintightfinancialtimes,thissortofassessmenttooliscriticalindemonstratingtheimpactofappliedlearninganditsvaluetoexternalconstituents. Finally,AshandClayton’sapproachtoappliedlearninglaysoutaresearchprocessbywhichfacultydevelop,inasense,hypothesesaboutwhatstrategieswillpositivelyimpactstudentlearningandtestthosehy-pothesesusingstudentcriticalreflectionproducts.Thisapproachallowsfacultytomovebeyondscholarlyteachingtowardthecriticalevaluationandtestingofone’sownstrategiesthatcanbesubmittedforpeerreview.Indeed,workthatfollowsthislineofanalysiswouldbemostwelcomeinfuturevolumesoftheJournal of Applied Learning in Higher Education. “ExaminingtheDevelopmentoftheVictorianCertificateofAppliedLearning and Its Implications for Schools and Teacher Education inAustralia,” by Damian Blake and David Gallagher, provides an out-standingexampleofwhatcanbeaccomplishedwhenappliedlearningisimplementedsystem-wide.Italsohighlightstheimplicationssuchanadoptioncanhaveonteachertrainingprograms,whichimpliesthattheremaybeunanticipatedimpactinotherdisciplinesthatseektointegrateappliedlearningacrossthecurriculum. The Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning (VCAL) was moti-vatedbyadesiretoincreasegraduationratesfromsecondaryschoolsintheprovince.Thebaselinecompletionrateofseniorhighschoolpriortothedevelopmentofanalternateeducationalpathbasedinappliedlearn-ingpedagogywas80%,withthegoalthattheVCALmightraisethatto90%.Achieving thatgoalwouldaddmore than60,000 individuals totheworkforce,significantlyboostingtheregionaleconomy.ButwhytheVCAL,andnotsomeotheralternativeroutetocompletion,suchastheGEDprogramin theUnitedStates?Because theVCALaddresses theincreaseddiversitythatfoldsintoaneducationalsystemtryingtoretainstudentswhowouldotherwiseleaveschoolearly.TheVCALprovidesameansforthesestudentstoearnlegitimateacademiccreditforlearningthatoccursinnon-traditionalsituations.Theprocessinvolvescreatingadialoguewithstudentsaboutthecurriculumthroughwhichcurricularcontentisnegotiatedandultimatelyassessed.


TheassessmentcomponenttotheVCALiscriticaltotheintegrityofsuchprograms.ItispartofthereasonthattheVCALhadsignificantimplicationsforteachertraining.Forteacherswhoaretrainedintradi-tional assessment strategies, it canbedifficult to imaginehowa real-worldexperiencecouldtranslate toassessmentfocusedontestscores.Theuniversitiesintheprovinceeducatingfutureteachershadtopreparetheseindividualstohandleawiderarrayofassessmentstrategies,aswellastodeliverawiderarrayofpedagogicalstrategies.Giventhedifficultyinrecruitingandretaininghigh-qualitysecondaryschoolteachersintheUnitedStates,making theprocessbroaderandmore rigorous isnotatrivialproblem.Thekeytodoingsosuccessfullymaylieintheabilitytodemonstratesuchaprogram’seconomicimpact.TheVCALhasmovedVictoriasignificantlytowardthegoalof90%completionrates.Inaddi-tiontodocumentingcompletionrates,itwillbeimportantinfutureyearsto document the impact of that improved completion rate in terms ofincreasedworkforceandrelatedproductivitygains. Infact,thistypeofaccountabilityisnotonlyrelevanttotheVCAL,but may be a useful strategy for others doing research on appliedlearning.Appliedlearningisinordinatelyinefficientcomparedtotradi-tionallecture-basedcounterpartsintheacademy.Inleantimes,univer-sityadministratorsmayquestionthevalueofcontinuedsupportforsuchpedagogicalstrategies if the facultywhopractice themhavenotcare-fullydocumentedthebenefitsofsuchinvestmentsfortheconstituentsoftheuniversity.Futureresearchinavarietyofareasofappliedlearningwillbenefitfromscholarswhoestablishaneconomicvalue to theex-pensiveprocessofappliedlearning,aswellastheimpactongraduationratesandstudentlearning. “Will They Recognize My Lecture in the Field? The JuvenileCorrectionsCriticalAssessmentTourAppliedLearningExperience,”byGregLindsteadtandReginaWilliams-Decker,raisesseveralimpor-tantissuesforappliedlearning.Theauthorsnotethestimulusforappliedlearningaspedagogical,butalsoasastepinrehabilitatingthereputationofcriminaljusticeasanacademicfield.Thiskindofreflectionprovesespeciallytimelyduringeconomicbelt-tightening,whenacademicpro-gramsmustappealto(largelynon-academic)policymakersbydemon-strating practical relevance. Lindsteadt and Williams-Decker examinethe ways a deep field experience within juvenile justice facilities canshowtheapplicabilityofcoursecontenttotheactualpracticeofjuvenilejustice.Writlarge,thisessayposesthequestionofhowwellclass-andtext-based theory aligns with the practices within the criminal justicesystem. The Juvenile Corrections Critical Assessment Tour (JCCAT) dis-cussed in thearticle invites reflection that extends farbeyond thedy-namicsofthespecificappliedlearningexperience,ambitiousasitwas.


Usuallythepracticalrelevanceofcoursecontentisjudgedunidirection-ally,bymeasuringcorrespondenceofclassexperiencewithactivitiesintheprofession.Futureresearchmightinvertthequestiontheseauthorsask,queryingwhetherpractitionerswillrecognizefuturejuvenilejusticeworkerswhentheyinteractwiththestudents.Appliedlearningexperi-encesusuallyoccurattheintersectionofseveralrealmsofparticipants:students, academics, field workers, and clients in the field. It mightproverewardingtogatherdatanotonlyonwhetherstudentsrecognizecourse content in thefield,but alsowhether thepersonnel at juvenilejusticefacilitiesviewthecoursecontentasanaccuratedepictionofthejusticesystem. As for learning outcomes, the JCCAT opens the door to multiplemeasuresoflearning.Thearticleoffersintriguingglimpsesofpossiblesystemicbiasesintheactualpracticeofjuvenilejustice,especiallyintheareasofracial,gender,andclassequity.Thecourseaswellastheprojectitselfmightinfutureiterationsdigdeeperintotherootsofthesedispari-ties—perhapsuncoveringlingering,unresolvedtensionsbetweenreha-bilitativemodelsofjusticeandpunitivepracticesthatmaycontributetorecidivismmorethanreformation.Onabroaderlevel,theJCCATexpe-riencecouldconfronttheconvergencesanddivergencesbetweensocialjusticeandcriminaljustice(Rawls,1971).Directengagementwiththesesystemicissuesmightequipstudentsnotsimplytobecomefuturework-erswithinthejusticesystem,butrathertoempowerthemasagentstorectifythediscrepanciestheyobservebetweentheoriesofjusticeandthewaysjusticeismetedouttojuveniles. “StudentMotivationandAssessmentofAppliedSkillsinanEquineStudiesProgram,”byK.I.Tumlin,R.Linares,andM.W.Schillingde-scribestheimpactofusingarubric—andprovidingittostudentspriortotesting—toassesshands-on,psychomotorskillssuchasshowmanshipinanequinestudiesprogram.Theoretically,providingstudentswiththerubricaheadoftheassessmentshouldclarifythegradingstandardsandimprovestudentperformanceontheappliedtasks.Infact, theauthorsofthisstudyreportthecounterintuitivefindingthatstudentswhoweregivenarubricbeforehandactuallyperformedworseontheassessmentoftheirappliedskillsthanstudentswhohadnotseentherubricatall. Rubricsarestandardoperatingproceduresinmuchoftheeducation-aldomain, inpartbecause theystandardizeassessmentofskilland inpartbecausetheymaketheevaluationstandardstransparenttostudents.Indeed,McTigheandO’Connor(2005)arguethatprovidingtherubrictostudentsisanecessary(thoughnotsufficient)conditionforsupport-ingstudentlearning.Thefindingthatinanappliedlearningsettingtherubricresultedinpoorerstudentlearningoutcomesisintriguing.Futureresearchmightfocusonestablishingwhetherornotthisresultisrepli-cable inotherdisciplines thatuseappliedlearning,andif theresult is


reliable, thereasonbehindit.Theauthorsof thisstudyreport that thestudents in this program are largely more goal-oriented than process-oriented.Coulditbethatprovidingstudentswhoarealreadygoal-(i.e.,grade?)orientedpushes them toachieve theminimumrather than themaximumpossible?This isexactlywhathappenedfor thestudents inthisstudy—theaverageperformancewasloweroverallandthefailureratewas lowerwhentherubricwaspresentbut the“superior”perfor-mancecategorywasmuchmorelikelytobeachievedwhentherubricwasnotprovided. This result invites the question of what impact a rubric has in anappliedlearningsetting.Insomeways,providingarubric“frames”thesituation for students a priori. Part of the point for those of us whoencouragestudents toparticipate inapplied learningactivitiessuchaspracticainadisciplineistoexposestudentstolearningsituationsthatarevague andundefined, requiring the student to frame theproblemstheyencounteron-sitefor themselves.Theabilitytoeffectivelyframea situation so that one can apply the appropriate academic content togenerate solutions andproductivework is critical to applied learning.Indeed,EylerandGiles(1999)arguethat“application”isoneofthevitalcomponents of the learning process in service-learning settings. Doesprovidinga rubric tostudents inanapplied learningsituationperhapsdefeatpartofthepurposeofappliedlearningbyeffectivelynarrowingstudents’attentiontoalimitedsetoffeaturesorpossiblesolutions?TheresultsreportedbyTumlin,Linares,andSchillinginvitefuturescholarstoinvestigatetheseandotherpossibilities. “Demographic Tipping Point: A Discussion of Cultural Broker-ing with English Language Learners as Service-Learning for TeacherCandidates andEducators”byWendyMcCarty,RosemaryCervantes,andGeraldineStirtzdetailstheexperienceofaservice-learningprojectthatillustratesthemutualimpactsuchexperiencescanhaveonstudentsand community members. The project implements “cultural broker-ing,”definedasinterculturalpartnershipsinitiatedtoinstigatepositivesocial change. The brokering in this case involves teacher candidateshelpingnativeSpanishspeakerslearnbasicEnglish.Thelanguagelearn-ingmovedintwodirections, typifyingthebrokeringrelationship.TheEnglish language learners (ELLs) developed their linguistic skills toimprove their social mobility, while the teacher candidates acquiredmoreSpanishlanguageskillsthroughconversingwiththelearnersandtheirfamilies. The cultural brokering experience offers intriguing possibilitiesregarding how service-learning might combine with interculturalactivities to enhance linguistic and intercultural competence. Spe-cifically, standardizedpre-testsandpost-testsof languageskillscouldgaugethedegreetowhichtheteachercandidatesandtheELLslearned


eachother’slanguage.Asforinterculturalsensitivity,priorresearchonservice-learninghasnotedthepotentialforinterculturalexperiencestotriggerboomerangeffectsif theunfamiliarcultureiscast inparticularkindsofsocialroles(Erickson&O’Connor,2000).Placingcertainpop-ulations,suchasnon-nativeEnglishspeakers,consistentlyintheroleofneedingassistancemightactuallyreinforceethnocentricviewsofAnglo-Americanhegemony.Inventoriesofinterculturaltoleranceormeasuresofprejudicecouldbeadministeredtodeterminehowculturalbrokeringaffectsthecross-culturalattitudesofparticipants. Astheauthorsnote,participantfeedbackdeservessupplementationwithotherkindsofempiricalandinterpretiveanalysis.OneinterestingdirectionforfurtherresearchwouldbetoemploydifferentpedagogicaltechniquestoteachtheELLstudents.Theprojectcouldcollectimportantdataonthemosteffectivewaystoenablenon-nativeEnglishspeakerstoacquireEnglishlanguageskills.Dothesametechniquesforforeignlanguage instruction of native English speakers work as well for stu-dentsfromotherlinguisticbackgrounds?Whichpedagogicaltechniquesprovemosteffectivewithparticulardemographicsoflanguagelearners?McCarty,Cervantes,andStirtzopenthedoorforfutureresearchtobegintomineavarietyofdatasourcesforanswerstothesequestions.

InVITATIonToFuRThERInVESTIGATIon

Thefinaleofthisarticleconsistsofsuggestionsforfutureresearchdirections rather than a definitive conclusion that brings inquiry to aneat—and necessarily premature—conclusion. Scholarship on appliedlearning needs to move beyond self-advocacy. The justifications forappliedlearninghavebeenmadeconvincingly.Theseargumentsrequiremorenuancedexaminationtoavoidcategoricalendorsementofappliedlearningregardlessofitsmethodorcontextofimplementation.Wesug-gest severalmodesofconductingscholarshiponapplied learning thatgobeyondself-justificationsofparticularappliedlearningexperiences. Many fruitful paths for scholarship on applied learning await ex-ploration.Thusfar,littleattentionhasfocusedontheinterfacebetweenapplied learning and emergent educational technologies. Appliedlearningtechniqueshavebeendiscussedaslow-techwaystointensifyintellectualexperiences,especiallywhencomparedtohands-off,deper-sonalizedmethods thatoperateviaeconomiesofscale (Schwartzman,2001).Minimalattention,however,hasbeendevotedtotheroletechnol-ogymightplaywithinappliedlearning.Forexample,whatimplicationsdo computerized simulations have for field experiences and practica?Asbudgetarybeltstighten,mightvirtualexperiencesupplement,enrich,ordisplacewhatcountsasexperience inexperiential learning?Ratherthandemonizenewtechnologicaltools,futureresearchcouldtapintothe


instructionaltechnologyliteraturetoinvestigatehowtechnologicaltoolsandappliedlearningcouldprovemutuallybeneficial.Howcouldinex-pensivemeansfortouringsitesandconductinglong-distanceinterviewsenhancepreparationforstudyaway?InwhatwaysmightcollaborativeandsocialnetworkingtoolsfromwikistoTwitterandbeyondincreasethesustainabilityoflearningbeyondthedurationofatermspentstudy-ingabroadorataninternshipsite?CouldvirtualrealitiessuchasSecondLifeandsimilarrealmsintensifypreparationforfirsthandappliedlearn-ingexperiences?Overall,howmightappliedlearningleveragethepow-eroftechnologyto(a)improvestudentreadinessforappliedlearning,(b)enrichtheappliedlearningexperience,(c)extendthesustainabilityofappliedlearningbeyondaproject’sterminationatagivenlocale,(d)improvemethodsofassessinglearningoutcomes,(e)reduceormaintaincostswithoutsacrificingquality? Inanimportantessaysurveyingthetheoreticalterritoryofthecom-municationstudiesfield,Craig(1999)identifiessocio-culturalandcriti-cal approaches as twoclassificationsof communication theory.Theseperspectives transcend communication studies and could generate re-searchthatwouldenrichthestudyofappliedlearning. Socio-cultural scholarship on applied learning asks questions thatexploretheinteractionbetweenappliedlearninganditssocialenviron-ment.Internshipsofferanexcellentexampleofopportunitiesforsocio-cultural explorations. Internships tend to be discussed from two per-spectives: the student’spedagogical/professionaldevelopment and thesponsoringorganization’slaborneeds.Lessattentionhasbeendevotedtoissuesrelatedtointernshipsandorganizationalculture.Onesuchissueinvolvestheintern’splaceinorganizationalhierarchies.Ifaninternshipservesasatraininggroundforexecutivepositions,ahopemanystudentinternsharbor,thenhowdorankandfileemployeesviewtheinternwhoservesabriefinternshipandthenleapfrogsoveremployeeswithgreatersenioritytoapositionthatoutranksthem?Howdoestherapidriseofaninternthroughtheorganizationalrankscomportwithanorganizationalculture that toutsadvancement through“payingyourdues,”and“tak-ingcareofourown”?Ifinternsareanalogoustoapprentices,thenhowdoes an apprenticeship through an educational institution’s internshipprogramcomparetoanapprenticeshipofon-the-jobtrainingwithoutanacademiccomponent? Internshipsalsoprovideanopportunevenuefordelvingintotheam-biguous role of students engaged in applied learning. The student in-ternassumesadualrolecomparabletothegraduateteachingassistant.Teachingassistantsmustnavigatebetweenseveralpotentiallyconflict-ingroles,suchaspeertothestudentstheyteach(allarestudentsearn-inggrades)grader,mediatorbetweenundergraduatesandfull-fledged


faculty.Studentinterns,whetherpaidorunpaid,facesimilarcomplexi-tiesinpositioningtheirrolewithinanorganization. Scholarship thatexploresapplied learningasacritical forcecouldinvestigate the maintenance and disruptions of power relationshipsthat infuseexperiential learning.Johnston(2007)notes thedisconnectbetween the compliant subservience sooften rewarded in cooperativeeducationventures,whichcouldincludeinternships,andtheencourage-mentofquestioningandchallengingsystemsofembeddedprivilegethatlieattheheartofcriticalpedagogy.Howmightscholarshiponappliedlearningreconciletheconflictingsocialpressurestotrainobedientem-ployeeswhilealsofosteringcriticalthinkerswhoquestiontheembeddedsystemsofprivilege thatperpetuate subservience?AstudybyCarsonandFisher(2006)foundthat25percentofstudentsdidnotdemonstratesignsofcriticalthinkingintheirreflectionsontheinternshipexperience.Thesestudentssimplydescribedtheirexperienceswithoutquestioningwhattheyencountered.Theresearchersnotethatstudentsmightbecomereluctanttoengageincriticalreflectionwhensimpledescriptionposesfewerrisks.“Werecognizethatattemptingtoproducecriticality inanenvironmentthatoftenasksfortheopposite(conformityandadherencetothestatusquo)canbeariskyundertaking,onethatmanystudentsmaybereluctanttopursue”(Carson&Fisher,2006,p.716).Towhatextentcanappliedlearningmovetowardmorecriticalreflectionwithoutjeop-ardizing the continuity of campus-community or campus-corporationpartnerships? Anotherproductivepathforresearchwouldleadresearcherstowardreflectingmoredeeplyontherelationshipbetweenappliedlearningandthe cultivation of what Benjamin Barber (2004) calls “strong democ-racy.”Amoresubstantialbodyofempirical researchcoulddocumentwhich kinds of applied learning correlate with long-term behavioralchanges that reflectdeep involvement incivicaffairs.Theoreticalandinterpretiveresearchcouldexplorehowappliedlearningcanbuildthecapacity for systemic democratization, perhaps by creating a cultureof mutual obligation and care as a counterpoint to consumerism andcommodification(Schwartzman&Phelps,2002).Forexample,studiescouldadoptnetworkingtheoriesordiffusionofinnovationstodeterminethemosteffectivewaystodisseminatetheculturalawarenessstudentsacquirefromstudyabroad.Suchinvestigationsmightprovideinsightsregarding ways to counteract American hegemony and foster morecivilizedinterculturaldialogues. Futurescholarshiponappliedlearningcanblazemanypromisingin-tellectualtrails.Wearepleasedtoplayaroleinthisexploratoryventureandinviteallscholarsandpractitionersinvolvedinappliedlearningtojointhejourney.


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25

Generating, Deepening, and Documenting Learning: the Power of

Critical Reflection in Applied Learning

SARAh L. AShNorthCarolinaStateUniversity

PAttI h. CLAytonPHCVentures/IndianaUniversity-PurdueUniversityIndianapolis

Applied learning pedagogies—including service-learning, internships/practica, study abroad, and undergraduate research—have in common both the potential for significant student learning and the challenges of facilitating and assessing that learning, often in non-traditional ways that involve experiential strategies outside the classroom as well as individualized outcomes. Critical reflection oriented toward well-articulated learning outcomes is key to generating, deepening, and documenting student learning in applied learning. This article will consider the meaning of critical reflection and principles of good practice for designing it effectively and will present a research-grounded, flexible model for integrating critical reflection and assessment.

Applied learning pedagogies share a design fundamental: the nur-turingoflearningandgrowththroughareflective,experientialprocessthattakesstudentsoutoftraditionalclassroomsettings.Theapproachisgroundedintheconvictionthatlearningismaximizedwhenitisactive,engaged, and collaborative. Each applied learning pedagogy providesstudentswithopportunities toconnect theoryandpractice, to learn inunfamiliar contexts, to interact with others unlike themselves, and topracticeusingknowledgeandskills. Despite the oft-cited maxim that “experience is the best teacher,”we know that experience alone can, in fact, be a problematic teacher


26 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009

(Dewey,1910;Conrad&Hedin,1990;Hondagneu-Sotelo&Raskoff,1994;Stanton,1990;Strand,1999).Experientiallearningcanalltooeas-ilyallowstudentstoreinforcestereotypesaboutdifference,todevelopsimplisticsolutionstocomplexproblems,andtogeneralizeinaccuratelybasedon limiteddata.Theservice-learningstudent, forexample,maythinkthatallfoodassistanceprogramsfunctionexactlyliketheoneatwhich he is working, causing him to make sweeping generalizationsabouttheeffectivenessofsuchprogramsdespitewidespreadvariationsinsize,structure,andsourcesoffoodandfunding. Inaddition, studentsmaynotderive themost importantorsignifi-cant learning from their experiences.Theundergraduate researcher inthephysiologylabmaybefrustratedbythetediousnessoftheresearchandnotappreciatethatscientificinquiryisintentionallyaslowprocessoftrialanderror.Shemaynotfullyunderstandwhytheresearchques-tionssheisinvestigatingareimportantorhowthedatasheiscollectingfitintopreviousfindings. Studentsmayleaveappliedlearningexperienceswithlittlecapacityto turn learning into improved action. The study abroad student maybelievehehasdevelopedagreatersensitivitytoculturesdifferentfromhisownbutsixmonthslaterfindhimselfjumpingtoconclusionsaboutothersbasedontheirbackgroundorethnicity.Theinternwhofindshercollaborativeprojectfrustratingmayenduprepeatingpatternsofpoorteamworkinhernextgroupproject. Finally,students inapplied learningpedagogiesmayhaveavaguesenseoftheimpacttheirexperienceshavehadonthembutnotbefullyawareofthenatureoftheirownlearning,itssources,oritssignificance.Theymayonlybeabletodescribeoutcomesvaguely,withphrasessuchas“I learneda lot fromworkingwithcommunitymembers”or“Igotsomuchoutoflivingabroad.”Theservice-learningstudentmayfailtounderstandthedifferentwaysinwhichtheclassroomandthecommu-nitypresentherwithlearningchallenges.Thestudyabroadstudentmaybeunabletoidentifyspecificchangesinherattitudestowardothersor

AUTHORNOTE:Sarah L. Ash, Ph.D., Department of Food, Bioprocessing and Nutrition Sciences, North Carolina State University; Patti H. Clayton, Ph.D., PHC Ventures, Cary, North Carolina/Center for Service and Learning, Indiana Univer-sity-Purdue University Indianapolis. The authors would like to express apprecia-tion to the many student and faculty colleagues who have contributed over the past decade to the work overviewed in this article and to Kelly Henry, Audrey Jaeger, Jessica Jameson, George Hess, and Roy Schwartzman for their review of earlier versions of this manuscript. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to: Patti H. Clayton, 300 Swiss Lake Drive, Cary, NC 27513; e-mail: [email protected]

Ash,Clayton/CRITICALREFLECTIONINAPPLIEDLEARNING 27

toarticulatewhatledtothechanges.Studentsmay,inotherwords,misstheopportunitytolearnabouttheirownlearningprocesses—todevelopthemeta-cognitiveskillsrequiredforlifelong,self-directedlearningthatappliedlearningissowellsuitedtocultivate. The students in these examples would all benefit from a processof strong reflection, to help them avoid what T.S. Eliot (1943) oncedescribedashavingtheexperiencebutmissingthemeaning.Learning—and understanding learning processes—does not happen maximallythroughexperiencealonebut ratherasa resultof thinkingabout—re-flectingon—it.AsnotedbyStanton(1990),whenreflectiononexperi-enceisweak,students’“learning”maybe“haphazard,accidental,andsuperficial” (p. 185). When it is well designed, reflection promotessignificantlearning,includingproblem-solvingskills,higherorderrea-soning, integrative thinking,goalclarification,openness tonew ideas,abilitytoadoptnewperspectives,andsystemicthinking(Eyler&Giles,1999;Conrad&Hedin,1987). However,reflectionanditscentralroleinappliedlearningareoftenmisunderstoodorseenasunnecessary.Theworditselffrequentlycon-notesstream-of-consciousnesswriting,keepingadiary,orproducingasummaryofactivities. It caneasilybeassociatedwith“touchy-feely”introspection,toosubjectivetoevaluateinameaningfulwayandlack-ingintherigorrequiredforsubstantiveacademicwork.Dewey(1910),oneof theearlychampionsofexperiential learning,providesastrongfoundation for re-conceptualizing reflection,defining it as the“active,persistentandcarefulconsiderationofanybelieforsupposedformofknowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the furtherconclusions to which it tends” (p. 6). Schön (1983) emphasizes thelinkbetweenreflectionandaction;hedefinesreflectionas“acontinualinterweavingofthinkinganddoing”andsuggeststhatwhathecallsthereflectivepractitionerisonewho“reflectsontheunderstandingswhichhave been implicit in [one’s] action, which [one] surfaces, criticizes,restructures, and embodies in further action” (p. 281). The reflectionrequiredifappliedlearningpedagogiesaretobemaximizedaslearningopportunities is best understood in these terms, as a process ofmeta-cognitionthatfunctionstoimprovethequalityofthoughtandofactionandtherelationshipbetweenthem. Whenunderstoodin this lightanddesignedaccordingly, reflectionbecomes “critical reflection.” It generates learning (articulating ques-tions, confronting bias, examining causality, contrasting theory withpractice, pointing to systemic issues), deepens learning (challengingsimplistic conclusions, invitingalternativeperspectives, asking“why”iteratively),anddocumentslearning(producingtangibleexpressionsofnewunderstandingsforevaluation)(Ash&Clayton,2009aand2009b;Whitney&Clayton, inpress). Asweunderstandit,criticalreflection


isanevidence-basedexaminationofthesourcesofandgapsinknowl-edgeandpractice,withtheintenttoimproveboth.Designingreflectioneffectively so as to make applied learning educationally meaningfulfirstrequiresthatwemakeclearitsmeaningasanintegrative,analyti-cal, capacity-building process rather than as a superficial exercise innavel-gazing (Ash & Clayton, 2009b; Whitney & Clayton, in press;Zlotkowski&Clayton,2005). Acriticalreflectionprocessthatgenerates,deepens,anddocumentslearningdoesnotoccurautomatically—rather,itmustbecarefullyandintentionallydesigned.Welch(1999)pointsoutthatitisnotenoughtotellstudents“itisnowtimetoreflect”(p.1).Eyler,Giles,andSchmiede(1996)notethatreflection“neednotbeadifficultprocess,but itdoesneedtobeapurposefulandstrategicprocess”(p.16).Especiallygivenhow unfamiliar most students are with learning through reflection onexperience(Clayton&Ash,2004),theyneedastructureandguidancetohelpthemderivemeaningfullearningwhentheyareoutsidethetradi-tionalclassroomsetting,otherwisereflectiontendstobelittlemorethandescriptiveaccountsofexperiencesorventingofpersonalfeelings. Thisarticleexploresprinciplesofgoodpracticeacrossthreestepsinthedesignofcriticalreflectioninappliedlearning: 1) determiningthedesiredoutcomes:learninggoalsandassociated objecives, 2) designingreflectionsoastoachievethoseoutcomes,and 3) integratingformativeandsummativeassessmentintothereflectionprocess.

Itthenpresentsamodelforcriticalreflection—theDEALmodel—thathas been explicitly designed to embody these principles and refinedthroughseveralyearsofresearch. Thediscussionhereisgroundedintheconvictionthatfacilitatorsofstudentlearninginappliedlearningpedagogiesareinstructionaldesign-ers;theymakechoicesthroughoutthedesignprocessthatareinfluencedbytheirgoalsandconstraintsandbytheirstudents’abilitiesaswellastheirown.Designingreflectionproceedsbestwhenframedinscholarlyterms: as a process of experimentation, of continual assessment andrefinement,oflearningwithandalongsidethestudents.Inotherwords,the designer of applied learning opportunities is best understood as areflective practitioner herself—one who engages in the same criticalreflection that sheexpects fromher students—thereby improvingherthinkingandactionrelativeto theworkofgenerating,deepening,anddocumentingstudentlearninginappliedlearning.


DETERMInInGDESIREDLEARnInGouTCoMES Just as with any other intentional design process, designing criti-cal reflection requires beginning with the end in mind (Covey, 1989;Wiggins&McTighe,1998).Specifically,itbeginswiththeidentifica-tionofdesiredlearningoutcomes.Itthenproceedswiththeexpressionoflearninggoalsintermsofassessablelearningobjectivesandcontin-uestothedesignandimplementationofteachingandlearningstrategies(suchasreflection)alignedwiththoseobjectives,allthewhiledevelop-ingassessmentstrategiesthatarewell-matchedtotheobjectivesandtotheteachingandlearningstrategiesandthatcanbeusedtoinformfuturerevisionsofeitherorboth. Instructors,aswellastheprogramsthatsupportthem,havearangeof desired learning outcomes that underlie their use of any particularappliedlearningpedagogy(orcombinationofthem).Figure1providesa conceptual framework for articulatinga categorizationof theseout-comesandtheroleofcriticalreflectioninadvancingthem,usingservice-learningasanexample.Most instructorsuse service-learning tohelptheir students engage more effectively with the content of the courseor the perspective of the discipline while also learning about citizen-shipandaboutthemselvesasindividuals.Inotherwords,theyuseser-vice-learningtohelpstudentslearnatleastinthegeneralcategoriesofacademic enhancement,civic learning,andpersonal growth.Thesecat-egories can apply toother applied learningpedagogies aswell, alongwithadditionalonessuchasintercultural learning(particularlyrelevant

SERVICE-

LEARNING

Components

academic material

relevant service

critical reflection

personal growth

civic learning

academic enhancement

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework for the Role of Reflection in Achieving Categories of

Learning

Goals (service-learning example)

Learning Goal Categories

critical thinking within all categories

SERVICE-

LEARNING

Figure1:ConceptualFrameworkfortheRoleofReflectioninAchievingCategoriesofLearningGoals(service-learningexample)


instudyabroad),professional development(especiallyforinternships),and research skill development (in undergraduate research). Critical thinkingmightbeseenasitsowncategoryofoutcomesorasadimen-sionofothercategories;additionalmeta-leveloutcomesrelatedtolearn-ingprocessesmightincludeemotional intelligenceortheabilitytomakeconnectionsbetweenideas. Given thepublicpurposesofhighereducation (Boyer,1996;Salt-marsh, Hartley, & Clayton, 2009; O’Meara & Rice, 2005; Saltmarsh,2005),designersofanyappliedlearningpedagogymightwellconsidercivic learningasarelevantcategoryoflearning.Battistoni(2002)offersthirteenconceptualframeworksforunderstanding“civic”thatarelinkedtovariousdisciplinesandtherebysuggestsawidevarietyofwaysitcanbedefined,suchasintermsofparticipatorydemocracy,socialjustice,oranethicofcare.Specificlearninggoalsinthiscategorymightrelatetosuchissuesaschangeagency,power,privilege,leadership,economicandpoliticalsystems,governmentalprocesses,communityorganizing,andpublicproblem-solving.Inlightofthemulti-facetednatureofthiscategory,appliedlearningopportunitiesofalltypescanbedesignedtoincludeit.Forexample,studentsinvolvedinundergraduateresearchcanconsider the social drivers for and implicationsof both their researchquestionsandtheirprocessofinquiry;thosestudyingabroadcanfocusattentionontheinterconnectionsbetweenlocalandglobalissuesandonthewayscultureshapesnotionsofcitizenship;internscanexploretherolesofcorporationsascitizensandtherangeofopportunitiestointe-gratetheirprofessionalandciviclives. Similarly, applied learning pedagogies often involve interactionswith others—classmates, mentors, community members, lab partners,officemates—and therefore lend themselves readily to learning in thegeneralcategoryofcollaboration.Associatedlearninggoalsmightin-cludedevelopingstudents’abilitiestocommunicatewithdiverseothers,makedecisionsasagroup,assessgroupmembers’strengthsandweak-nessesandallocateresponsibilityaccordingly,handleinterpersonalcon-flicteffectively,holdthemselvesandothersaccountabletogroupnorms,developsharedvisions,andmonitorprogress towardcollectiveobjec-tivesandreachconsensusonappropriatechangesintheirapproach. Asthepreviousexamplesuggests,learninggoalswithinanyonecat-egoryoflearningcanoftencrossintoanothercategory—collaborationcouldalsobeunderstoodasanelementofdiversitylearning,profession-aldevelopment,personalgrowth,orciviclearning.Itisthereforeuptoinstructors,programadministrators,and/orstudentstodecidehowbesttoexpressthecategoriesoflearningandtheassociatedlearninggoalsfortheirparticularsituation.Becausethesecategoriesarelikelygoingtobe-comeheadingsin,forexample,assessmentreports,particularattentionshouldbepaidtowhatbestrepresentsthekeyarenasoflearningthatare


tobecultivatedthroughthepedagogy.Towardthatend,itmaybehelp-fultobeginbylistingmorespecificgoals(suchastheonesgivenaboveforcollaboration)andthendetermininghowbesttoorganizethemintomoregeneralcategories.Suchanactivitymaybeparticularlyimportantwhenagroupofinstructorsundertakesinstructionaldesigntogetheraspartofaprogramorcurriculum,soastomakesurethateveryoneisinagreementwithandworkingtowardsthesamedesiredoutcomes. Figure 2 provides an example of the use of Venn diagrams to ex-press the learninggoalsassociatedwithvariouscategoriesof learningthatmightbedevelopedforinternships.AstheuseoftheVenndiagramssuggests, learning outcomes are often conceptualized as the intersec-tionoftwoormorecategories.ANonprofitStudiescurriculumatNorthCarolinaStateUniversitythatisdesignedwiththreadedservice-learning,forexample,articulateslearningoutcomesattheintersectionofacadem-icenhancementandciviclearningintermsoflearninggoalsincluding:aligningmission,methods,andresources;balancingindividualinterestsandthecommongood;movingbeyondcharitytosystemicchange;capi-talizingonopportunitiesassociatedwithdiversity;andearningthepub-lictrust(Jameson,Clayton,&Bringle,2008).

Components of Internships

Learning Goals of Internships

(critical thinking within all categories)

academic discipline

critical reflection

work experience

Figure 2: Conceptual Framework for the Role of Reflection in Achieving Learning Goals

(internship example)

Professional development:

• teamwork

• business etiquette

• dynamics and skills of

business networking

Personal growth: • communicating

across difference

• assessing strengths

and weaknesses

• exploring relationship

between personal

values and business

values

Civic learning: • corporations as local

and global citizens

• power dynamics within

organizations

• organizational

leadership

•

Figure2:ConceptualFrameworkfortheRoleofReflectioninAchievingLearningGoals(internshipexample)


Whetherstartingwith thegeneralcategoriesandworkingdown tomorespecificlearninggoalswithinthemorstartingwithlearninggoalsandthendeterminingthemostusefulwaytocategorizethem,developingthisbroadstructuretoexpressandorganizedesiredlearningoutcomesiskeytoundertakinganintentionalinstructionaldesignprocess,tocom-municatingtherationalesforappliedlearningtostudentsandcolleagues,andtostructuringassessmentstrategiesandsharingresultantdata.Thisstructure for thinking about learning outcomes provides an importantfoundationfordevelopingstrongapproachestocriticalreflection.

FRoMLEARnInGGoALSToLEARnInGoBJECTIVES

Oncethegeneralcategoriesoflearningandtheirassociatedlearninggoalshavebeendetermined,theinstructionaldesigner’snexttaskistoexpressthelearninggoalsasassessablelearningobjectives.Goalssuchas“studentswilllearnaboutprojectmanagement”(internship),“studentswillunderstandthechallengesfacingschoolsintheirattemptstoimple-mentstateandfederaleducationpolicies”(service-learning),“studentswillappreciatethesimilaritiesaswellasthedifferencesbetweentheirhome and host cultures” (study abroad), or “students will understandthedifferencesbetweenquantitativeandqualitativeresearchmethods”(undergraduate research) are difficult to translate into effectivepedagogicalpractice. Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (1956) provides afoundationforturninglearninggoalsintoassessablelearningobjectives,whichthendrivetherestofthedesignprocess.Thetaxonomyincludeslearning in threedomains: cognitive, affective, andpsychomotor; thisdiscussion refers to the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives in theCognitiveDomain.Althoughmodifiedandre-orderedbysomescholarsinrecentyears,Bloometal.originallyidentifiedsixlevels,eachwithas-sociated—andassessable—learningbehaviors,assummarizedinTable1.Acentralandwidelyshared,althoughnotuniversal,tenetofourread-ingofthetaxonomyisitshierarchicalnature—eachlevelbuildstoward

Table 1: Bloom’s Taxonomy and Associated Learning Behaviors

Bloom’s Classification Examples of Learning-Related

Behaviors

Knowledge

Identify, define, order

Comprehension Explain describe, restate

Application Apply, solve, choose

Analysis Analyze, compare, contrast

Synthesis Synthesize, develop, propose

Evaluation Evaluate, assess, judge, critique

Table1:Bloom’sTaxonomyandAssociatedLearningBehaviors


thenext, fromsimpler tomorecomplexdimensionsof reasoning.Forexample, applying an academic concept effectively requires having agoodunderstandingofit,whichitselfinvolveshavingbasicknowledgeoftheunderlyingfactsortheories. Table2providesanexample,drawnfromservice-learning,oftheuseofBloom’sTaxonomytomovefromgeneralcategoriesof learning tospecificlearninggoalsandthentoassessablelearningobjectives.

Using Bloom’s Taxonomy in this way, to achieve a high level ofclarityregardingdesiredlearningoutcomesandtoexpresstheminas-sessable language, enables instructors to design reflection that targetslearning objectives in developmentally-appropriate ways, buildingtoward thehighest level of learningdeemed appropriate in anygiveninstance.The learningobjectives thusbecomeboth the roadmap thatguides thedesignofreflectionactivitiesand thebasis fordeterminingwhether the intendeddestinationhasbeenreachedandadequatelyex-pressedintheproductsofreflection.

Table2:usingBloom’sTaxonomytoMovefromGeneralCategoriesofLearningtoSpecificLearningGoalstoAssessableLearningobjectives(service-learningexample)

Table 2: Using Bloom’s Taxonomy to Move from General Categories of Learning to Specific

Learning Goals to Assessable Learning Objectives (service-learning example)

Learning Objective

Level

Category: Personal Growth

Learning Goal:

Students will consider ways to refine their

skills

Category: Civic Learning

Learning Goal:

Students will become more effective change

agents

Category: Academic Enhancement

Learning Goal:

Students will understand the Stages of Change

model

LO 1: Identify

Identify a particular skill of

yours that you need to develop

further.

Identify the collective

objectives at stake and the

approach you or others took

toward meeting them.

Identify the Stages of Change

model.

LO 2: Explain

Explain the skill so that

someone who does not know

you can understand it.

Explain the objectives and the

approach you and / or others

took toward meeting them so

that someone not involved can

understand.

Explain the Stages of Change

model so that someone not in the

course can understand it.

LO 3: Apply

Apply your understanding of

this skill in the context of your

service-learning experience

and (as applicable) in other

areas of your life.

Apply your understanding of

the approach in the context of

the objectives at stake.

Apply your understanding of the

Stages of Change model in the

context of the experience.

LO 4: Analyze

Analyze the sources of this

skill in your life.

Analyze the approach in light of

alternatives.

Analyze the similarities and

differences between the Stages of

Change model as presented in the

text and as it emerged in the

community.

LO 5: Synthesize

Develop the steps necessary to

improve upon this skill in the

short term, in your service-

learning activities and (as

applicable) in other areas of

your life.

Develop the steps necessary to

make any needed improvements

in your / their approaches

(and/or in the objectives) in the

short term.

Develop an enhanced

understanding of the Stages of

Change model in light of the

experience.

LO 6: Evaluate

Evaluate your strategies for

refining your skills over the

long term.

Evaluate your / their

approaches in terms of the

prospects for long-term,

sustainable, and/or systemic

change.

Evaluate the completeness of

your understanding of the Stages

of Change model and of its use in

the community.


DESIGnInGREFLECTIonToAChIEVEDESIREDLEARnInG

Effectivelydesigningcriticalreflectioninvolvesmakingaseriesofchoices thatare informedby thedesired learningoutcomesaswellasbytheopportunitiesandconstraintsthatcomewiththespecificcontextinwhichappliedlearningisbeingimplementedandbytheabilitiesofthe participants. These choices produce an overall reflection strategyorover-archingstructurethatmaycombinevariousreflectionactivitiesor mechanisms—such as journal entries, online chat sessions, posterpresentations, worksheets, or discussion sessions. Questions suchas those in Table 3 can help guide the design of reflection strategiesandmechanisms. Theresultofsuchintentionaldesignworkisacustomizedplanthatintegratescriticalreflectionintothecoreofappliedlearningexperiences.Thisplanmaybemaximizedbydesigningthereflectionstrategysuchthatindividualreflectionmechanismsbuildononeanothercumulatively,sothatstudentslearnhowtolearnthroughreflectionaswellasimprovethequalityoftheirlearningandtheirpracticeovertime.Table4sum-marizesabodyofprinciplesofgoodpracticethathasemergedtosupporttheinstructionaldesignerinmakingthechoicesthatproducehighqual-ityreflectionstrategiesandmechanisms.

Table 3: Questions to Guide the Design of Reflection Strategies and Mechanisms

Reflection Strategies

When and how often will reflection occur?

Before, during, and after the experience?

Will students reflect iteratively such that reflection builds on itself over time?

Where will reflection occur?

In or outside the classroom?

Who will facilitate and/or particpate in reflection?

Instructors, members of the community or workplace, peers?

How will feedback be provided and/or reflection products graded?

What is the relationship between amount of feedback and level of expected outcomes?

What is the relationship between the reflection products and the overall grade?echanisms

Reflection Mechanisms

Toward what specific learning goals and objectives will the particular activity be guided?

What medium will be used for the activity: written assignments, worksheets, spectrum activities,

photographs, videos, games, drawings, online forums, in-class discussion, out-of-class reflection

sessions, concept maps, etc.?

What prompts will be used to guide the activity?

What products will demonstrate the learning the activity generates: essays, PowerPoint or poster

presentations, oral exams, etc.?

Note that in a critical reflection process, the products used to demonstrate learning are in

many cases the same as the medium used to generate it

What criteria will be used to assess the learning so demonstrated ?

Table3:QuestionstoGuidetheDesignofReflectionStrategiesandMechanisms

ReflectionStrategies


Eachofthesesetsofcharacteristicsofhighqualitycriticalreflectionincludesexplicitlinkagetodesiredlearningoutcomes,andBloom’sTax-onomyprovidesastructuretofacilitatethedesignofreflectionaccord-ingly.TheexamplereflectionactivityprovidedinFigure3demonstratesthedesignof reflectionprompts—for the learninggoalofunderstand-ingstrengthsandweaknesses,inthecategoryofpersonalgrowth—thatguidestudents step-by-step toever-higher levelsof reasoning throughprompts thatareexplicitly structured inaccordancewith the levelsofthetaxonomy. Afocusoncriticalthinkingisakeycharacteristicofcriticalreflec-tion.ThereflectionguidedbythepromptsinFigure3canprogresstoever-higherlevelsofreasoningbutdosopoorly,inanillogical,unclearway that is uninformedby considerationofmultipleperspectives andthatfailstoengagewiththetruecomplexityoftheissues.Criticalthink-ing,asoutlinedbyPaulandElder(2002),isbasedonuniversalintellec-tualstandardsthatincludeaccuracy,clarity,relevance,depth,breadth,logic, significance, and fairness. Many of the potential shortcomingsof reflection described in the introduction—reinforcing stereotypes,generalizing inappropriately on the basis of limited data, missing themostsignificantlearninginanexperience—areindicativeofandresultfrom poorly developed critical thinking abilities. Providing guidancein thisarea is, therefore,anecessarycorollary to theuseofhierarchi-callearningobjectivesinthedesignofcriticalreflection(Ash,Clayton,&Atkinson, 2005).Table 5 provides anoverviewof the standardsof

Table 4: Characteristics of High Quality Reflection

High Quality Reflection …

is continuous (ongoing)

is connected (with assignments and activities related to and building on one

another and including explicit integration with learning goals and academic

material)

is challenging (including in terms of the expectation that students take

responsibility for their own learning)

Eyler et al. (1996)

is contextualized (to the community setting and broader public issues and

to the students’ own particular roles)

links experience to learning

is guided

occurs regularly

involves feedback to the learner to enhance the learning

Bringle & Hatcher

(1999)

helps clarify values

is oriented toward specific learning objectives

is integrative

is assessed in terms of critical thinking

includes goal setting

Zlotkowski &

Clayton (2005)

generates change in the learner’s life

Table4:CharacteristicsofhighQualityReflection


critical thinking (with the addition of integration and writing quality),alongwithpromptingquestionsthatcanbeusedbystudentsthemselvestoimprovethequalityoftheirreasoningandbypeersand/orinstructorsasfeedbackonreflectionproducts. Using these tools together—designing reflection mechanismsthrough the use of hierarchical learning objectives and improving thequalityofthinkingateachofthelevelsofreasoningthroughtheuseofcriticalthinkingstandards—willhelpto generateanddeepenlearninginanappliedlearningenvironment.Theproductsofsuchintentionallyde-signedreflection,inturn,documentlearningforpurposesofgradingorresearchaswellasforstudentuseinguidingfuturethinkingandaction.

InTEGRATInGFoRMATIVEAnDSuMMATIVEASSESSMEnTInToThEREFLECTIonPRoCESS

Designing an intentional approach to critical reflection in appliedlearningalsoinvolvesthedevelopmentofanassessmentstrategy.Justasreflectionismuchmoreeffectivelyimplementednotonlyattheendofanappliedlearningcourseorprojectbutthroughout,sotooisassess-mentmorevaluablewhenitisdesignedfromthebeginningandisitselfevaluatedandmodifiedasneededthroughout.

Figure3:SampleBloom-basedReflectionMechanism(undergraduateresearchexample)

Figure 3: Sample Bloom-based Reflection Mechanism (undergraduate research example)

According to Parker Palmer (2000), “limitations and liabilities are the flip side of our

gifts … a particular weakness is the inevitable trade-off for a particular strength.”

There is nothing “wrong” with us that we need to “fix,” he suggests. Rather, we are

who we are; sometimes our personal characteristics serve us well (and we think of

them as strengths), and sometimes they serve us ill (and we think of them as

weaknesses) The attempt to “fix” our liabilities will inevitably alter their “flip side”

gifts as well. (pp. 52-53).

Individually and in writing …

Identify and explain a personal characteristic that you tend to think of as a weakness

in your role as a researcher

Apply Palmer’s distinction to this characteristic: What gift or strength could be the

“flip side” of this “weakness”?

Discuss with a partner …

Compare and contrast a research-related situation in which the “weakness” emerged

and one in which its “flip side” strength emerged. Why do you think each

emerged as it did and what were the consequences?

If Palmer is correct regarding the relationship between our gifts or strengths and our

limitations or liabilities, what do you think are the implications for your

approach to personal and professional development as a researcher?

Individually and in writing …

Critique Palmer’s distinction: Do you agree with him? Why or why not? What, if

anything, would you change in his thinking?


Table

5:

Cri

tica

l T

hin

king S

tandard

s

Cri

tica

l

Th

ink

ing

Sta

nd

ard

Des

crip

tion

Ass

oci

ate

d Q

ues

tion

s to

Ch

eck

you

r T

hin

kin

g

Inte

gra

tio

n

Ser

vic

e ex

per

ien

ce c

lear

ly r

elat

ed t

o t

he

lear

nin

g.

Hav

e I

clea

rly

sh

ow

n t

he

con

nec

tio

n b

etw

een

my

ex

per

ien

ce

and

my

lea

rnin

g?

Cla

rity

E

xp

and

s o

n i

dea

s, e

xp

ress

id

eas

in a

no

ther

way

,

pro

vid

es e

xam

ple

s o

r il

lust

rati

on

s w

her

e ap

pro

pri

ate.

Did

I g

ive

an e

xam

ple

?

Is i

t cl

ear

wh

at I

mea

n b

y t

his

?

Co

uld

I e

lab

ora

te f

urt

her

?

Acc

ura

cy

All

sta

tem

ents

are

fac

tual

ly c

orr

ect

and

/or

sup

po

rted

wit

h e

vid

ence

.

Ho

w d

o I

kn

ow

th

is?

Is t

his

tru

e?

Ho

w c

ou

ld I

ch

eck

on

th

is o

r v

erif

y i

t?

Pre

cisi

on

S

tate

men

ts c

on

tain

sp

ecif

ic i

nfo

rmat

ion

.

Can

I b

e m

ore

sp

ecif

ic?

Hav

e I

pro

vid

ed s

uff

icie

nt

det

ail?

Rel

evan

ce

All

sta

tem

ents

are

rel

evan

t to

th

e q

ues

tio

n a

t h

and

; al

l

stat

emen

ts c

on

nec

t to

th

e ce

ntr

al p

oin

t.

Ho

w d

oes

th

is r

elat

e to

th

e is

sue

bei

ng

dis

cuss

ed?

Ho

w d

oes

th

is h

elp

us/

me

dea

l w

ith

th

e is

sue

bei

ng

dis

cuss

ed?

Dep

th

Ex

pla

ins

the

reas

on

s b

ehin

d c

on

clu

sio

ns

and

anti

cip

ates

an

d a

nsw

ers

the

qu

esti

on

s th

at t

he

reas

on

ing

rai

ses

and

/or

ack

no

wle

dg

es t

he

com

ple

xit

y

of

the

issu

e.

Wh

y i

s th

is s

o?

Wh

at a

re s

om

e o

f th

e co

mp

lex

itie

s h

ere?

Wh

at w

ou

ld i

t ta

ke

for

this

to

hap

pen

?

Wo

uld

th

is b

e ea

sy t

o d

o?

Bre

adth

C

on

sid

ers

alte

rnat

ive

po

ints

of

vie

w o

r h

ow

so

meo

ne

else

mig

ht

hav

e in

terp

rete

d t

he

situ

atio

n.

Wo

uld

th

is l

oo

k t

he

sam

e fr

om

th

e p

ersp

ecti

ve

of…

.?

Is t

her

e an

oth

er w

ay t

o i

nte

rpre

t w

hat

th

is m

ean

s?

Lo

gic

T

he

lin

e o

f re

aso

nin

g m

akes

sen

se a

nd

fo

llo

ws

fro

m

the

fact

s an

d/o

r w

hat

has

bee

n s

aid

.

Do

es w

hat

I s

aid

at

the

beg

inn

ing

fit

wit

h w

hat

I c

on

clu

ded

at

the

end

?

Do

my

co

ncl

usi

on

s m

atch

th

e ev

iden

ce t

hat

I h

ave

pre

sen

ted

?

Sig

nif

ican

ce

Th

e co

ncl

usi

on

s o

r g

oal

s re

pre

sen

t a

(th

e) m

ajo

r is

sue

rais

ed b

y t

he

refl

ecti

on

on

ex

per

ien

ce.

Is t

his

th

e m

ost

im

po

rtan

t is

sue

to f

ocu

s o

n?

Is t

his

mo

st s

ign

ific

ant

pro

ble

m t

o c

on

sid

er?

Fai

rnes

s

Oth

er p

oin

ts o

f v

iew

are

rep

rese

nte

d w

ith

in

teg

rity

(wit

ho

ut

bia

s o

r d

isto

rtio

n).

Hav

e I

rep

rese

nte

d t

his

vie

wp

oin

t in

su

ch a

way

th

at t

he

per

son

wh

o h

old

s it

wo

uld

ag

ree

wit

h m

y c

har

acte

riza

tio

n?

Mo

dif

ied

so

urc

e: P

aul,

R &

Eld

er,

L.

20

01

. T

he

Min

iatu

re G

uid

e to

Cri

tica

l T

hin

kin

g.

Th

e F

ou

nd

atio

n f

or

Cri

tica

l T

hin

kin

g.

San

ta R

osa

, C

A.

ww

w.c

riti

calt

hin

kin

g.o

rg

Mod

ified

sou

rce:

Pau

l,R

.P.&

Eld

er,L

.200

1.T

heM

inia

ture

Gui

deto

Cri

tica

lThi

nkin

g.T

heF

ound

atio

nfo

rC

riti

calT

hink

ing.

San

taR

osa,

CA

.ww

w.c

riti

calt

hink

ing.

org

Table5:CriticalThinkingStandards


Assessment can be designed for summative purposes and used attheendofaprocesstomeasureanddocumentoutcomes,anditcanbedesignedfor formativepurposesandusedduringaprocessasawaytocontinuouslyimproveboththeprocessandtheoutcomes.Asummativeassessmentprocessthatisgroundedinwell-articulatedlearningobjec-tivescanbeusedbothtogradestudentproductsandtoreportoutcomesatprogramorcurriculumlevels.Summativeassessmentintheformofgradinggenerally involves judging thedegree towhich studentshavemet the learning objectives. Such assessment can be standards basedand therefore measure the ultimate attainment of an objective at theendoftheexperience,oritcanbebasedonimprovementandthereforemeasurechangeovertime.Arelateddesignchoicethatoftenemergesat theprogramor curriculum level iswhether theultimate attainmentorthechangeovertimeistobeassessedwithinasinglecourseorap-pliedlearningproject,acrossasequenceofcoursesorprojects,orboth.Instructorsand/oradministratorsneedtodecideontheformsummativeassessmentreportsshouldtake, in lightof theuses towhichtheywillbeputandtheaudiencesforwhomtheyareintended.Forexample,willthe assessment be expressed quantitatively, such as the percentage ofstudentswhosereflectiononexperiencedemonstratesfulfillmentofthedesiredoutcomes,orwillthereportprovidequalitativeinformationwithexamplesofstudentlearningoutcomes,orboth? Facultyandstudentsusingappliedlearningpedagogieswillfindval-ueinformativelyassessingbothlearningandtheteachingandlearningprocessandprogramsthatgenerateit.Formativeassessmentisincreas-inglyrecognizedaskeytoeffectivelydesigningteachingandlearning.AsnotedbytheNationalResearchCouncil(2001),“Studentswilllearnmoreifinstruction[inthiscase,reflectioninappliedlearning]andas-sessment are integrally related. [P]roviding students with informationaboutparticularqualitiesoftheirworkandwhattheycandotoimproveit is crucial for maximizing learning” (p. 258). Feedback combinedwith opportunities to apply it (e.g. through revision of their work) isanapproachtoformativeassessmentthathelpsstudentslearnnotonlycontent,butmeta-cognitiveskillsaswell—inthiscase,learninghowtolearnthroughtheoftenunfamiliarprocessofcriticalreflection. Formativeassessmentcanalsobeusedtocheckthereflectionprocessagainstthelearningoutcomesitgeneratessoastorefineboththelearn-inggoals andobjectives and the reflection strategies andmechanismsdesignedtomeetthem.Instructorsmightreviewstudentproductscriti-callynotonlyinordertoprovidehelpfulfeedbacktoimprovestudents’thinkingbutalsotogaugetheeffectivenessoftheirowndesign(e.g.,theclarityofthereflectionprompts)andtoprovidethemselveswithfeed-back to improve it.Such formativeassessmentalsoprovidesvaluablefeedback to instructors regarding, for example, concepts or skills that


provedifficultforstudentstograsp;suchinformationcaninformdiscus-sionofhowtheseconceptsorskillsaretaughtinthecoursesorprogramsassociatedwithorprerequisitetotheappliedlearningactivity. Havingsorted through thevariouspurposesofassessment, thede-signer of applied learning pedagogies faces additional choice pointsrelated tohowassessment is implemented, includingthenatureof theproductsorevidencethatwillbeexamined.Willassessmentinvolveex-traactivitiesthatarenotrelatedtothelearningprocess(forexample,preandpostquestionnaires)or assignments andproducts that are alreadypartofthecourseorproject(forexample,reflectionproductsoressays)?Inaquestionnaire, studentsmightbeasked towhatdegree they thinktheyhavemet thelearningobjectivesof theirappliedlearningexperi-ence;inacourse-embeddedassignment,studentswouldbeaskedtore-spondtoapromptorprompts,andtheresultantproductwouldbeevalu-ated against the objectives. Practitioner-scholars such as Eyler (2000)suggestthattheformeroftenconfusesstudentsatisfactionwithstudentlearningandthereforecallforthedevelopmentofapproachesthatsup-portstudentsindoingthelatter.Inaddition,acourse-embeddedprocessisgenerallylesstime-consuming,forbothstudentsandinstructors,thanthe interview, focus group, or portfolio methods often used (Eyler &Giles,1999;Gelmon,Holland,Driscoll,Spring,&Kerrigan,2001)andrequiresmoreintentionalintegrationofassessmentwiththeteachingandlearningprocess. Anotherissueisthedeterminationofcriteriathatwillbeusedtoeval-uate theproducts thatdemonstrate learning. Inotherwords,whatwillbetheindicatorsofthedegreetowhichthestudenthasmetthelearningobjectivesorofthequalityoflearningoutcomes?Thecreationofaru-bricthatexpressesvaryinglevelsofqualityormastery,fromnovicetoexpertorfromunder-developedtoexcellent,canbeextremelyhelpfulinguidingthisprocess.Forexample,iftheobjectiveisforinternstobeabletodeterminetheappropriateapproachtoaparticularworkplacesituation(e.g.,ateammembernotpullingherweight),arubricinwhichresponsesarecategorizedbydegreeofsophisticationand/orefficacycouldbeusedforassessment.Ifanobjectiveismeta-cognitiveand/orisuniquetothestudents as individuals and their particular experiences (for example,thatstudentsareabletoevaluateapersonalstrengthorweaknessinlightoftheirprofessionalgoals),thenarubricbasedonBloom’sTaxonomythat expresses levels of reasoning may be in order. The Standards ofCriticalThinkingdescribedearliercanalsobeturnedintoarubric(seeTable6,forexample)thatcanbeusedtoassessqualityofreasoning. Anintegratedapproachtoassessmentandreflectionincludesusingthesamesetofobjectivesandstandardsandtoolstogeneratelearning(throughreflectionprompts),todeepenlearning(throughformativeas-sessmentor feedback), and todocument learning (throughsummative


assessment or grading and reporting outcomes). Reflection promptsbasedonBloom’sTaxonomycanbothguidestudentstodesiredlevelsofreasoninganddeterminethelevelofreasoningtheyhaveattained.Criti-calthinkingstandardscanbeusedasbothaformativeguidetoimprovestudentreasoningandasummativetooltoevaluateitsqualityintheend.Makingvisiblesuch integrationofreflectionandassessment iskey inhelpingstudentsbecomeincreasinglyawareofandresponsiblefortheirownlearningprocesses. Thecreationofanassessmentstrategyisasimportantasthearticula-tionof the learninggoalsandassociatedobjectives,andall shouldbedevelopedinparallelduringthedesignofthereflectionactivities.Tryingtoassessalearninggoalthathasnotbeenarticulatedasanassessableobjective(e.g.,“studentswillunderstand…,”“studentswillappreciate…,”“studentswilllearnabout…”)isusuallyanexerciseinfrustration.Areflectionmechanismthatisnotmappedtolearningobjectivesisoftenamissedopportunityformaximizedlearningaswellasahindrancetousing reflectionproducts toassess learning.Andanobjective thatex-pressesdesiredlearningthatcannotbeachievedthroughthepedagogyinquestion,muchlessassessed,should,likealloftheabove,sendthedesignerbacktothedrawingboard.

Table 6: Critical Thinking Rubric [excerpts]

completely lacking (1) under-developed (2) good (3) excellent (4)

Accuracy

Consistently makes

inaccurate statements

and/or fails to provide

supporting evidence for

claims

Makes several

inaccurate statements

and/or supports few

statements with evidence

Usually but not always

makes statements that

are accurate and well-

supported with evidence

Consistently makes

statements that are

accurate and well-

supported with evidence

Clarity

Consistently fails to

provide examples, to

illustrate points, to define

terms, and/or to express

ideas in other ways

Only occasionally

provides examples,

illustrates points, defines

terms, and/or expresses

ideas in other ways

Usually but not always

provides examples,

illustrates points, defines

terms, and/or expresses

ideas in other ways

Consistently provides

examples, illustrates

points, defines terms,

and/or expresses ideas in

other ways

Depth

Fails to address salient

questions that arise from

statements being made;

consistently over-

simplifies when making

connections; fails to

consider any of the

complexities of the issue

Addresses few of the

salient questions that

arise from statements

being made; often over-


connections; considers

little of the complexity

of the issue

Addresses some but not

all of the salient questions

that arise from statements

being made; rarely over-


connections; considers

some but not all of the

full complexity of the

issue

Thoroughly addresses

salient questions that arise

from statements being

made; avoids over-

simplifying when making

connections; considers the

full complexity of the

issue

Breadth

Ignores or superficially

considers alternative

points of view and/or

interpretations

Gives minimal

consideration to

alternative points of

view and/or

interpretations and

makes very limited use

of them in shaping the

learning being

articulated

Gives some consideration

to alternative points of

view and/or

interpretations and makes

some use of them in

shaping the learning

being articulated

Gives meaningful

consideration to

alternative points of view

and/or interpretations and

makes very good use of

them in shaping the

learning being articulated

Fairness

Consistently represents

others’ perspectives in a

biased or distorted way

Occasionally represents

others’ perspectives in a

biased or distorted way

Often but not always

represents others’

perspectives with

integrity

Consistently represents

others’ perspectives with

integrity (without bias or

distortion)

[Modified source: Paul, R & Elder, L. 2001. The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking. The Foundation for Critical Thinking. Santa Rosa, CA. www.criticalthinking.org]

Table6:CriticalThinkingRubric[excerpts]

[Modifiedsource:Paul,R.P.&Elder,L.2001.The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking.TheFoundationforCriti-calThinking.SantaRosa,CA.www.criticalthinking.org]


ThEDEALMoDELFoRCRITICALREFLECTIon Anexampleofanapproachtocriticalreflectionexplicitlydesignedin accordancewith theprinciplesofgoodpracticediscussedabove istheDEALModelforCriticalReflection(Ash&Clayton,2004;Ash&Clayton, 2009a, 2009b)—the product of a multi-year scholarship ofteachingandlearningprojectinvolvingstudentsandfacultyfromava-rietyofdisciplines.Originallydevelopedinthecontextofservice-learn-ing,DEALhasbeenusedacrossarangeoftraditionalandexperientialpedagogies;inK-12,undergraduate,andgraduatecoursesandcurricula;andinco-curricularaswellasprofessionaltrainingsettings.TheDEALmodelconsistsofthreesequentialsteps(seeFigure4): 1. Descriptionofexperiencesinanobjectiveanddetailedmanner; 2. Examinationofthoseexperiencesinlightofspecificlearning goalsorobjectives;and 3. ArticulationofLearning,includinggoalsforfutureactionthat canthenbetakenforwardintothenextexperienceforim- provedpracticeandfurtherrefinementoflearning.

Figure 4: Schematic Overview of the DEAL Model for Critical Reflection

Category #1 Goals &

Objectives

Category #3 Goals &

Objectives

Engage in experience

Engage in experience and

test learning and/or

implement goals

Examine

per learning goals/objectives in each category of learning

Describe experience objectively

Articulate Learning including setting goals

in each category

Category #2 Goals &

Objectives

Figure4:SchematicoverviewoftheDEALModelforCriticalReflection


Eachstepofthismodelrequiresspecificprompts,whichprovidetheguidancenecessaryforstudentstoengageintheoftentimescounter-nor-mativeactivityofdevelopingtheirownlearningratherthanreproducingwhattheirinstructorshavetaughtthem(Clayton&Ash,2004;Howard,1998).ThediscussionthatfollowssummarizeseachstepintheDEALmodelandprovidessampleprompts.

DESCRIBE Objective, detailed description of an experience provides a strongfoundationformeaning-makinginthecriticalreflectionprocess;itisawaytomaketheexperiencepresentandtoensurethatstudentshaveac-cesstoallrelevantaspectsofitastheyengageinreflection.Thisstepisnotassimpleasitmightappear,asstudentsoftenprefertojumpstraightintointerpretation.Itisalsoeasytooverlookorunder-valuethedetailsthatareoftenmostsignificant,soenhancedskillsofmindfulnessandat-tentivenessareoftenrequiredfor—anddevelopedby—thisstep.Reflec-tionpromptsassociatedwiththeDescribestepaskstudentstoaddresssuch issuesaswhenandwhere theexperience inquestion tookplace,whowasandwasnotpresent,whattheyandothersdidanddidnotdo,whattheysawandheard,andsoon.

ExAMInE The DEAL model is explicitly designed to move students beyondsummarizing their experiences,whichall toooften resultswhena re-flectionactivityisassigned,intomeaning-making.InthesecondstepofDEAL,promptsthathelpstudentsExaminetheirexperiencesarelinkedtothedesiredlearningoutcomes—whetherexpressedaslearninggoalsor, in a more assessable fashion, as learning objectives—within eachcategoryoflearning.Table7providesexamplesofpromptsdrawnfromlearninggoals in thegeneralcategoryofcivic learning; someinstruc-torsmayprefertodevelopExaminepromptsfromlearninggoalssuchastheseratherthanfromassessableobjectiveswhen,forexample,theintent is tostimulatequestionsorsurface issuesfor furtherdiscussionratherthantoevaluatestudents’reasoning.ARTICuLATELEARnInG

The third step of the DEAL model supports students inArticulating the Learning that the two previous steps have begun togenerate,whileprovidingfurtherguidanceincontinuingtoexpandanddeepenthatlearning.Ithelpsthemcapturetheirlearninginsuchawayastobeabletoactonitandtherebyimprovethequalityoftheirlearn-


ingandtheirfutureactions.Itconsistsoffourprompts:(a)What did I learn?;(b)How did I learn it?;(c)Whydoesitmatter?;and(d)What will I do in light of it? TheDEALmodelthusdoesnotbeginbutratherends with the question “What did you learn,” in accordance with theunderstanding of reflection as the component of applied learning thatgenerateslearning. ThegeneralstructureprovidedbytheDEALmodelcanbeusedtoguidecriticalreflectiononline,inanoraldiscussion,inawrittenjournalentryoressay,orinanycombinationofmechanisms.Forexample,De-scriptionmightbedoneonlinebyeachstudentindividually,Examina-tionorallybyagroupofstudents,andArticulationofLearningasawrit-tenessay.TheDEALmodelcanbeusedtostructure“light”reflection,asina30minutein-classactivityoranonlinechatthatproducessimple(e.g.,foursentence)ArticulatedLearnings.

ABLooM-BASEDuSEoFDEAL DEAL can also guide more in-depth critical reflection that targetshigher order reasoning and critical thinking through prompts that aretieddirectlytohierarchicallearningobjectives.Suchanapproachmightbeusednotmerelytostimulatequestionsandsurfaceissuesforfurtherdiscussion,as in thegoal-basedexampleinTable7above,butalsotosupportstudentsexplicitlyindevelopingreasoningabilitiesandtoassessthequalityoftheirreasoning. InaparticularlycomprehensiveversionoftheDEALmodel(Ash&Clayton,2009a,2009b),designedtofacilitatestudentreasoningallthewayuptothelevelofevaluationinBloom’sTaxonomy,theExamine

Table 7: DEAL Model Sample “Examine” Prompts Based on Learning Goals in the

General

Category of Civic Learning

Learning Goals Sample Examine Prompts

What was I / someone else trying to accomplish?

In taking the actions I / they did, was the focus on symptoms of problems

or causes of problems?

Was the focus (symptom or cause) appropriate to the situation?

Students will explore

the dynamics of change

agency

How might I / they focus more on underlying causes in the future?

In what ways did differentials in power and privilege emerge in this

experience?

What are the sources of power and privilege in this situation?

Students will learn

about power and

privilege

Who benefits and who is harmed?

What is in the interest of the common good in this situation? What is in

the interest of (whose) individual interests or rights?

In what ways is the individual good (mine / others) linked to and/or

contrary to the common good?

Students will appreciate

the tension between

individual interests and

the common good

What trade-offs between them are involved? Who made the trade-offs?

Were the trade-offs made appropriate or inappropriate and why?

Table7:DEALModelSample“Examine”PromptsBasedonLearningGoalsintheGeneralCategoryofCivicLearning


and theArticulateLearning steps eachhave twoparts.After studentsDescribeanexperience,theysurfaceoneormorekeyideasforfurtherthoughtinExaminePartIandthentakeoneofthoseideasfromidenti-ficationandexplanationthroughapplicationandtoanalysisinExaminePartII.InPartIoftheArticulateLearningsteptheysynthesizeanewunderstandingofthekeyideaandevaluatechangesintheirthinking,andinPartIItheyevaluatethewrittenexpressionofthatthinkingandreviseitasneeded. For example, in the category of personal growth, Examine Part ImightincludesomeorallofthepromptsinTable8,whichareorientedtowardthelearninggoalsthatcomprisethiscategoryandwhichencour-agestudentstofocusontheirownparticularpersonalcharacteristics. ThenPartIIoftheExaminestepmightusepromptssuchasthoseinTable9—specificallymappedtoBloom-basedlearningobjectivesuptothe levelofanalysis—tosupportstudents indeveloping their thinkingaboutthatcharacteristicfurther. TheArticulateLearning step then supports students in re-thinkingand extending the thinking from the Examine step, to create a moremeaningfulandfullythoughtoutreflectiveessay,movingthemthroughSynthesis and Evaluation with additional sub-prompts and supportingthemindocumentingallsixlevelsofreasoninginBloom’sTaxonomy.Continuingwiththeexampleinthecategoryofpersonalgrowth,PartIofthisstepincludestheexpandedpromptsrepresentedinTable10.

Table 8: Bloom-based Version of DEAL: Sample “Examine” Part I Prompts (Personal

Growth

Category)

Examine Part I (Personal Growth): Sample Prompts to Surface a Personal

Characteristic

What assumptions or expectations did I bring to the situation? How did they affect what I

did or didn’t think, feel, decide, or do? To what extent did they prove true? If they did not

prove true, why was there a discrepancy?

How did this experience make me feel (positively and/or negatively)? How did I handle

my emotional reactions? Should I have felt differently? Why or why not?

How did I interpret the thoughts, feelings, decisions, and/or behaviors of others What

evidence do I have that my interpretations were or were not accurate?

In what ways did I succeed or do well in this situation (e.g., interacting with others,

accomplishing tasks, handling difficulties) and what personal characteristics helped me to

be successful (e.g., skills, abilities, perspectives, attitudes, tendencies, knowledge)? In

what ways did I experience difficulties (e.g., interacting with others, accomplishing tasks)

and what personal characteristics contributed to the difficulties (e.g., skills, abilities,

perspectives, attitudes, tendencies, knowledge)?

How did this situation challenge or reinforce my values, beliefs, convictions (e.g., my

sense of right and wrong, my priorities, my judgments)? My sense of personal identity

(e.g., how I think of myself in terms of gender, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status,

age, education level, ethnicity, nationality, mental/physical health)?

Table8:Bloom-basedVersionofDEAL:Sample“Examine”PartIPrompts(PersonalGrowthCategory)


InPartIIoftheArticulateLearningstep,studentsareaskedtoevalu-atetheirwrittenproductsusingachecklist,whichincludesthestandardsof critical thinking, and to rewrite their “I learned that” statement asneededtoensurethatitexpressesthehighestleveloflearningtheyhaveachieved.

Table 9: Bloom-based Version of DEAL: Sample “Examine” Part II Prompts (Personal

Growth

Category)

Examine Part II (Personal Growth): Prompts to Develop Understanding of a Personal

Characteristic Using Bloom’s Taxonomy

Identify What personal characteristic are you coming to understand better as a result of

reflection on your applied learning experiences?

Explain Explain the characteristic so that someone who does not know you would

understand it.

Apply How does / might this characteristic positively and/or negatively affect your

interactions with others, your decisions, and/or your actions in your applied

activities and (as applicable) in other areas of your life?

Analyze What are the possible sources of / reasons for this characteristic? How does

your understanding of these sources / reasons help you to better understand

what will be involved in using, improving, or changing this characteristic in the

future?

Table9:Bloom-basedVersionofDEAL:Sample“Examine”PartIIPrompts(PersonalGrowthCategory)

Regardlessofhowitisimplemented—writtenororal,individualorcollaborative,lightlyorin-depth—theDEALmodeloffersstudentstheopportunity to use writing or speaking as vehicles for learning ratherthan as expressionsof learningafter it has alreadyoccurred (Clayton&Ash,2004).Generatingtheirownlearninginthiswayisyetanothercounter-normativeaspectofcriticalreflectiononexperienceand,assug-gestedinthesetofcharacteristicsofhighqualityreflectioninTable4,students will benefit from feedback on their thinking, with associatedopportunitiestorevisitandrevise(e.g.,throughapplicationoftheStan-dardsofCriticalThinkingpresentedinTables5and6)tomaximizethequalityoftheirlearning. Inaddition, thedevelopmentof a critical reflectionmodel suchasDEALfacilitatesscholarlyworkrelativetoteachingandlearninginanappliedlearningpedagogy,helpinginstructorsimprovetheformertoen-hancethelatter.Forexample,DEALanditsassociatedrubrics(includ-ingthecriticalthinkingrubricinTable6)wereusedtoexaminechangesinstudents’criticalthinkingandhigherorderreasoningabilitiesacrossdraftsofasinglereflectionproductandoverthecourseofasemester,aswellasacrossthecategoriesofacademicenhancement,civiclearning,andpersonalgrowthinseveralservice-learningenhancedclasses(Ashetal.,2005).Buildingonthiswork,Jamesonetal.(2008)modifiedtheDEALreflectionpromptsandrubricsforapplicationacrossthecoursesequence of a Nonprofit Studies minor, investigating changes in stu-dents’criticalthinkingandreasoningabilitiesacrossthelearninggoals


offiveleadershipchallengesfacingthenonprofitsector.McGuireetal.(2009)examinedcriticalthinkingdemonstratedinArticulatedLearningsproducedbystudentsinmultipledisciplinesusingavarietyofassign-mentandfeedback-revisionformats. TheDEALmodeland its associated rubrics thereforedemonstratethe intentionaldesignofcritical reflection: identifyingdesiredstudentlearningoutcomes,articulatingthemasspecificgoalsandasassessablelearningobjectives,andthencraftinganintegratedreflectionandassess-mentapproacharoundthem. Inadditiontoprovidingtoolsneededtogenerate,deepen,anddocumentstudentlearning,DEALfacilitatesin-vestigationofthelearningprocesses(Clayton,Ash,&Jameson,2009).

ConCLuSIon

Itisourhopethatourworkcanserveasamodelforfaculty,staff,andstudentsastheyseektodesignreflectionassociatedwithappliedlearn-ingopportunities,courses,andprograms.Ourindividualandcollectivelearningaspractitioner-scholarsacrossthefieldofappliedlearningcanbeenhancedthroughascholarlyapproachtotheinstructionaldesignpro-cess.Inturn,itcancontributetoadvancingtheacademy’sunderstandingofbothhowourstudentsthinkandhowwecansupporttheminlearningtothinkmoredeeplyandwithgreatercapacityforself-directedlearning.

Table 10: Bloom-based Version of DEAL: “Articulate Learning” Part I Prompts (Personal

Growth Category)

1. What did I learn?

• Identify and explain (so that someone who doesn’t know you can understand it) a

personal characteristic that you are beginning to understand better

• Express the learning in general terms, not just in the context of the experience, so

that it can be applied more broadly to other areas of your life (personally or

professionally) and help you in your ongoing personal growth process

• Introduce a judgment regarding whether the characteristic serves you well (and

thus needs to be capitalized on) or poorly (and thus needs to be changed) – or both

2. How did I learn it?

• Clearly connect the learning to your specific applied learning activities so that

someone who was not involved would understand, including discussion of the

positive and negative impacts of the personal characteristic

3. Why does it matter?

• Consider how the learning has value over the short and long term, both in terms of

your applied learning activities and in terms of your life more generally

4. What will I do in light of it?

• Set specific goals and assessable goals (that you could come back to and check on

to see if they are being met) relative to this learning over the short and long term

• Consider the benefits and challenges associated with fulfilling these goals,

especially in light of the sources of or reasons for the characteristic

Table10:Bloom-basedVersionofDEAL:“ArticulateLearning”PartIPrompts(PersonalGrowthCategory)


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49

examining the Development of the Victorian Certificate of Applied

Learning and Its Implications for Schools and teacher

education in Australia

DAmIAn BLAKeDeakinUniversity,Australia

DAVID GALLAGheRVictorianCurriculumandAssessmentAuthority(VCAA),Australia

The Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning (VCAL) is a very successful senior second-ary school qualification introduced in the Australian state of Victoria in 2002. Applied learning in the VCAL engages senior students in a combination of work-based learning, service-learning, and project-based learning and aims to provide them with the skills, knowledge, and attitudes to make informed choices regarding pathways to work and further education. The program has enjoyed rapid growth and its system-wide adoption by Victorian secondary schools, Technical and Further Education (TAFE) institutions, Registered Training Organizations (RTOs), and Adult and Community Education (ACE) providers has broadened significantly the range of senior schooling pathway options for young people. This paper will examine reasons for developing an applied learning senior secondary certificate and its rapid growth in Victoria since 2002. The authors draw on a number of case studies to profile the unique nature of applied learning in the VCAL, includ-ing its dimensions of service learning, work-based learning, and project-based learning. These case studies are also used to discuss a number of implications that have emerged from the use of applied learning in the VCAL, including approaches to teaching and as-sessment that will support applied learning and the development of new partnerships be-tween VCAL providers and community partners. Finally, the paper considers significant implications the VCAL has created for teacher education in Victoria by discussing the new Graduate Diploma of Education (Applied Learning) developed by Deakin University.



Improvingtheeducationparticipationratesofyoungpeoplehasbe-comeasignificantsocialandeconomicgoal forsuccessiveAustralianand internationalgovernments (OECD,2001).Sucha strategy isnowwidely understood to improve a nation’s economic competitivenessaswell as address issuesof social inclusion and reductionofpoverty(Access Economics, 2005; Billett & Seddon, 2004; Considine, 2006;Lamb&Rice,2008).Toachievetheseincreasedparticipationratestherehas emerged demand for new policies and practices in education andtrainingemphasizingtheneedtoincreasethequalityandrelevanceoflearning to the livesofyoungpeople,particularly in theirmiddleandpost-compulsoryyearsofschooling(UNESCO,2008).Educationinsti-tutionsinmanycountriesnowplacemuchmoresignificanceontheneedforhighqualityalternativeeducationopportunities(Aron,2006),suchasthe“hands-on”or“applied”approachestostudents’learning.Alongsidethesenewdirectionsineducationtherealsoemergenewquestionsforeducatorsinsecondaryschoolsandhighereducation:(1)Whatdothesehighqualityprogramslooklikeandwhatisthenatureoftheirappliedlearning?and (2)Whatare the implications for teachers’professionalpracticeandhowcanappliedlearningbeusedinhighereducationtopre-parethenew“appliedlearningteachers”requiredinsecondaryschools? This paper explores these questions in two stages. In the first in-stance, the authors draw on current education participation trends inAustralia to examine the development of the Victorian Certificate ofAppliedLearning(VCAL)currentlybeingofferedtoseniorhighschoolstudents in Victoria, Australia. They then provide an outline of theVCALinitscurrentformanddrawontwocasestudiestodiscussthenatureof the applied learning in theprogram.The secondpart of thepaper discusses implications for higher education programs targetingthepreparationofpre-serviceteachersinVictoria.TheauthorsdrawontherecentdevelopmentofaGraduateDiplomaofEducation(AppliedLearning)whichseekstoutilizeappliedlearninginhighereducationtopreparepre-serviceteachersforteachingintheVCAL.

AUTHORNOTE:Damian Blake, Ph.D., senior lecturer in applied learning in the School of Education, Deakin University Waurn Ponds Campus, Geelong Victoria Australia; David Gallagher, Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Au-thority (VCAA), East Melbourne Victoria Australia. Correspondence concern-ing this article should be addressed to: Damian Blake, School of Education, Deakin University Waurn Ponds Campus, Geelong Victoria Australia 3217 (email: [email protected]) or David Gallagher, Senior Manager for the Vic-torian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (VCAA), 41 St Andrews Place, East Melbourne Victoria Australia 3002 (email: [email protected])

Blake,Gallagher /VICTORIANCERTIFICATEOFAPPLIEDLEARNING 51

LInkInGEDuCATIonToThEEConoMy

Since the early 1990s many governments around the world havelinkededucationpolicytoeconomicreform.InAustralia,forexample,some have argued: “Education is increasingly becoming the ‘engineroom’ofmoderneconomies…Amoreeducatedworkerisamorepro-ductiveworker, and investment in educationprovides apoolofmoreskilled labor” (Access Economics, 2005, p. 8). Like other countries,much of the Australian education policy reform agenda has aimed toincreasetheproportionofyoungpeoplewhocompleteatleast12yearsofschooling. Eachyearapproximately80%ofyoungAustralianscompletealevelofeducationandtrainingequivalentto12yearsofschooling(AustralianBureau of Statistics, 2007). Research conducted by the OrganizationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)estimatesthistobelowerthanotherOECDcountries,suchas88%intheUnitedStatesandCanada,91%inGermany,and94%inKorea(OECD,2008).Mod-eling based on Australian rates of participation in education suggeststhatboosting theproportionofyoungpeoplecompletingschooloranapprenticeshipto90%by2010wouldincreaseworkforcenumbersby65,000,boosteconomicproductivity,andexpandtheeconomybymorethanninebillionAustraliandollars(AccessEconomics,2005;AppliedEconomics,2002).ItisthereforenotsurprisingthatlikeotherstatesinAustralia,theVictorianGovernmenthassetthegoalthatby2010itex-pects that 90%of all youngpeoplewill have achievedYear12or itsequivalent(Kirby,2000;Kosky,2002;Lamb&Rice,2008).

ADISCouRSEoFRISkAnD“EARLySChooLLEAVERS”

Adiscourseof“risk”hasnowemergedalongsidetheremaining20%of“earlyschoolleavers”andstudentswhoremaininschoolconsideredtobe“at risk”of leaving.Contributing to thisdiscourseof risk is thebroaderrealizationthatcompleting12yearsofschoolingsignificantlyimproves life transitionsbeyondschooland reducesayoungperson’schancesoffallingintolong-termunemployment(DSF,2006;Lamb&Rice,2008;Woods,2007). Students who do not complete Year 12 or its equivalent are more likely to become unemployed, stay unemployed for longer, have lower earnings, and over the course of their lives, accumulate less wealth, a problem that will only increase with time as employers seek a more highly skilled workforce. The connection is simple –retention, engagement and higher levels of education open up broader opportunities that lead to better personal, social and economic outcomes.

(Lamb&Rice,2008,p.2)


However, thisdiscourseofrisk isnot limitedto thepersonalrisksfacedbyyoungpeoplewhoare“early school leavers”and is also re-flectedinperceivedriskstowidersociety.IntheAustralianstateofNewSouthWales (NSW), for example, theBureauofCrimeStatistics andResearchargues:“Iflongtermunemployedmalesagedbetween15-24,continuedtotheendofseniorhighschoolthereductioninbreak,enterandstealingover thecourseofayearwouldamounttoalmost15percent”(Chapman,Weatherburn,Kapuscinski,Chilvers,&Roussel,2002,p.10). Policyaimedatimprovingparticipationinthesenioryearsofschool-ingthereforeaddressesthesocialrisksassociatedwithpotentialexclu-sionofyoungpeoplefromthe important institutionsofwidersociety,andthepotentialpoliticalriskscreatedbyperceptionsofdisenfranchisedyouth.Thestakesareconsideredtobehighforboth“earlyschoolleav-ers”andtheircommunities,creatinganewmoralimperativeforschoolsto improve further young people’s participation in the senior yearsofschooling.

ADEMAnDFoRnEW“ALTERnATIVES”AnDThEVCAL

IncreasingretentionratesinAustralianschoolssincethe1990s(Aus-tralianBureauofStatistics,2007)havealreadycreatednewchallengesfor schools and teachers as they attempt to accommodate the greaterdiversity of senior students’ pathway interests and adjust to changing“learningtemperaments”intheirclassrooms(Henry&Grundy,2003).Schools and teachers are now being challenged to confront the manyreasonsyoungpeoplegiveforleavingschoolearly,including:alackofperceivedrelevanceofschool;adesire toworkandpursuevocationalpathways; limitedexperiencesofsuccess inacademicprograms;a re-ducedtolerancefortypicalschoolrules;andproblematicrelationshipswithteachers(Blake,2007). Despite the rapid expansion of Vocational Education and Train-ing (VET) options in Australian secondary schools encouraged byAustralia’sMinisterialCouncilonEmployment,Education,TrainingandYouthAffairs(MCEETYA,2004), thereremainsastruggletoachievethe90%target forparticipation.Thecontinuing issue forschoolsandgovernments is that for many students in their senior years, a seniorschool certificate and pedagogical approaches to student learning thatdonotaccommodatethesestudents’broaderinterestsandlearningtem-peramentsmaynotmeet theirneeds.Thesearealso themes thathaveemergedintheGoing for GrowthreportreleasedbytheOrganizationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment:“Thehighshareofthelowskilledinunemploymentandinactivity,especiallyearlyschoolleavers,suggeststhattheupper-secondaryeducationsystem’semphasisonprep-


arationforuniversityistoonarrow,hamperinginnovativeactivitiesandproductivitygrowth”(OECD,2007,p.2). These issues were first identified in Victoria in 2000 by theMinisterial Review of Post Compulsory Education and Training Path-ways in Victoria (Kirby, 2000). This review indicated that a broaderrangeofprogramswasrequiredtomeet theneedsof themanyyoungpeoplewhochoosetoleaveschoolearlybecausetheywerediscouragedbythelimitedcurriculumchoicesofferedbytheexistingVictorianCer-tificateofEducation(VCE).Thereportalsoidentifiedtheneedfornewwaysofthinkingaboutseniorschoolpedagogyandthesocialcontextsofschoolingintheseyears.Thereportstatesthat: Thosewhohavedifficultieswithcurrentarrangementswilltypically needdifferentlearningcontexts.(p.10) Thoseyoungpeoplewho leave school before completingYear 11 haveexperienceddifficultiesmoreoftenandhavenotadjustedwell eithertotheVCEortoschoolasasocialsetting.(p.53)

In a context of increasing retention rates,manyyoungpeople feltconstrained by the current education system because their individuallearning,personaldevelopmentandtransitionneedscouldnotbefullymetbythetraditionalapproachestoteachingandlearningintheuppersecondaryyearsofschooling.Asaresult,manydidnotachievetheirbestresultsandothersleftschoolearly,inadequatelypreparedforworkandfuturelearning.

ADEMAnDFoRAPPLIEDLEARnInG

The VCAL was therefore developed in Victoria as a state-widesenior school credential through which participating students re-ceive recognition for their achievements in programs that have tradi-tionally not provided credit within a senior secondary school quali-fication. Applied learning is central to the VCAL and students canachieveformalrecognitionoflearningthatoccursinadiverserangeofnon-traditionallearningsettings,includingstructuredworkplacelearn-ingplacements,part-timework,locallydevelopedprograms,communi-typrojects,andparticipationinyouthdevelopmentprograms.Evidenceofthestrongdemandforsuchanappliedlearningcertificatebeingmadeavailable to senior school students is found in the very rapid growthof theVCALsince its initial trial in2002,as summarized inTable1. ItisalsoworthnotingthattheVCALisdeliveredbyarangeofdif-ferentproviders,including:government,CatholicandIndependentsec-ondary schools; Technical and Further Education (TAFE) Institutions;


and Adult and Community Education (ACE) organizations. In manycasesastudent’sVCALmaybetheproductofpartnershiparrangementsbetween several of these organizations to allow students to achieve acombinationofschool-basedstudiesandvocationally-basedstudiesand

theeventualcompletionofallfourcurriculumstrandsoftheVCAL.TheoverallcurriculumdesignoftheVCALhasbeensummarizedinFigure1. TheVictorianCurriculumandAssessmentAuthoritysupportsteach-ers’useofappliedlearningintheVCALbyencouragingthecontext-basedintegrationoftheoryandpracticethrougha“hands-on”andreal-life approach to learningand teaching.Keyprinciples supporting this“appliedlearning”approachinclude:(1)Startwherethelearnersare;(2)Negotiatethecurriculum.Engageinadialoguewiththelearnersabouttheir curriculum; (3) Share the knowledge. Recognize the knowledgelearnersbringtotheirlearningenvironment;(4)Connectwithcommuni-tiesandreal-lifeexperiences;(5)Buildresilience,self-confidence,self-worth–consider thewholeperson;(6)Integrate learning– thewholetaskandthewholeperson(inlifeweusearangeofskillsandknowl-edge.Learningshouldreflecttheintegrationthatoccursinreal-life);(7)Promotediversityoflearningstylesandmethods(everyonelearnsdif-ferently-acceptthatdifferentlearningstylesrequiredifferentlearning/teachingmethods,butvalueexperiential,practicaland“hands-on”waysoflearning);and(8)Assessappropriately.Usetheassessmentmethodthatbest“fits”thelearningcontentandcontext(VictorianCurriculumandAssessmentAuthority,2006).APPLIEDLEARnInGFoRRE-EnGAGEMEnT Longitudinal research investigating the post-school destina-tions of young Victorians notes that “some 87.8 percent of VCAL

Table 1: Growth in VCAL since 2002 (Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority,

2009)

Year Enrollment Number of Providers

2002 546 22 Pilots

2003 5,127 239

2004 8,125 322

2005 10,692 380

2006 12,326 401

2007 14,093 418

2008 15,641 423

Table1:GrowthinVCALsince2002(VictorianCurriculumandAssessmentAuthority,2009)


students agreed or strongly agreed that the opportunity to enroll inVCAL was an important factor in their staying at school” (Teese,Clarke, & Polesel, 2007, p. 7). Students expressed a deep apprecia-tion for theexperientialnatureof theVCALwhenasked to rateonafive-pointscalewhattheylikedmostabouttheprogram(seeTable2). ManyofthestudentsundertakingtheVCALhaveexperiencedsomelevelofdisengagementfromschoolingandmayhavebeenconsideredatriskofleavingschoolearly.AppliedlearningintheVCALhasthereforebecomeaverysignificantfactor inre-engagingtheseyoungpeople inschoolingthroughitsemphasisonahands-onapproachtolearningand

Figure 1: VCAL Design

VCAL Program Design

The Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning is accredited at three levels: Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning – Foundation Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning – Intermediate Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning - Senior

VCAL learning programs are comprised of four curriculum strands and teachers are encouraged

to work with students to organize applied learning initiatives that will integrate across these

strands. The four strands are:

• Literacy and Numeracy Skills

• Work Related Skills

• Industry Specific Skills

• Personal Development Skills.

Literacy and Numeracy Skills (LN) Strand: Purpose Statement

The purpose of literacy curriculum selected for this strand is to enable the development of skills,

knowledge and attitudes in literacy that allow progression in the main social contexts of family,

employment, further learning and citizenship.

The purpose of the numeracy curriculum is the ability to use mathematical skills in order to carry

out purposes and functions within society related to designing, measuring, constructing, using

graphical information, money, time and travel, and the underpinning skills and knowledge for

further study in mathematics or related fields.

Work Related Skills (WRS) Strand: Purpose Statement

The purpose of the Work Related Skills strand is to develop employability skills and knowledge

and attitudes valued within the community and work environments as a preparation for

employment.

Industry Specific Skills (ISS) Strand: Purpose Statement

The purpose of the Industry Specific Skills strand is to enable the development of skills,

knowledge and attitudes related to one or more vocational contexts in preparation for

progression to further learning or employment.

Personal Development Skills (PDS) Strand: Purpose Statement

The purpose of the Personal Development Skills strand is to develop skills, knowledge and

attitudes that lead toward:

• social responsibility

• building community

• civic responsibility, for example through volunteering and working for the benefit of others

• improved self-confidence and self-esteem

• valuing civic participation in a democratic society.

Figure1:VCALDesign


aconceptionofeducationthatgoesbeyondthemoretraditionalschoolclassroom.Theextent towhich this is thecase isalsoreflected in thesteadily increasing percentages of eligible students who successfullycompletedaVCALcertificatesince2004(seeTable3). Finally, current national data indicate steady improvement in theYear12(orequivalent)completionrates,withanincreasefrom81.8%in2000to88.7%in2008(inVictoria).ThesefigureshavebeensourcedfromtheAustralianBureauofStatistics(ABS,2009)andsummarizedinTable4.Australia’saveragecompletionrateforallstatesis84.2%(seeTable5).Victoriaisthereforemakingprogresstowardsthe90%target,andtheVCALhasbecomeasignificantstrategyforachievingthisgoal,alongwitharangeofrecentlyannouncedreformsthatnowguaranteeatrainingplaceforall15to19yearoldsand20to24yearoldswhoareup-skilling.

Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning 26

Table 3: Completion rates by gender for VCAL units and completion rates for students

eligible to receive a VCAL certificate

Year Satisfactory

completion of

VCAL units (males)

Satisfactory

completion of

VCAL units

(females)

Total satisfactory

completion of

VCAL units

(males and

females)

Percentages of eligible

students who completed a

VCAL certificate at any

level

2004 No data available No data available 70.5% 58.7%

2005 73.7% 72.2% 73.1% 63.8%

2006 81.0% 79.7% 80.6% 68.7%

2007 79.2% 77.7% 78.7% 69.4%

2008 78.4% 78.5% 78.4% 70.0%

Table3:CompletionratesbygenderforVCALunitsandcompletionratesforstudentseligibletoreceiveaVCALcertificate

Table 2: Students’ rating of different aspects of the VCAL program

Agree In relation to your VCAL program, which aspects

of your study did you like the most?

(N= 1907) % Strongly agree % Agree % Total agree

Workplace experience 48.0 43.9 91.8

The opportunity to do Vocational Education and

Training (VET) subjects 35.4 52.4 87.8

The hands-on approach to learning 56.8 39.4 96.2

The opportunity to complete your studies at your own

pace 46.7 47.1 93.8

Table2:Students’ratingofdifferentaspectsoftheVCALprogram


InTERnATIonALGRoWThInSChooL-BASEDAPPLIEDLEARnInG

The significant potential for applied learning to underpin a seniorhighschoolqualificationhasalsobeenrecognizedinothercountries,in-cludingtheUnitedKingdom,wherethenewappliedlearning“Diploma”qualificationwasrecentlyintroducedinschools(QualificationsandCur-riculumDevelopmentAgency,2009).Thisqualificationalsotargets14to19yearoldstudentsand,liketheVCAL,itrepresentsanewvisioninseniorsecondaryschoolingthatadoptsappliedlearningasthecorner-stoneofitspedagogicalfoundations.

Motivationandachievementareincreasedwhentaskshavepurposesthat are relevant to the individual and ‘real-world’ contexts, includ-ingtheworkplace,andwhenlearnersareactivelyinvolved,andsup-ported,inshapingtheirlearningexperience…ThecollaborativenatureofDiplomadeliveryisintendedtosecureacoherentexperienceforthelearnerthatspansschool,college,communityandworkplaceenviron-ments.Theemphasisisnotonlyonthedevelopmentofknowledge,butontheabilitytoapplythatknowledgepurposefullytovariouscontextsrelatedtoreal-worldsituationssuchasworkplaces.Byparticipatingina‘communityofpractice’associatedwithaparticularsectororsub-ject,learnersgainexperiencesofdifferentactivitiesandgroups,anddeveloptheattitudes,aswellasknowledgeandskills,whichareapre-conditionforprogression.(QualificationsandCurriculumAuthority,2008,pp.2-4)


Table 4: Percentage of persons aged 20-24 who have completed Year 12 or equivalent in

Victoria, Australia

Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Percentage

of persons

aged 20-24

who have

completed

Year 12 or

equivalent

81.8% 82.1% 82.8% 84.9% 84.7% 83.9% 85.5% 86.1% 88.7%

Table4:Percentageofpersonsaged20-24whohavecompletedyear12orequivalentinVictoria,Australia



2008 for all states and territories of Australia

State/Territ

ory

New

South

Wales

Victoria Queenslan

d

South

Australia

Western

Australia

Tasmania Northern

Territory

Australian

Capital

Territory

Australia

(average)

Percentage

of persons

aged 20-24

who have

completed

Year 12 or

equivalent

for 2008

83.4% 88.7% 84.3% 82.1% 80.0% 72.0% 64.9% 90.4% 84.2%




State/Territ

ory

New

South

Wales

Victoria Queenslan

d

South

Australia

Western

Australia

Tasmania Northern

Territory

Australian

Capital

Territory

Australia

(average)

Percentage

of persons

aged 20-24

who have

completed

Year 12 or

equivalent

for 2008

83.4% 88.7% 84.3% 82.1% 80.0% 72.0% 64.9% 90.4% 84.2%

Table5:Percentageofpersonsaged20-24whohavecompletedyear12orequivalentin2008forallstatesandterritoriesofAustralia




State/Territ

ory

New

South

Wales

Victoria Queenslan

d

South

Australia

Western

Australia

Tasmania Northern

Territory

Australian

Capital

Territory

Australia

(average)

Percentage

of persons

aged 20-24

who have

completed

Year 12 or

equivalent

for 2008

83.4% 88.7% 84.3% 82.1% 80.0% 72.0% 64.9% 90.4% 84.2%




State/Territ

ory

New

South

Wales

Victoria Queenslan

d

South

Australia

Western

Australia

Tasmania Northern

Territory

Australian

Capital

Territory

Australia

(average)

Percentage

of persons

aged 20-24

who have

completed

Year 12 or

equivalent

for 2008

83.4% 88.7% 84.3% 82.1% 80.0% 72.0% 64.9% 90.4% 84.2%




State/Territ

ory

New

South

Wales

Victoria Queenslan

d

South

Australia

Western

Australia

Tasmania Northern

Territory

Australian

Capital

Territory

Australia

(average)

Percentage

of persons

aged 20-24

who have

completed

Year 12 or

equivalent

for 2008

83.4% 88.7% 84.3% 82.1% 80.0% 72.0% 64.9% 90.4% 84.2%




State/Territ

ory

New

South

Wales

Victoria Queenslan

d

South

Australia

Western

Australia

Tasmania Northern

Territory

Australian

Capital

Territory

Australia

(average)

Percentage

of persons

aged 20-24

who have

completed

Year 12 or

equivalent

for 2008

83.4% 88.7% 84.3% 82.1% 80.0% 72.0% 64.9% 90.4% 84.2%




State/Territ

ory

New

South

Wales

Victoria Queenslan

d

South

Australia

Western

Australia

Tasmania Northern

Territory

Australian

Capital

Territory

Australia

(average)

Percentage

of persons

aged 20-24

who have

completed

Year 12 or

equivalent

for 2008

83.4% 88.7% 84.3% 82.1% 80.0% 72.0% 64.9% 90.4% 84.2%


ThegrowinginternationalinterestinappliedlearningprogramsforseniorhighschoolstudentsalsoextendstoChinaandothercountriesintheMiddleEastandSoutheastAsia.IntheUnitedArabEmirates(UAE),forexample,anappliedlearningprogrambasedontheVCALhasbeenintroducedforseniorhighschoolstudentsasastrategytoimprovestu-dents’engagementinlearningandtoaddressidentifiedskillshortagesanticipatedinthatregionoftheworld.Itisapparentthatappliedlearningisincreasinglyvaluedinhighschoolsforitsintrinsiccapacitytoengageyoungpeople in authentic learning andmeaningful social integration,whilealsocontributingtoanation’seconomicgrowth.

CASEExAMPLESoFAPPLIEDLEARnInGInThEVCAL

ThefollowingcasesprovideexamplesofspecificVCALprogramsthathavebeenundertakenbystudentsinVictoriansecondaryschools.Thecaseshavebeenselectedbecause theydemonstrate theuseofef-fectiveappliedlearningprojectswhichhavebeenusedbystudentsandteachers to complete the requirements of the different strands of theVCAL.Theyalsodemonstratehowfarappliedlearningextendsacrossarangeoflearningcontextsinthecommunity. AppliedlearningintheVCALsharesmanyofthepedagogicaltra-ditionsofexperientiallearning(Beard&Wilson,2006;Dewey,1938;Kolb,1984;Luckner&Nadler, 1997)whichhavebeenblendedwiththe principles of adult learning (Knowles, 1990; Mezirow, 1991) andadaptedforsecondaryschoolcontexts.Theappliedlearningthatisfun-damentaltotheVCALprogramoftenrequiresstudentstoassembletheirVCALfromavarietyof“hands-on”learningexperiencesderivedfromadiverserangeofeducationalsettingsandcommunitycontexts.Tocom-pleteappliedlearningprojectsVCALstudentsoftencrossorganization-alboundaries thathave remainedhistoricallydifficult tobridge in thecommunity.Theseboundariesincludethetraditionaldivisionsbetweenschoolsasyouth-basedlearninginstitutions,adultandvocationaleduca-tioninstitutions,workplaces,andcommunityorganizations. InthecaseofJohn,forexample,oneofhisappliedlearningprojectsinvolvedthedevelopmentofaFire-Wisetrailertoeducatethelocalcom-munityabouttherisksofwildfire.BushfireisaverysignificantissueformanyAustraliancommunitiesthreatenedbyfireeverysummer.Thisverymeaningfulaspectofhisappliedlearningwasreflectedinhismoti-vationtoundertaketheproject.John’sappliedlearningprojectrequiredhim to complete traditionally adult-based Certificate II and III cours-esrelatedtofirefighting,aswellasworkingcloselywithhisteachersfromhisschool,thelocalCountryFireAuthority(CFA)andthewidercommunity.


John’sappliedlearningprojectthereforerequiredhimtoworkacrossthe traditional boundaries between secondary schools, adult learningenvironments,communityserviceorganizations(CFA)andworkplaces.John’s experience of applied learning involved his personalized inte-gration of service-learning, work-based learning, and more traditionalschool-based learning as well. The flexible framework for the VCALallowedJohntoactivelyconstructanddemonstratehisknowledgeandskillsrelatedtoeachofthedifferentstrandsbyusinghisappliedlearningproject.ThetransferablenatureofhisacquiredknowledgeandskillswasalsodemonstratedbyJohn’sabilitytoworkcompetentlyineachofthedifferentcontextsthatwereusedtoassemblehisappliedlearningproj-ect.TheknowledgeandskillsthatemergedfromJohn’sappliedlearningprojectweretrulymultidisciplinaryandhadaveryclearconnectiontohisrealworld. ThecaseoftheRiver-ConnectprojectalsodemonstratestheuniquenatureofappliedlearningintheVCAL.LikeJohn,the26studentsfrom

Figure2:VCALCase1,JohnandCountryFireAuthority


Figure 2: VCAL Case 1, John and Country Fire Authority

“John” is 16 years old and is studying to complete his VCAL in a small town in regional Victoria. In

addition to his study he is a volunteer fire fighter in his local community with the Victorian Country

Fire Authority (CFA). To complete his VCAL John is blending study at school with the applied

learning included in his accredited wild-fire training offered by the CFA, and his work in the local

community advising residents how to protect their home from a fire.

His involvement in protecting the local community from bush fires not only makes a valuable

contribution to the community but also allows him to complete his VCAL by drawing on meaningful

applied learning activities linked to Australia’s National Training Packages. Examples of applied

learning activities that John undertakes to assemble his VCAL from the different strands include:

Certificate II in Fire-fighter Operations; Certificate II/III in Public Safety (Fire-fighting Operations);

Certificates for Occupational Health and Safety; Level II First Aid Training; organizing media

coverage and public presentations to the community; initiating, planning and implementing

fundraising activities for a ‘”Fire-Wise” trailer to be used to educate the local community about

managing the risks of bush fire.

The combination of these applied learning activities allows John to complete key elements of his

VCAL strands. Much of his learning undertaken for the normally adult-based Certificate II and III

courses allow John to meet the Industry Specific Skills and Work Related Skills strands, while his

community service role contributing to the education of the local community about bush fire

contributes to his Personal Development Skills and Literacy and Numeracy Skills strands.

Industry Specific Skills

Strand

Work Related Skills

Strand

Literacy and

Numeracy Skills

Strand

Personal

Development Skills

Strand

Adult-based certificate

courses in fire-fighting

Work-based learning

in fire-fighting with the

CFA

Authentic publications

developed for media

and local community

presentations

Plan and conduct

fund-raising activities

for the development of

‘Fire-Wise’ Trailer to

be used to education

the local community

about bush fire.


NotreDameCollegewhoparticipatedintheRiver-Connectprojectwererequired toassemble theirapplied learningbydrawingonameaning-fulprojectandarangeofrichlearningcontextsthatarerarelybroughttogetherforsecondaryschoolstudents.AppliedlearningfortheRiver-Connect project involved students crossing the organizational bound-ariesbetween theirschool, localgovernment,environmentalagencies,andthewidercommunity.Intheprocessstudentsblendedtheirschoollearningwithservice-learning,adultlearningandwork-basedlearning.Thestudents’ service-learningcontributed tomeetingallof the learn-ingoutcomesforthePersonalDevelopmentSkills(PDS)strandoftheVCAL,whichwasultimatelyassessedthroughthestudents’demonstra-

Figure3:VCALCase2,notreDameCollegeandtheRiver-ConnectProject


Figure 3: VCAL Case 2, Notre Dame College and the River-Connect Project

Notre Dame College, a Catholic secondary school in regional Victoria combined with the Goulburn

Broken Catchment Management Authority, The Greater Shepparton City Council, Department of

Primary Industries, Parks Victoria, Goulburn Murray Landcare Network, and Goulburn Valley

Water to undertake an innovative conservation program known as the River-Connect project.

The River-Connect project was part of a larger plan, developed by these local government and

community agencies, to revitalize Reedy Swamp on the Goulburn River in the heart of the City of

Shepparton. Twenty-six VCAL students and two teachers worked closely with the local

government and community agencies involved in the project to develop an innovative VCAL

Personal Development Skills unit. The project enabled the objectives of the River-Connect project

and the outcomes for the VCAL students to be simultaneously met.

The VCAL students worked closely with the government and community agencies to undertake

systematic audits and surveys at Reedy Swamp. These were done using GPS technology and

were used to assess the infestation of noxious weeds such as arrowhead and willows, the growth

of red gum seedlings in the swamp and the giant rush that is used by water birds for breeding.

The students were also involved in rubbish clean ups, poisoning willows and the planting of native

trees in culturally significant areas of the sand dunes at Reedy Swamp.

This program won a 2007 VCAL Achievement Award in the category of VCAL Partnerships. The

school was also invited to present at the 9th International Partnership Conference: Interpreting the

Present to Influence the Future in Helsinki, Finland. The VCAL program, involving the seven

partners, received an honorable mention in the Global Awards presented at the conference.

Industry Specific Skills Strand

Work Related Skills Strand

Literacy and Numeracy Skill Strand

Personal Development Skills Strand

Adult-based VET certificate courses in volunteering and conservation and land management

Work-based learning in conservation activities (e.g., tree planting, removal of noxious weeds)

Researching and writing about the impact of noxious weeds in Australia (literacy)

Presentation to community groups on activities to restore Reedy Swamp (literacy)

Mapping of the distribution of noxious weeds in Reedy Swamp (numeracy)

Restoration of Reedy Swamp utilizing community engagement and community service


Suchknowledgeandskillsarebestacquiredanddemonstratedinthecontextoftheirapplicationandlesslikelytobemeasuredinanabstractsetting.Thestudents’processoflearningsuchknowledgeandskillsin-volvesworkingwithpeoplewhosecorebusiness isnot educationbutwhostillhaveasignificantinvestmentinlearning.SuchpeopleincludetheteamsoffirefighterswhoworkedwithJohn,andwhosecommunityofmindsandbodies represent the“library”ofknowledgeandskill tobelearnedbyhim.InthissettingVCALstudentsarelikelytodiscern

tionoftheminanauthenticcontext.TheblendingofthedifferenttypesormodesoflearningintheVCALcanberepresentedbyFigure4below. AkeyfeatureoftheappliedlearningessentialtotheVCAListheuseof“real-world”projectsthatallowstudentstobecomeactivelyinvolvedinconstructingnewknowledgeandskillswhicharegivenmeaningandpurposebythecontextof theirapplication.Thisprocessusuallytakesthe studentsbeyond the schoolgates and, asdemonstrated in the twocasestudies,appliedlearningprojectsintheVCALrequirestudentstocrossinstitutionalboundariesandtopersonallyassembletheirlearningfromarangeofdifferentlearningcontexts.Thisfeatureofappliedlearn-ingintheVCALmeansthatstudentsarealsolikelytobeconfrontedbythedifferingassumptionsaboutlearningthatareheldineachofthesesettings. Inworkplaces, forexample, thestudentsare likely toexperi-encevaluebeingplacedonpracticalformsofknowledgeandskillsthathaveveryspecificcontextsofapplication.Fire-fightingandimprovingtheenvironmentalmanagementofthelocalswampareexamplesofsuchcontextsfromthecasestudiesabove.


Figure 4: Blended Nature of Applied Learning in the VCAL

Figure4:BlendednatureofAppliedLearningintheVCAL


thatthe“best”formsoflearningarehighlysituatedandthat“valuable”knowledgeoftenresidesinteamsorcommunitiesofpeople.Assessmentoftheknowledgeandskillacquiredbythestudentsisthereforeassoci-atedwiththestudents’contributiontothecommunityandevidenceofitsimpactonthecommunity. Students are likely to experience different messages about whattypesofknowledgeandskillsare“mostvaluable”insecondaryschoolsettings (Blake, 2007). In this highly controlled educational contextgreateremphasisisplacedonknowledgeandskillsthataregeneraliz-able,canbeabstractedfromthecontextsofapplication,andthentaughtandmeasuredinaclassroomsituation.Suchknowledgeisalsolikelytobelocatedinbooksorthemindsofeducationalexperts.Theprocessoflearninginatraditionalsecondaryschoolsettingandassociatedwiththecompletionofamoreconventionalseniorschoolcertificate,maythere-foretypicallyberepresentedbythetransmissionofabstractinformationfromthemindsandbooksofteachersintothemindsofstudents.Inthissituationstudentsarelikelytoexperience“valued”learningasbeingtheacquisitionandstorageofgeneralizableformsofknowledgeintheirin-dividualminds.Assessmentisusuallyfocusedonthestudent’scapacitytoreproducetheknowledgeunderexamconditions.ThereisclearlythepotentialforVCALstudentstoreceiveconflictingmessagesaboutlearn-ingandvaluableformsofknowledgeastheymovebetweenthedifferentlearningcontextsfortheVCAL.

IMPLICATIonSFoREDuCATInGTEAChERSInhIGhEREDuCATIon

TheappliedlearningprocessintheVCALrequiresofteachersnewtypes of knowledge and skills that are responsive to the process bywhichtheirstudentscrossboundariestoassembletheirdifferentmodesoflearning.Suchpedagogicalknowledgeandskillsexistinadditiontoteachers’ knowledge of their subject disciplines and share similaritieswitheffectiveprojectmanagement,including:(1)anabilitytoidentifyandlinkcurrentcommunityissuesthatarelikelytobehighlyrelevantto senior secondary school students anduseful sourcesofmeaningfulappliedlearningprojects;(2)anabilitytodevelopandsustaincreativepartnershipsbetweenschoolsandotherorganizationsinthewidercom-munitywhoalsohaveaninterestinlearning(suchorganizationsincludeadultlearninginstitutions,workplaces,andcommunityserviceorganiza-tions);(3)abroadconceptionoflearninganddeepappreciationofthedifferenttypesoflearningthatstudentsarelikelytoencounterastheybecome actively involved in their applied learning projects and crossinstitutionalboundaries in the community; (4) an ability to assist stu-dentsastheysynchronizeandassembletheirownpersonalizedexperi-


encesofmulti-disciplinarylearningfromeachofthedifferentsettingsinvolvedinanappliedlearningproject;(5)anabilitytoassessstudents’knowledge,skillsandcompetenciesrelatedtoappliedlearningandassiststudents’continualdevelopmentinthisregard;(6)acapacitytosynchro-nizestudents’assessmentinappliedlearningprojectsbyaccessingandevaluatinginformationaboutthestudents’contributionstothelearningcontextsandcommunitiesbeyondschool;and(7)anabilitytobuildef-fectiverelationshipswithseniorschoolstudentsthatreflecttheprinci-plesofadultlearningandtheirstatusasyoungadultswhilemaintainingtheappropriate“dutyofcare”expectedofaschoolteacher. Ultimately VCAL teachers are required to overcome many of thedichotomousdivisions thathavetendedtodominateeducationinstitu-tions,resultinginthetransmissiveapproachesthatareoftenassociatedwithseniorschoolingandthemanyreasonsstudentsgiveforwantingto leave school early. Applied learning projects in the VCAL requireteacherstovaluelearningthatencouragesgreaterlinksbetween:“learn-ingwithhandsandlearningwiththemind”;learningasindividualsandlearningasteamsandcommunities;propositionalknowledgethatcanbelearnedfrombooksandtacitknowledgethatisacquiredthroughsituated“hands-on”experiences.

ThEGRADuATEDIPLoMAoFEDuCATIon(APPLIEDLEARnInG)

In 2005 Deakin University established the Graduate Diploma ofEducation(AppliedLearning)inresponsetotherapidlyincreasingde-mandforpedagogicalknowledgeandskillsrequiredtosupporttheexpan-sionofappliedlearninginsecondaryschools.Themostimmediatechal-lengeforthecoursedeveloperswastheuseofappliedlearninginhighereducationtoprepareteachersforappliedlearninginsecondaryschools.Theimmediateriskforcoursedeveloperswasthatfiscalconstraintsinhighereducationwouldtypicallypressuredeliveryofacourseonappliedlearningintotheseeminglycosteffectiveuseofweeklylecturesandtu-torials.Thismodeofdeliverywouldhavebeenepistemologicallyincon-sistentwiththeappliedlearningcontentofthecourse,whichcannotallbereduced to a series of lectures. The course developers were, in fact,facing many of the same pedagogical challenges being faced byVCALteachers. The course team developed a very strong relationship with theGeelong region’s Local Learning and Employment Network (LLEN),anorganizationfundedbytheVictorianStategovernmenttobuildef-fectivelocalcommunitypartnershipsdesignedtobetterunderstandandimprovepathwaysandtransitionsforyoungpeopleintheregion.Thereisadiverse rangeofcommunitypartners includedasmembersof the

64 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning 6

Table 6: Learning and Employment Organizations

Learning and Employment

Organizations

Potential contribution for applied learning in

teacher education

Secondary Schools

(Government, Catholic, and Independent)

Technical and Further Education Institutions (TAFE)

Adult and Community Education (ACE) organizations

Contexts for the Graduate Diploma of Education

(Applied Learning) teacher-education students to

complete their own work-based learning and service-

learning to better understand the current contexts in

which young people are learning.

Source of different communities of professional

practice to facilitate grounded development of

students’ understanding about young people and

applied learning in different “formal” learning

contexts.

Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority

Department of Education, Employment and Early

Childhood (DEECD)

Important source of knowledge and information about

current developments in applied learning in schools

and other youth education settings.

Local government and community organizations

Provide important contexts for teacher education

students to become involved in local community

issues relevant to young people and to complete

service-learning oriented towards youth engagement in

learning.

Employers and industry reference groups

A context for teacher education students to better

understand work-based learning in workplace settings,

and consequently the significance of work-based

learning for students in the VCAL.

Table6:LearningandEmploymentorganizations

regionalLLEN(seeTable6),meaningthatthecourseteamhadaccesstomanyorganizationswithinthecommunitythatwouldallowthedevelop-mentofsubstantialcomponentsofwork-basedandservice-learninginthecourse.MuchofthecoursedevelopmentoccurredfromconsultationbetweentheDeakinUniversityteamandmembersoftheLLEN,result-inginaprogramthatcouldbegroundedinmanyoftheimportantlocalissuesaffectingyoungpeople. The team decided that a “mixed-mode” approach to the coursewouldbethebeststrategytobalancetheneedforface-to-facelecturesand workshops with the applied learning dimensions of the GraduateDiploma of Education (Applied Learning). Mixed-mode is also de-scribedasaformof“blendedlearning”(Hicks,Reid,&George,2001)thatutilizesface-to-faceteachingwithothermodesoflearning,typicallyincludingon-linelearningtechnologies.TheGraduateDiplomaofEdu-cation(AppliedLearning)wasdevelopedusingfourdifferentmodesoflearningthatwouldprovidethehighereducationstudentswithacombi-nationoflearningexperiencesandcontextsthatwouldalsodemonstratecongruencewithappliedlearningintheVCAL.Thefourdifferentmodesoflearningare:intensiveface-to-faceworkshopsdeliveredattheuniver-sity and in school/industry-based contexts; on-line learning (off-cam-pus);work-basedlearningundertakeninschools,TAFEsorACE;andservice-learningcontributingvaluetocommunity-basedinitiativesthatare oriented towards improving youth engagement in education andtraining(seeTable7).


EachofthefiveintensiveteachingblocksintheGraduateDiplomaofEducation(AppliedLearning)runsfor twoweeksdurationandoc-curas:SummerSchool;AutumnSchool;WinterSchool;SpringSchool;andafinaloneweekblockundertakeninNovember.Thework-basedlearningmodeintheprogramiscompletedasblocksofprofessionalex-perienceplacementsundertakeninschools,TAFEs,orACEsettingsandduringtheperiodsbetweentheintensives,providingatotalof45days

Table7:SummaryofMixed-ModeLearningintheGraduateDiplomaofEducation(AppliedLearning)


Table 7: Summary of Mixed-Mode Learning in the Graduate Diploma of Education (Applied

Learning)

Mode of

Learning

Graduate Diploma of Education (Applied Learning)

Face-to-face Five intensive on-campus teaching blocks conducted for two weeks at a time in February

(Summer School), April (Autumn School), July (Winter School), September (Spring

School) and November (Final block).

On-line Students participate in on-line study using ‘Blackboard’ while they are “off-campus” in

between study blocks and during their work-based learning placements

Work-based

Learning

Students complete 45 days of work-based learning under the supervision of a suitably

qualified mentor in secondary schools, TAFE institutions, and ACE settings.

Service-learning Students undertake 15 days of negotiated service-learning requiring them to add value to

their service-learning context. These days can be completed as small blocks of three and

four days at a time or as a commitment to one more significant community

initiative/project, depending on the nature of the activity.

professionalexperiencefortheyear.The15daysofservice-learningcanbecompletedbystudentsatanytimethroughoutthecourse,withmanystudentselectingtocompletemostoftheirservice-learningbysupport-ing initiatives andprograms in the local community thatbenefit fromtheirprior industryknowledgeandskills.Finally, theon-line learningelementscommence immediatelyafter thefirst intensive iscompletedin February and continue to be undertaken by students in the periodsbetween the intensive face-to-face study blocks. The on-line mode ofdeliveryallowsthestudentstocontinuetodrawfromandcontributetothecourse’scommunityoflearnersduringtheperiodsoff-campus. ThesequenceoftheeightcurriculumunitsfortheGraduateDiplomaofEducation(AppliedLearning)isintendedtocatertostudents’devel-opingknowledgeandskillsastheyprogressthroughthecourse,aswellastosynchronizetheirneedtolearnnewcontentthatwillbothsupportandutilizetheirwork-basedandservice-learningprojects.Thestudentsareencouragedtobecomeactively involvedinauthenticschool-basedappliedlearningprojectsaskeydimensionsoftheirwork-basedlearn-ingandservice-learning.Althougheachoftheeightunitshasitsowndiscretestudydesignand“learningfolder”ontheDeakinStudiesOn-line(DSO)Blackboardweb-site,thecourseteamdeliberatelyattemptsto integrate the content and assessment of units as much as possible,particularlyduringtheface-to-faceteachingsessions.Theintendedaimof thisstrategy is toemphasize thestudents’wholecourseexperience


andtoavoidtheperceptionthatanyofthecourseunitsareoverlydis-creteandunrelatedtotheothers. In2008apilotstudy(Blake&Nolan,2008)wasconductedtoin-vestigate thehigher education students’ response toblending the fourdifferentmodesoflearningbeingusedintheGraduateDiplomaofEdu-cation(AppliedLearning)andtheBachelorofEarlyChildhoodEduca-tionofferedatDeakinUniversity.Inparticular,significantnumbersofthe41studentswhoparticipatedintheresearcheitheragreedorstronglyagreed(78%) thatusing themixed-mode learningallowsgreaterbal-ance between learning theory and practice. Additionally, a significantproportionof thestudentseitheragreedorstronglyagreed(81%) thattheknowledgeandskillstheylearnedthroughmixed-modedeliverywaseasilytransferablebetweenthedifferentmodes.ConTInuInGChALLEnGESFoRThEVCALAnDPREPARATIonoF“nEW”TEAChERS ManyofthechallengesfacingtheVCALreflectchallengesassoci-atedwithitsrapidgrowthandsuccessoverthelasteightyears.ThesechallengesalsoaffectthedeliveryoftheGraduateDiplomaofEducation(AppliedLearning)andinclude:

• Thechallengetobroadenmanysecondaryteachers’conceptionoflearningandhowlearningcanbeassessed.Inparticular,theneedtocorrect theviewheld insomesecondaryschools thatappliedandvocationallearningisa“secondclass”wayoflearningonlyofferedto“at-risk”studentsasaformof“therapy.”Thisviewisinconsistentwiththeuseofappliedlearninginhighereducation,whereitismorelikelytobevaluedasbestpractice(Wolff&Tin-ney,2006)andastrategy to improvegraduationrates.The“ap-plied-learning-as-therapy” view held by some secondary schoolteachersfailstorecognizehowmoretransmissiveapproachestoteachingcontributetomanyyoungpeople’searlydeparturefromschool(Blake,2004,2006).

• ThechallengetomeetthegrowingdemandforappliedlearningteachersinresponsetotheincreasingdemandfortheVCALtobedeliveredinthediverserangeofyouthlearninglocations,includ-ingsecondaryschools,TAFEs,andACEorganizations.Simulta-neously,thedemandfortheseteachersisreflectedintheneedforexperiencedteacherswhocanaddvaluetothework-basedlearn-ingandservice-learningarrangementsrequiredbythepre-serviceteachersintheGraduateDiplomaofEducation(AppliedLearning).


• Thechallengetobecreativeinthesynchronizationofthediffer-entmodesofappliedlearningessentialtoboththeVCALandtheGraduateDiplomaofEducation(AppliedLearning).Thisincludesusinghighlyeffectiveappliedlearningprojectsthatwillencour-age the contextualized development of transferable knowledgeandskills.

• Thechallengetoequipteacherswiththecapacitytofacilitatehigh-valueappliedlearningpartnershipsbetweenschools,universities,VETproviders,employers,andmembersofthewidercommunity.

• ThechallengefortheVCALtoberesponsivetotherapidlycon-tractingyouthemploymentmarketcreatedbythecurrenteconom-icclimate,andtheneedtodiversifypost-schoolstudyoptionsforVCALgraduates.ThisalsoincludesrecognizingthepotentialfortheVCALtobeapathwayofchoiceforstudentsaffectedbysocialdisadvantageaswellasstudentswhosimplypreferappliedlearning.

ConCLuSIon

The Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning was created inVictoria,Australiaasaresponsetoincreasingparticipationratesinse-nior secondary schooling throughout the 1990s and early 2000s. Theprogram isofferedasa“hands-on”alternative to themore traditionalVictorian Certificate of Education and has enjoyed strong enrollmentgrowthsinceits introductionin2002.It isnowunderstoodtoplayanimportant role in theachievementofyoutheducationpolicy targeting90%completionofYear12oritsequivalent.TheVCALhasemergedinapolicycontextlinkingeducationtoeconomicgrowthandagrowingawarenessofthepersonal,social,andeconomicriskscreatedbyyoungpeopleleavingschoolearly. Applied learning in the VCAL utilizes community-oriented proj-ects to achieve a unique blend of work-based learning, service-learn-ing,school-basedlearning,andadultlearning.Studentsareencouragedto use their “hands-on”projects to personally assemble their learningacrossadiverserangeofauthenticlearningcontexts.Thisrepresentsasignificantshift in thinkingforsecondaryschools,where transmissiveapproaches to teachinghave tended todominate the senior secondarycurriculumsincetheearlieryearsoflowerYear12completionrates. TheVCALhasalsocreatedtheneedtore-thinkhowappliedlearningcanbeusedinhighereducationtobetterpreparepre-serviceteachers.Thisarticlehasprofiled themixed-modeapproachoffered tostudentsinDeakinUniversity’sGraduateDiplomaofEducation(AppliedLearn-ing).Thismodelalsoemphasizes theuseofapplied learningprojects


andattempts toachievebestpracticebyblending theuseof intensiveface-to-faceworkshopswithelementsofwork-basedlearning,service-learning,andon-linelearningundertakenwhenstudentsareoff-campus.

GLoSSARyAdultandCommunityEducation(ACE):Acommunitybasedorga-nizationthatmaybearegisteredtrainingorganizationand/oranautho-rizedVCEorVCALprovider.Department of Education Employment and Early Childhood(DEECD):AVictorianGovernmentdepartmentresponsibleforlearn-ing,development,healthandwell-beingof allyoungVictorians frombirthtoadulthood.Local Learning and Employment networks (LLEn): CommunitynetworksestablishedacrossVictoriatosupportyoungpeople’sconnec-tions with local education and training organizations, employers, andcommunitygroups.Middleyearsofschooling:Studentswhoareinthefifthtoninthyearofschooling.nationalTrainingPackages:Nationaltrainingpackagesarethefoun-dationofAustralia’snational training system.Theyareflexible train-ingproductsdesignedanddevelopedbyAustralianindustrytosupporttraining pathways in current and emerging vocational skill needs. Alltrainingpackagesincorporatenationalunitsofcompetency,assessmentguidelines,andnationalqualifications.Post-compulsoryyearsofschooling:Schoolingthatiscompletedafterstudentshavereachedtheminimumschoolleavingage.Thisageistypi-cally16to17inAustralianstates.Secondaryschools:SchoolsthatprovideeducationfromYear7toYear12.Secondaryschoolsarealsofrequentlyreferredtoashighschoolsorsecondarycolleges.Seniorschoolstudents:Studentswhoarecompletingthelasttwoyearsoftheirsecondaryschooling.ThesesenioryearsareoftenreferredtoasYear11andYear12.Strands:TheVCALcontainsfourcurriculumstrands:literacyandnu-meracyskills, industryspecificskills,workrelatedskillsandpersonaldevelopmentskills.Structured workplace learning placement: Structured workplacelearningison-the-jobtrainingduringwhichastudentisexpectedtomas-terasetofskillsorcompetencies,relatedtoacourseaccreditedbytheVictorianRegistrationandQualificationsAuthority(VRQA).TechnicalandFurtherEducation:Publiclyfundedandadult-orientedtrainingorganizationswhichprovidearangeoftechnicalandvocationaleducationandtrainingcoursesandotherprograms.


Victorian Certificate of Applied learning (VCAL): An accreditedsenior secondary school qualificationundertakenby students inYears11and12.VictorianCertificateofEducation(VCE):TheVCEisaseniorsec-ondaryqualificationthatisdesignedtobecompletedinYears11and12.VictorianCurriculumandAssessmentAuthority(VCAA):Astatu-toryauthoritythatprovideshighqualitycurriculumandassessmentpro-gramsforVictorianstudents.Vocational Education and Training (VET): Nationally recognizedvocationalcertificate.ThiscertificatemaybeintegratedwithinaVCEorVCALprogram.

REFEREnCES

AccessEconomics(2005).The economic benefit of increased participation in education and training.Sydney:DusseldorpSkillsForum.Applied Economics (2002). Young persons’ education, training and employment outcomes with special reference to early school leavers: A report prepared for the Business Council of Australia and Dusseldorp Skills Forum.Retrieved January22, 2009,fromhttp://www.dsf.org.au/papers/151.htmAron,L.(2006).An overview of alternative education:ReportpreparedbyTheUrbanIn- stitute for theNationalCenteronEducationand theEconomy,U.S.Departmentof Labor,EmploymentandTrainingAdministration.AustralianBureauofStatistics(2007). Schools, Australia(No.4221.0).Canberra:Austra- lianBureauofStatistics.AustralianBureauofStatistics(2009).Australian social trends – education and training (No 4102.0).Canberra:AustralianBureauofStatistics.Beard,C.,&Wilson,J.(2006). Experiential learning: A best practice handbook for educators and trainers(2nded.).London;Philidelphia:KoganPage.Billett,S.,&Seddon,T.(2004).Buildingcommunitythroughsocialpartnershipsaround vocational education and training. Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 56(1),51-67.Blake,D.(2004).From risk to relationship: Redefining pedagogy through applied learning reform.DeakinUniversity,Geelong.Blake,D.(2006,July).Re-engaging young people through applied learning pedagogy.Paper presented at Making teaching public: Reforms in teacher education. Proceeding of the34thAnnualConference,Frementle,WesternAustralia.Blake, D. (2007). Exploring the challenge of applied learning reform. International Journal of Pedagogies and Learning,3(3),58-76.Blake,D.,&Nolan,A.(2008,Nov.-Dec.).Establishing a tool to investigate how and why students engage in mixed-mode learning in higher education.Paperpresentedatthe AustralianAssociationforResearchinEducation,Brisbane,Australia.Chapman,B.,Weatherburn,D.,Kapuscinski,C.A.,Chilvers,M.,&Roussel,S.(2002). Unemploymentduration,schooling,andpropertycrime.NSW Crime and Jusice Bul- letin, 74.Considine, M. (2006, Sept.). The power of partnership: States and solidarities in the global era.PaperpresentedattheGovernmentsandcommunitiesinpartnershipcon- ference,UniversityofMelbourne.Dewey,J.(1938).Experience and education.NewYork:CollierMacmillian.


DSF(2006).How young people are faring 2006: Key indicators.RetrievedJune20,2007, fromhttp://www.dsf.org.au/papers/192.htmHenry,J.,&Grundy,S.(2003).Blurring the boundaries in education: Towards a more seamless system of post-compulsory education.Geelong:FacultyofEducation,Dea- kinUniversity.Hicks,M.,Reid,I.,&George,R.(2001).Enhancingon-lineteaching:Designingrespon- sive learning environments. The International Journal of Academic Development, 6(2),143-151.Kirby,P.(2000).Ministerial review of post compulsory education and training pathways in Victoria. Final report. Melbourne: Department of Education, Employment and TrainingVictoria.Knowles,M.(1990).The adult learner: A neglected species (4thed.).Houston:GulfPub- lishingCompany.Kolb,D.(1984).Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development.NewJersey:Prentice-Hall.Kosky,L.(2002).Improved educational outcomes: A better reporting and accountability system for schools.Melbourne:CommunicationsDivisionoftheDepartmentofEdu- cationandTraining,StateofVictoria.Lamb,S.,&Rice,S. (2008).Effective strategies to increase school completion report: Report to the Victorian Department of Education and Early Childhood Development. Melbourne:DepartmentofEducationandEarlyChildhoodDevelopment.Luckner,J.,&Nadler,R.(1997).Processing the experience: Strategies to enhance and generalize learning.Dubuque,IA:Kendall/Hunt.MCEETYA(2004).National data on participation in VET in school programs & school- based new apprenticeships for the 2004 school year.Retrieved20July2007, from http://www.mceetya.edu.au/verve/_resources/vetdata2004.pdfMezirow,J.(1991).Transformative dimensions of adult learning.SanFrancisco:Jossey Bass.OECD(2001).Local partnerships for better governance.Paris:OrganisationforEconomic Co-operationandDevelopment.OECD(2007).Economic policy reforms: Going for growth 2007.Chapter 2 country notes. Paris:OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment.OECD(2008).Education at a Glance 2008:OECD indicators.Paris:OrganisationforEco- nomicCo-operationandDevelopment.QualificationsandCurriculumAuthority(2008).The diploma and its pedagogy.Retrieved July 23, 2009, from http://www.qcda.gov.uk/libraryAssets/media/The_Diploma_ and_its_pedagogy.pdfQualificationsandCurriculumDevelopmentAgency(2009).The diploma.RetrievedJuly 23,2009,fromhttp://www.qcda.gov.uk/5396.aspxTeese,R.,Clarke,K.,&Polesel, J. (2007).The on track survey 2007 statewide report: The destinations of school leavers in Victoria.Melbourne:DepartmentofEducation andEarlyChildhoodDevelopment.UNESCO (2008). Education for all (EFA) international coordination. Retrieved July, 2008, from http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.php-URL_ID=46881&URL_ DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.htmlVictorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (2006). Applied learning. Retrieved June2,2007,fromhttp://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/vcal/Publications/Information_Sheets/ VCALinfoapplearn.pdfVictorianCurriculumandAssessmentAuthority(2009).Enrolments in the Victorian Cer- tificate of Applied Learning.Melbourne,Australia:DataAnalysisandReportingUnit oftheVictorianCurriculumandAssessmentAuthority.


Wolff, M., & Tinney, S. (2006, May). Applied learning as a best practice model: A strategy for higher education success. Paper presented at the Association of InstitutionalResearchNationalConference,Chicago.Woods,D.(2007).The role of VET in helping young people’s transition into work: At a glance.Adelaide,SouthAustralia:NCVER.

73

will they Recognize my Lecture in the Field?

the Juvenile Corrections Critical Assessment tour

Applied Learning experience

GReG LInDSteADt MissouriWesternStateUniversity

ReGInA wILLIAmS-DeCKeR

UniversityofMissouri—KansasCity

In the summer of 2008 a multi-disciplinary group of university students were provided an opportunity to tour on-site and observe facility staff in the course of their daily activities. Unlike the usual internship experience, the Juvenile Corrections Critical Assessment Tour allowed students access to nine juvenile facilities in four different states. Students were able to identify and evaluate personal preferences in system, facility, and mentor practices in a condensed four week period. Student-to-student and student-to-practitioner debrief-ings about specific observations in the facilities greatly enhanced the experience, creating a unique and effective workplace learning opportunity. By tightening the coupling between faculty in higher education and practitioners in the field, students were able to observe and explore lecture materials with the benefit of firsthand experience.

TheUSJuvenile JusticeSystem isnota system. It is adecentral-izedgroupofagenciesboundbyavaguecompositionofbeliefs,butsharingthetrendofbeingunsatisfiedwiththewaythingsare—thusinitiatingon-going reform.Despite demographic similarities, evenstateswhoshareborderspracticeanextremelydiversemenagerieoflegalresponsestoactsofyouth.



SobeginsmyinitiallectureinIntroductiontoJuvenileJustice.Be-ingaformerpractitioner,Ihavethebenefitofsupplementingsuchdrylectureswithfirsthandexperience,butIdolimitthispracticeforseveralreasons.First,myexperienceisrestrictedtoonlyahandfulofstatesintheUS.Second,studentsenteringthevastjuvenilejusticearenacouldonly be provided one aspect of the field: my experience in youth se-curecare.Butmoreimportantly,myexperienceissimplythat—filteredthroughmyownprocessing,bias,andevenselective recall.A lecturehall doesnot allow the events andcircumstances leading todecision-making to be fully demonstrated for students. This prevents studentsfromchallengingorprocessingthegivenclaims.Inaddition,thefoun-dationoftheindividualstudent’sknowledgeorthewidearrayofstudentlearningstylesmakesthistaskevenmoredifficultfortheinstructorina classroom. Providing students the opportunity to view firsthand thedilemmastheywillfaceintheirchosenfield,whilestillmaintainingasafeandeffectivelearningenvironment,isindeedadauntingendeavorbutextremelybeneficialincreatingtheacademicprofessionalneededinsuchchallengingfieldsascriminaljustice.

LEARnInGThRouGhAPPLIEDLEARnInG

Asanandragogicalmethod,appliedlearningexperiencesinhighereducationareviewedaspotentiallyeffectivemeansforstudentstoin-terpret,process,andretainclassroominstruction(Sims,2006;Wolff&Tinney,2006;Bailey,Hughes&Moore,2004).Studentswhoparticipateinthesenumeroustypesoflearningactivitiestendtotakelesstimetograduateandbemoresatisfiedinthetheirvocationoncetheyareem-ployed(Wimshurst&Allard,2007).Ifdonewell,thesecoursescanpro-videstudentscareerexploration, increasedskillsandvocationalsocialcompetence, aswell asmotivate students to complete the educationalentrance requirementsof theirfield (Hughes,Moore,&Bailey,1999;

AUTHORNOTE:Greg Lindsteadt, Ph.D., Criminal Justice and Legal Studies Department, Missouri Western State University; Regina Williams-Decker, Soci-ology and Anthropology Department, University of Missouri-Kansas City. The authors would like to thank the organizations that helped support this project financially: The Alumni Foundation and the Study Away Program at Missouri Western State University, State of Kansas KJA, State of Missouri-DYS, State of Nebraska - YRTCS, State of Iowa - DHS, and the businesses in the communities visited and especially the JCCAT student. Correspondence concerning this ar-ticle should be addressed to: Greg Lindsteadt, Criminal Justice and Legal Stud-ies Department, Missouri Western State University, 4525 Downs Dr., St. Joseph, MO 64507, e-mail: [email protected]

Lindsteadt,Williams-Decker/LECTURETOFIELD 75

Baileyetal.,2004).Studentswhoparticipateintheseexperiencesseemtohaveabetterunderstandingofwhatwillbeexpectedofthemintheirfieldofchoice,eliminatingmuchof the initial shock theirnewwork-placewillcreate(Sgroi&Ryniker,2002). Topreparestudentstointeractproperlyinthefield,facultymustbeawareofthedetailsoftheenvironmentwherethestudentwillbeplaced(Hughesetal.,1999;Baileyetal.,2004).Thecommunicationlinesbe-tween student and practitioner should be made as level as possible ifstudentsaretolearnfromtheenvironmenttheyareplacedin.“Ifdonewell,” these learning experiences can have the desired effect, but de-signmustbeaprimaryconsiderationof thedeveloper (Hughesetal.,1999).Educatorswhomakeuseofthesetypesoflearningexperienceshaveheardmuch about thedisjuncturebetweenhigher education andfieldexperience.Traditionaleducationalandworkplacelearningappearquitedifferentatfirstglance.Educationendorsesandrewardsindividualproblemsolving,whereasthisisrarelythecaseinaworkenvironment,especiallysocialservices(Baileyetal.,2004).Primarilythenecessityofbuildinggrouporsocialrelationstoaccomplishagiventaskisrarelyrewardedinhighereducation.Highereducationshouldfocusitseffortsonpreparingpeopletobegoodadaptivesociallearners,sothattheycanperformeffectivelywhensituationsareunpredictableandtaskdemandschange(Resnick,1987).Howtobettercoupleboththeworkplaceexpe-rienceandwhatthestudentstakefromtheireducationduringthesefieldexperiencesmaybeabetterfocusofresearchandcoursedevelopment. Aone-size-fits-allstyleofinstructiondoesnotsufficeintheclass-roomandwill limit thepossibilities for student engagement inwork-place-centeredcoursework.Learning stylesdiffer for students aswellas indisciplines.Using theLearningStyle Inventory (LSI),KolbandKolb(1999)foundstudentsandeventheirvocational/educationalareaofchoicetohaveidentifiabletendencies.Forinstance,Kolb,BoyatzixandMainemelis(2001)reportedthatstudentswhofavor thesocialservicevocationweremore apt to fall in adiverging style of learning, learn-ing best in a group or brainstorming type forum. Those scoring highin assimilating style were found to favor hard sciences and preferredindividualizedreadingassignmentsandlecture.Studentswith converg-ing stylespreferredsimulationsorexperimentsandweremorelikelytobeinthefieldsoftechnology.Finally,accommodating stylelearnersfa-voredhands-onexperienceandreliedmoreoninstinctthanlogic.Thesestudentswerefoundinmanagementorbusinessvocations.Developingeducational experienceswhichcan juxtaposedifferent stylesof learn-ingcanallowstudentstobecomeactiveproblemsolvers,havingbuilttheabilitytoutilizedifferentandsometimesuncomfortablemethodstoresolvetaskswhenintheirfield.


Allowingstudentsinappliedlearningexperiencestoprocessalonewhattheyviewinthefieldisproblematic.Educatorstendtorelyontheoftenmisguidednotionthatallstudentswillbeabletorecognizetheuseoftheoriesorparadigmsdiscussedintheclassroom(Sgroi&Ryniker,2002;Baileyetal.,2004).KolbandKolb(2005)refertoa cycle of learn-ing,beingacombinationof“graspingandtransformingexperience”(p.194). Simplified, this cycle provides concrete examples, enriched byreflectiongivenmeaningbythinkingandtransformedbyaction.Ines-sence, thecycleof learningdescribedisnota typologybutaprocess.Learningbeginswiththestudentidentifyingcurrentbeliefsorpercep-tionsmaderealbyinteractionswithothers.Thesynergistictransactionbetweentheenvironmentandthestudentbeliefsorobservationisputinmotionwhenconversationoccurs.Inworkplacelearningthisshouldoc-curreflectively,bothinthefieldandintheclassroom.

APPLIEDLEARnInGInCRIMInALJuSTICEEDuCATIon Universitieshaveactivelypursuedthemissiontodevelopandmarketappliedlearningexperiencesforstudents(Baileyetal.,2004).Criminaljusticedepartmentshavealonghistoryofusinginternshipsandpracticato allowstudents to seefirsthand thediversefieldof criminal justice.Thisisoftendubbed“arealworldexperience”—asomewhatconcerningphrase—suggestingwhathighereducationdoesintheclassroomresem-blesnothingmorethanspoutingunusablefictiontoanaudience.Thisisaverydisturbingnotiontoonewhoremainspassionateaboutthefieldofjuvenilejustice.Helpingstudentsprocessanddevelopastheyexperi-encetheirchosenfieldshouldbetheessenceofatrueappliedlearningexperience,aswellasalecturehall.Maintainingavigilantwatchovertherelevancyoffactsprovidedthesefutureprofessionalsisaresponsi-bilityentrustedtoinstructorsbystudentsandbythepractice. Criminal justicehas received limited recognition inacademics fortheadvancementofsocialscienceknowledge,theory,ormethodswithpractice.Thefieldstruggleswithlegitimacyinthearenaofhighereduca-tion(Clear,2001;Best,2006;Finckenauer,2005).Anappliedlearningexperienceinthecriminaljusticefieldisnotviewedasanacademicallysoundexperienceequivalenttothecaliberofresidencies.Thismaybeduetoinaccurateperceptionsbyoutsiders,butcouldalsoresultasmuchfromourownmakinginthediscipline.Weoftenfailtotightlycoupleeducationwith thenumerousworkplace learningexperiencesourpar-ticulardisciplinehastooffer. Applied learning experiences in criminal justice programs are nottypicallyrepresentedbyanyonemodel.Commonmethodsusedtopro-videtheout-of-classroomexperienceahintofacademiainvolveperson-allogs,journals,orsummarypapers(Stichman&Farkas,2005;Bailey,


etal.,2004).Fewoftheseclassesattempttopreparethestudentfortheirspecificworkplacelearningexperience.Thismaybeduetothemulti-tudeofsitesutilizedbycriminaljusticeacademicdepartments,requiringuniquepreparation.Theresponsibilitytopreparestudentstofacewhattheywillencounterinthefieldoftenfallsbythewayof“theywillseeitforthemselves”(Stichman&Farkas,2005,p.148-149).Infact,thestudent’sandthedepartment’scredibilitywiththeagenciesofferingtheappliedlearningexperiencehingesonhowwellthestudentispreparedtomeettheneedsoftheagency.FIELD’SEyEVIEW

Currentpractitionersseemtohavea love-haterelationshipregard-ingtheirinvolvementinhighereducationappliedlearningexperiences(Shaefer,1996;Biddinger-Gregg&Schrink,1997).Those in thefieldwhohaveexperienceda tag along or shadowknow thedifficulties inbalancingopportunitiesforasafelearningexperiencewithsimplyhav-ingtheinterndomenialtasksthatdonotposearisk.Few,ifany,caseshavebeen foundwhereanagencyhasbeen found liable for injury toaninternstudent,butthereexistsinthebackofanycoordinator’smindthepossibility that situationsmayarise resulting incivil ramifications(Stichman&Farkas,2005;Biddinger-Gregg&Schrink,1997). Thechanceforpotentialemployerstoshowcasewhattheyhavetoofferthenextgenerationofpoliceofficers,probationofficers,andcus-todystaff,tonameafew,isoftencitedasareasonforallowingintern-shipswithinanagency(Ross&Elechi,2002).Agenciesarealsoabletoscreenpotentialemployeesforaperiodoftimeatlimitedinvestmentorriskresponsibility, inthemeantimeprovidingafreshaudiencetocur-rentemployees(Baileyetal.,2004).Anyexperiencedfacultymemberiseasilyabletorecallaformerstudentwhosecareerjumping-offpointwasaninternshipexperience,butdetailsofhowrealandconsistentthesebenefitsare to thestudentoragencyare limited.Thevastmajorityofappliedlearningexperiencesthatareallottedinthecriminaljusticefieldprobablyhavemoreofafoundationinpublicrelationsandsenseofduty,thanrecruitmentofhumanresources.

JuVEnILECoRRECTIonSCRITICAL

ASSESSMEnTTouR(JCCAT)

Inthesummerof2008,anappliedlearningexperiencewasconductedwiththeassistanceofjuvenilefacilitymanagersinfourdifferentstates.TheJuvenile Corrections Critical Assessment Tour(JCCAT)coursewasdesignedtoallowstudents thechanceforguideddiscussionregardingone specific area of the juvenile justice system (juvenile corrections),


totourfacilities,andshadowveteranstaffmembersonthejobinninedifferent juvenilefacilities infourstates.Amultidisciplinarygroupofstudentsinterestedinworkingwithdelinquentyouthwererecruitedforthiscourse.Quitedifferentthantheusualcourseoffering,JCCATendedupbeingdubbedthe‘ShawshankTour’bynumerousadministratorsandsupportersattheuniversity. The initial perception that JCCAT would simply provide studentstoursoffacilitieswasnotcompletelyunexpected.Inmanywaysthegoalofthecoursewassimilartothegoalofthenumeroustoursoffereddur-inganyacademicyearincriminaljustice:toallowstudentstheopportu-nitytoviewtheinsideofafacility.Unlikethesimpletour,however,thiscoursealsoallowedstudentstocomparativelyevaluatekeydifferencesinstatecareofadjudicated(sentenced)youth.MissouriWesternStateUniversityprovidesauniquegeographiclocation(northwestMissouri)forstudentstoevaluatejudicial,administrative,andprogramdifferencesinthecareofyouthinfourdifferentstates.Usuallythisis leftforthenewprofessionaltolearnonlyafteracceptingajob,whichcanleadtodisenchantmentwith thefieldfor thegraduate,whomaynot realizeadifferentparadigmissimplyacrossastateline,afewmilesaway. Thesecondgoalof theJCCATcoursewastoallowthesestatefa-cilities the opportunity to “showcase” their program efforts for youthandattractqualityemployeeswhoareinterestedinworkingwithyouthwithin their particular area of expertise. Unlike a simple tour, theJCCATallowedfacilities todo thiswithinacademicdisciplinesorbystaff functions.Afterdiscussionwithfacilitymanagers itwasdeemedbest that a wide range of educational disciplines should be recruited,despite the course being offered through the Criminal Justice andLegalStudiesDepartment.Aninstitutionalenvironmentrequiresmanyservices and is essentially its own self-contained community needingnumeroustypesofprofessionalstooperatesuccessfully.Facilitymanag-ersplayedanactiveroleinthedevelopmentandorchestrationofJCCAT.Thefacilitymanagersandstateadministratorsapproachedinthesefourstateswereunanimously in favorofbeingapartof thiscourse.Theirinvolvementdidnot simplyendatprovidingaccess; theseyouthcareprofessionalsassistedinthedevelopmentoftheclass,adjustingfacilityscheduling,whilesomeevenprovidedfundingandmealsfortheclass.Mostimportantly,thesefacilitiesgave3-5hoursoftheirdayineachofthefacilitiesvisited. Recruitmentfortheclassoccurredintheearlyspringof2008.Duetoclassbudgetconstraintsandmaintainingafocusonfacilitysecurity,the class was limited to 12 students. After the initial interviews wereconducted, two simply did not attend any further preparatory meet-ingsandtwodroppedforpersonalreasonsjustprior(oneweek)tothecoursebeginning.Bydesign,nodepositsorcoercivemeanswereusedto


guarantee a set number of participants. Willingness was viewed as anecessityfor thisproject tobeeffective.Theeightremainingstudentswere from four different disciplines and two were undecided, withthe majority (4) being from the Criminal Justice and Legal StudiesDepartment.Allstudentswereat leastsophomoreyearstatusandonestudentattendedadifferentcollegethantheothers. The course was designed to model a workplace applied learningexperience for students, incorporating a strong emphasis on reflectivemodelsofstudentlearning.Thiswouldallowstructuredlecturecontenttofillthenecessarybackgroundstudentsshouldhavepriortotheirfirstfieldexperienceinjuvenilecorrections,whilestillsupportingcontextualexplorationoftheexperiences.Severalofthesestudentswerefromdis-ciplinesoutsidecriminaljustice,soitwasimperativeageneralunder-standingofjuvenilejusticewasprovided.Techniquesofprogrammaticreview(audit)wereprovidedstudentsintheclassroomaswell.Afullweekofintensiveclassroominstructionwasprovidedonlecturetopicssuchas:historyofyouthcareintheUnitedStates,currentstatusofyouthcare, risk/needs assessments, ethics, treatment modalities, and on-the-jobstress. Inaddition, interviewskills,field-specific terminology,anddocumentationtrainingwerealsoaddedtoincreasetheperceivedcred-ibilityofthesestudentstopractitioners.Studentsweredividedbetweenthe four states (two per state) and responsible for developing a statehistory of youth care and an organizational description of the state’syouthservices. Prior to the class beginning, instructors predicted that the numer-oustourswouldruntogetherforstudentsandfaculty.Havingconductedinterviewsofstaffonsite,instructorsknewitwasimperativeforstudentstocapturetheirinitialthoughtsandfeelingsregardingtheirmentorandthefacilitypriortomovingontothenextsite.Impromptuconversationaltransactionsregardingfacilityoccurrenceswouldsurelybeforgottenormistakenbytheendofthecourse.Toremedythis,twoinstrumentsweredevelopedintheclassduringthefirstweekoflectureandtourprepara-tion.Thefirstwasreferredtoas“DescribeYourMentor.”Thisinstru-mentwastobefilledoutimmediatelyafterthestudentleftthefacility.EachJCCATparticipantwasaskedtoprovidethegeneraldemograph-ics and tenure information about the staff serving as their mentor. Inaddition, descriptive characteristics regarding their guide’s personal-ity,howtheytreatedthestudent(asapeer,mentee,know-nothing),andwhattheydidwiththeirmentorduringtheirtimeweredocumented.Indeveloping this tool the class was guided away from a ‘check sheet’format.Theywereencouragedtousetheirowndescriptiveabilitiesintheirdocumentationof theexperience.Theclasssettledona toolandmadeonlyminoradjustmentsafterthefirstJCCATexperience.


Asecondinstrument,“DescribeYourFacility,”wasdesignedduringclasslecturepreparationaswell.Oneofthetwostudentrepresentativesofthestatethefacilitywaslocatedinwouldinterviewtheirclassmatesimmediately after a JCCAT site. Because travel took place after eachtour, students were usually interviewed en route to the next destina-tion—creating a 70 mph captive environment. Instructors driving thetravelvanswerecognizantofpeerimpact,sonothirdpartyinterruptionswere allowed until all interviews were completed. Student interview-ersasked their fellowJCCATstudents to identifywhat theyobservedregardingfacilityculture,todescribetheyouththeyobserved,aswellastheiropinionoffacilitysecuritylevel(low,medium,high).Oneofthemoretellingquestionsinthisinstrumentwassimply“Wouldyouworkhere?”Asimpleyesornotothisquestionwasnotaccepted.Interview-erswereencouragedtoprobeforreasoningbehindthestudent’sconclu-sion.Finally,thetwostateinterviewersalsointerviewedeachotherandsummarizedtheirfindingsintheirfinalproject,whichmergedthestate’sorganizationalmissionandhistorywiththeJCCATexperience. Inthesecondweekofthesummerclass,studentshadtheirfirstJC-CATatastatejuvenilemalefacility.Asdesigned,studentswereorientedbyafacilityadministratorpriortobeinggivenabout2.5hourstospendwithfront-linestaffmembersduringthecourseoftheirduties.Studentswerepairedwithgroupleaders,youthcareworkers,therapeuticprofes-sionals and someadministrators, dependingoneach student’s interestarea.Courseinstructorswereallowedtoobserveinteractions,butatleastone instructor remained in a central location for contact if necessary.Debriefingtookplaceafterthefacilityvisitwithfacilityadministratorsandthefollowingdayintheclassroom,asaclass.Thefirstmentorsum-maries and student interviews were conducted with the assistance oftheco-instructorsforthecourse,andminoradjustmentsweremadetotheinstruments. AdministratorshostingthefirstJCCATfollowedthedesiredcourseblueprintprecisely.ThisallowedJCCATstudents tohaveabetterun-derstandingofexpectationspriortoembarkingonasixday,sevenfacil-itywhirlwindtourofIowa,Kansas,andNebraskajuvenilecorrectionalfacilities,finishingtheirJCCATinMissouriduringthefinalweekoftheclass(seeFigure1).Theclassvisitedfiveall-male,twoall-female,andtwoco-edcorrectionalfacilitiesduringtheJCCATtour.Again,writtensummariesandgroupdebriefingstookplaceaftereachfacilityvisit.Twoofthesefacilitiesweremechanicallysecurewithafencedperimeter,butthemajorityoffacilitiesresembledmoreofanopencampus—oftenwithonly locked livingquartersbetween theresidentsandoffgrounds.AsstatedbyoneJCCATstudent:“Someoftheselookedlikehighschoolcampuses,notcorrectionalfacilities.”


TheJCCATclassloggedover1600miles,visitedninefacilitiesinfourstates,andexperiencedatrulyuniqueandintensivelearningexperi-enceinafour-weekperiod.Theeffortsofthefacilitystaffinvolvedinthese tours fell consistentlyaboveexpectationsof instructorsandstu-dents.OpenpraiseforthestudentsandtheJCCATprojectwasreceivedfromfacilityandstaffbothduringandafterthecourse.Ingeneral,allfacilitiesfollowedthecourseblueprintwithonlyminoralterations.Ac-cesstofacilitystaffwaslimitedatonefacility,butprogramreview,ad-ministratorQuestionandAnswer(Q&A),aswellason-sitelunchwithyouthallowedadequatefacilityreviewforthestudents.ThemajorityoffacilitiesevenallowedJCCATstudentsaccesstoyouthduringmealtime,inQ&Asessions,andseveraltimesininstitutionalhearings.Accordingtostudentresponses,itwasthesecontactswithyouththattrumpedallotheraspectsofthetours.

EVALuATInGThEExPERIEnCE

Howtoevaluateandmeasuretheacademicpreparationforthisun-usual learningexperiencewasaconcern in itsdesign.After the tourswerecompleted,duringthelasttwodaysofclass,activitiesanddiscus-sionsummarizedtheoverallexperience.Thisincludedopendiscussionofstatesystemsandindividualfacilities(andtheiroccupants).Students

Will They Recognize 28

Figure 1: JCCAT Tour Map

KEY: In order of JCCAT: 1. St. Joseph, MO (male); 2. Toledo, IA (co-ed); 3. Eldora, IA (male); 4.

Atchison, KS (male); 5. Larned, KS (male); 6. Beloit, KS (female); 7. Kearney, NE (male); 8.

Geneva, NE (female); 9. Watkins Mill, MO (co-ed). MWSU-Missouri Western State University, St.

Joseph, MO.

MWSU

WSU

Figure1:JCCATTourMap

KEY:InorderofJCCAT:1.St.Joseph,MO(male);2.Toledo,IA(co-ed);3.Eldora,IA(male);4.Atchison,KS(male);5.Larned,KS(male);6.Beloit,KS(female);7.Kearney,NE(male);8.Geneva,NE(female);9.WatkinsMill,MO(co-ed).MWSU-MissouriWesternStateUniversity,St.Joseph,MO.


wereallowedtousetheirinterviewsheetstoassistintherecallofspe-cificfacilityandstaff.Afinalexamorpost-testwasprovidedattheendofthelastdayofclass.Testresponseswerenotfactoredintothecoursegradeandstudentswereagainallowedtousedocumentstoassistthemin recall when needed. The final test consisted of scenario questionssuchas:

Your potential employer’s interview committee sees Law 396JCCAT on your list of experiences that are job-related. They askyouhowcompletingacollegeclasswouldmakeyouamorequali-fiedemployeeinthejuvenilejusticesystem.Whatwouldyousay?

Overhalfofthestudentsusedthephrase“handson”directlyintheirresponse to this question. One studentwrote: ”I got to participate ineverydayhappenings…Ididn’t justget timewith staff...got timewithyouth:boysANDgirls.”Almostallusedphrasessuchas:“behindthescenes,”“behindthewalls,”or“whatreallyhappens”todescribetheirJCCAT experience, also focusing on what can be learned outside theclass and “textbooks.” But most impressive to the instructors of thecoursewasdiscussionofthedifferencesinprogramsthatwereidentifiedin thesestates. Fourstudentsdirectlyapplied their response tocareergoals,suchas:“Icouldseeformyself if itwas thecourseIwantmycareerpathtotake,”and“Iamwellawareofthetime[and]….additionaltrainingthatwillberequiredofme.” Basedonareviewofthestudentresponses,itisapparentthelearn-ing experience outside the classroom is what stood out most to thesestudents.Notsurprisingly,lectureorin-classpresentationsbyinstructorswerenotasmemorableintheresponsetothisquestion.Theworkwithprofessionals in thefieldaswell as timewithyouthwas the focusoftheirresponses. Asecondscenarioquestionchangedtheaudiencefor thestudents,askingthemtoidentifytoagraduateschooladvisorwhatJCCATwasandwasnot:

YourGraduateSchoolAdvisorseesLaw396JCCATonyourtran-scriptandisunsurewhatitshouldcounttowards.Youradvisorasksyoutodescribetheclass.Whatdoyousay?

JCCAT students framed their responses more to the practicum/in-ternshipexperience,focusingoneitherdifferencesinstatesystems,orstate philosophies of rehabilitation and security. One student stated:“WediscoveredhowMO,KS,NE&IAdifferedintheirfacilitiesandtheircourseofhowthejuvenileswerereleased”—focusingmoreonthesystems aspect, while another focused on her direct experience with“staff in thepsychology-relatedfields,”whichwasheracademicfieldofchoice.


Studentswerealsoasked if theybelieved theywereproperlypre-pared for the tour componentof the class.Overall, students indicatedtheyfeltproperlypreparedandallindicateditwasaveryhelpfulcourseforthoseinterestedinthisfield.Twostudentsindicatedtheydidnotfeelproperlyprepared,butinafollow-upinterviewwiththesestudents,onestated: “It was more of a shock and awe than what could have beendoneinlecture.”Thesecondstudenttoldinstructors:“Idon’tthinkIwasmentallypreparedforthefacilities....Idon’tthinkthatIwasunpreparededucationallyastowhattoexpect,butitwasaprettydrainingexperi-ence.Definitelyworththework,though.”Thelastingeffectthiswork-placelearningexperiencehadonthesestudentswasencouragingtotheinstructors,tosaytheleast. A third student brought up an interesting point regarding the col-legiality of the class and stated it would have helped the tour to dis-cuss this more often. The instructor’s role in building the necessaryesprit de corps inaclassdependsgreatlyonthemakeupoftheclassandclassownershipofthetaskathand.Facultywereconsultedinitiallybystudents about other studentswhodidnot follow schedules or lackedinput. By the end of the class there was a distinguishable divide, butstudentsmaintainedacivilresponsethatdidnotinterferewithprojectgoals.Studentswereaskedtoself-ratetheircollegialityintheJCCATpost-test.Allself-ratedthemselvesasfairtogood,butnooneidentifiedpoororexcellent.Interestingly,“classmatecollegiality”wasratedover-allexcellentbyhalftheattendeesandonlyfairbyone. Post-tourinterviewsheetswerecopied,collectedandnotallowedtobealteredbystudents.Thedesignofthesetoolswastocapturetheinitialimpactofthetoursite.Severalstudentsvoicedtheirconcernaboutthisduring theprocess, due to their ability to “compare apples to apples”(studentcomment)astheysawmorefacilities.Thefinalclassroomdis-cussionallowed students to reviewallof these facilities and the statesystemsinhindsightinpreparationforthefinalexamgivenattheendof the lastday. Thequestion“whereyouwould likemost tobeem-ployed” was again asked in their final exam. Students were asked torankstatesystemsandfacilities.Thefacilitieswerealsodividedbygen-dertoevaluatepreferencesbystudents.Twostatesystemswererankedeither1or2(highest)byallexceptonestudent.Thissingleexceptionwasastudentfocusedmoreonacustodialapproachthanthemajorityofotherstudents.Interestingly,whenidentifyingwhichfacilitythestudentswouldchoosetoworkin(male,female,all),theseindividualfacilitiesdidnotalwaysfallintothesamestatesystemthestudentschoseastheirtoptwo.Onesuchfacility(female)appearedasaparticularfavoriteforJCCATparticipantsdespitethestateitoperatedinnotbeingrankedei-ther1or2byanystudent.Commentsofferedcompassionforthatpartic-ularfacility’splight:“Coulduse/neededmyhelp”and“Didmuchmorewithless…comparedtotheboysfacility.”


Thefinalexamalsorequestedstudentinputon“Whoshoulddeter-minehowlongayouthshouldbecommittedtoafacility?”Thisques-tionwasdesigned to allow JCCATstudents theopportunity tomergetheir understanding of a system’s larger structure with those requiredto carry out the tasks of the job. Two states in the JCCAT made useofanindeterminatesentencingscheme,wherethefacilitystaffwasre-sponsibletodeterminehowlongayouthwascommitted.Theothertwostatesmadeuseofamoreformaldeterminatesentencingscheme,withjudicialandadministrative input intosentence length. This topicwasdiscussedinclasslecture,butitwasuncertainifstudentswereabletoseethedifferenceinreleasediscretionatthefacilitywhereayouthwascommitteduntildiscussingthebenefits/dangerswithstaffmentorsandadministratorsfromdifferentstates.Courseinstructorspredictedthatallstudentswouldsupportfacility-basedcontrolofrelease,butfordifferentreasons due to the student’s academic discipline. Instructors believedthat thecriminal justicestudentswouldsupportcontrolof releaseduetothebehaviormanagementbenefitsitprovides,whilethepsychology/sociology/socialworkdisciplinewouldsupportfacilitybasedreleasefortheindividualizedapproachtorehabilitativecare. Directlycontrarytothepredictedresults,nocriminaljusticeJCCATstudents supported releasecoming from facility staffwhere theyouthwascommitted.Weexpectedthatdiscretionwouldbeconsideredveryimportanttofutureprofessionals,butapparentlyajustice approach wasconsidered more desirable by this criminal justice group of students.OnlyJCCATstudentscomingfromthepsychology/socialworkperspec-tivewereunanimouslyinfavoroffacility-basedrelease,focusingmoreonan individualizedapproachtoreleasereadiness. ToassistfutureofferingsofJCCATorothersuchmulti-siteappliedlearningexperiences,studentswerealsoaskedtoranktravel,hotels,per-sonaltimeallotted,andfacilitypreparedness.Theservicesencounteredinthesemostlyruralcommunitieswherefacilitiesarelocatedwerefoundtobeextremelyhospitableandaccommodatingtothelimitedbudgetofthe trip.All students rankedmeals, hotels, and travel comfort “aboveaverage.”Onlyonestudentranked“facilitypreparedness”asfair,butallotheraspectsofJCCATorganizationand“comfort”wereranked“good”or“excellent.”ClassroomclimateinexperiencessuchasJCCATdoesinvolvemuchmorethanthetypicalcollegiatelecturehall.Thelearningenvironmentshouldnotbetoostrenuous,andconcernfor“downtime”forthesestudentstodigestthisexperiencewasconsideredveryneces-sary.Onestudentdirectlycommentedonherfearthat“overnightstayssoundslikeyoumayneverhavefreetime,butassoonasyou’reoutofthefacility[and]conversed[withotherpeople],yougottimetoyourself.” Studentswere asked in their initial interview (prior to the course)iftheyhadanyapprehensionsaboutenteringasecurefacility.JCCAT


was,infact,severalstudents’firstexperienceinsideasecurefacility.Inthefinalexam,allstudentsidentifiedfeelingsofsafetybeing“excellent”duringtheJCCATexperience.Thisiscertainlyatestamenttothefacilitymentorsandmanagerswhowere involved in thiscourse,butone thatshouldnotbetakenforgrantedorassumedwhendevelopingworkplace-designated applied learning experiences. Specific attention should begiventohowstudentsviewtheirlearningenvironmenttoensuretherearenoroadblocks,realorperceived,tothisexperience.Reflective,on-goingcommunicationbetweeninstructorsandlearninggroupscanassistinachievingthisgoal.

LECTuREConTEnT

ToprovideJCCATstudentscredibilitywiththefacilitystaff,aswellastheabilitytoevaluatekeycomponentsoffacilityculture,itwasim-perativetheclasswasproperlyprepared.Inananalysisofthefirstweek’slecturecontent,studentswereaskedtoidentifylecturetopicstheyactu-allyheardbeingdiscussedinthefacilities.Onceagain,studentswereallowed toconsult their facilitynotes.The students identifiedeachofthelecturetopicsdiscussedinclasspreparationasbeingaddressedbystafforadministrationinthefacilitiesvisited(seeTable1).Interestingly,everystudent reported thatJob Stresswasdiscussedbystaffateveryfacilitytheyvisited.Othertopicsreportedasbeingdiscussedinthema-jorityof facilities (medianof3orhigher: overhalf butnot all facili-ties)were:Outside Regulating Agencies, Risk and Needs Assessments,Juvenile System, Responsivity, Sentencing, Outcome Measures, Dis-cretion, Difficulties of Reform, Treatment Modality, Rehabilitation,and Culture. Due to the relatively small class size, limited generalizations canbe made. What is important to faculty preparing to teach workplace-centeredcoursesistobeabletoidentifytopicsthatarealsosignificanttoemployers/employeeswherethestudentsaregoingtobeplaced(inthecaseofJCCAT,juvenilecorrectionalfacilitystaff).Thiswillensurecourseworkisgearedtocurrentpractice,allowingstudentstobeintunewithwhatisofmostconcernintheirdesiredoccupation.Forexample,basedontheseinteractionsbetweenstudentandfacilitystaff,jobstressisaveryrealissuetothoseworkinginthefield.Studentswereabletodiscussjobstressthatveteranandnewerstaffexperienceonadailybasisandhowtheygetthroughthesesituationstoshowupanotherday.Asdiscussedinlecture,studentsfoundthatitisrarelytheyouththatareinthestaffmember’scarethatcreatethemoststressonthejobforstaff.Itisinsteadtheirperipheralresponsibilitiesandroadblockstowhattheyviewisnecessarytohelptheyouth.


Regarding lecture content: Please circle the

appropriate answer to the following lecture

topics you heard being discussed or

mentioned while in the facilities.

1

Not

discussed

in any

facility

2

Some

facilities

but not

over

half

3

Over

half

but not

all

facilities

4

All

facilities

this was

discussed

Median

Outside regulating agencies 0 1 4 2 3

Ethical dilemmas 1 3 3 0 2

Risk and needs assessment 0 0 2 5 4

Juvenile corrections history 0 4 2 1 2

Juvenile system as it relates to juvenile

corrections

0 2 3 2 3

Females in juvenile corrections

(difficulties, needs & response)

0 4 3 0 2

Responsivity 0 1 5 1 3

Sentencing (as it relates to facility goals &

practices)

0 1 1 5 4

Outcome measures 0 3 2 2 3

Discretion 1 2 4 0 3

Disproportionate Minority Confinement 0 5 2 0 2

Difficulties of reform 1 2 3 1 3

Treatment modality 0 1 3 3 3

Rehabilitation 0 1 4 2 3

Juvenile crime rates and victimization 0 0 5 2 3

Job stress 0 0 0 7 4

Culture 0 2 4 1 3

Table1:Students’recalloflecturetopicsdiscussedinfacility:n=7.Medianisreported(rightcolumn).

Somewhat concerning in these findings was the limited discus-sionofdisproportionateminorityconfinementby those in the facility.This issue remainscentral to introductorycoursework in juvenile jus-tice,butappearstobeconsideredlesspertinentbyfacilitystaff.Apos-sibleexplanationconsideredduringdebriefingwas itmaybe thestaffmember’swillingness toworkwithwhoever iscommitted thatmakesthedifference, taking little responsibility forhowtheyoutharrived in


theircare. Inaddition, the fact that the racialmakeupof these facili-tieshaschangedlittleovermuchofthetenureofthestaffcouldleadtotheapplicationof“thatisthewayitis,hasbeen,andwillbe”tojustifythesetrends.JCCATstudentsquicklyidentifieddifferencesinstaffracialmakeuprelativetothepopulationofyouththeyserved. Interestingly,thispointseemedtoloseitsinitialeffectonstudentsasmoretoursiteswerevisited—desensitizationthatisnotsodifferentthanwhatisexperi-encedinthefieldordiscipline. Basedonstudentreflectionduringthefinalexam,thelectureprepa-rationwasoverallontopictothecurrentconcernsofthoseinthejuve-nilecorrectionalfield.Alltopicsdiscussedintheclassroomwereidenti-fied inat leastonefacilitybystudents.Notable to instructorswas thestudents’understandingoftermssuchasResponsivity orCulture,whichwouldbecomeevidentduringdebriefingsessions.Thesearenotalwayseasyconceptsforthestudent,butwhenthestudentcouldapplyeachideatoactiveinteractionswithstaffandfacilityobservations, theydemon-stratedtheabilitytotranslatethemeaningoftheacademictermintothepracticaleventsandcommonfacilitylanguage.Workplacelearningmaynotalwaysappearasadirectreflectionorinthecontextofaspecificex-ampleusedintheclassroom.Thestudent’sabilitytotranslateandutilizetheseconceptsisindeedaproudmomentfortheirinstructors.

DISCuSSIon

Allowingstudentstoviewandprocessthedifferenceinstatemissionsandjuvenilefacilitieswasthefocusofthisappliedlearningexperience.Toteachhowanorganization’smissionisreflectedintheperformanceof an individual facility is a point difficult to drive home to studentsvia textbook and lecture hall. Even if the student is fortunate enoughtohavefieldexperience,thisisusuallylimitedtoonesystem.Inaddi-tion,theabilitytocomparelikeexperiencesinthefieldwithpeersandfacultyenhancedthelearningprocess.Thisoftenoccurredviaagitationwithinthegroupofstudents.Forexample,duetothemultidisciplinarymakeupoftheclass,someviewedwithdisfavortheopencampusoffa-cilitieswhileotherschallengedtherazorwiresurroundingotherfacilitygrounds.Thisprovidedsomeinterestingexchangeswithinandoutsidetheclassroom,whichwouldoccasionallyrequirerefereeing. Studentswereencouragedtolookpasttheirinitialopinionsandimpressions,butnottoignorethem.Toprovideatruecriticalassessmentofafacility’smission,studentswerechallengedtoexaminewhatarethegoalsoftheorganizationfirst,beforetheydeterminedwhetherthefacilityismeet-ingthosegoals.Asseenfirsthandbytheclass,asystemthatfocusesoncustodyandprofessionalizationwillappeardifferentthanonethathasadynamicfocusonpeerinvolvementintreatment.Astudentmayfeel


morecomfortableworkinginonetypeofsystemortheother,butthisisnottosaythattheotherisperformingitsmissionpoorly. FewissuesraisedmorevocalconcernwiththeJCCATclassthanthedifferencesbetweenmaleandfemalefacilities.Thefemaleyouthfacili-tieswereviewedbytheclassasinsufficientlyfundedandinpoorphysi-calcondition.Inaninterviewbyouruniversitymagazine,oneJCCATstudentstated:“Iwasupsetandshocked....Itwasspaceageforboysandpioneerforthegirls”(Holtz,2009,p.6).Theclassdebriefingofthisissueprovidedanopportunitytoexamineastate’swillingnesstofundaphilosophyofcommunityprotectionversusindividualyouthneed.Theperceivedsocialthreatoftheyoungmaledelinquentversustheneedtoprotectthefemaledelinquentwasdiscussed,asitisinmostIntroductionto Juvenile Justice/Delinquency textbooks.Unlike traditional lectures,theclasswasabletousepersonalobservationsasreferencetothisdilem-ma.ForseveralJCCATstudents,thesefacilityfundingdifferencesledtoachangetowardcommitmenttoworkwithgirlsifgiventheopportunity,evendespitethevastmajorityofstaffinmale,female,andcoedfacilitiesidentifyingdelinquentgirlsasbeingmore“difficult”and“challenging”toworkwiththanmaleyouth.DEVELoPInGLEARnInGSPACE

Thispaperwouldbeincompletewithoutaddressingthenecessityoftimelydebriefing and creating thenecessary learning spaces inwork-placeexperiencessuchastheJCCAT(Kolb&Kolb,2005;Baileyetal.,2004).Issuessuchasfacilitystaffdemeanor,youthbehavior,andsome-whatchallengingethicaldecisionmakingbystaffwereconsideredandreviewedwithinashortperiodof timebetweenstudents,studentsandfaculty,andalsowithpractitioners.Studentswereinstructedtoremainfocusedontheirtask,buttodiscusstheseincidentswithcourseinstruc-torswhowouldthenpresenttheincidenttofacilityadministrators.ThreesuchincidentsdidoccurduringJCCAT. The benefit of immediate processing of student observations andconcernswasevidentintheconfidencetheclassdisplayedintheirin-teractionswith facility staffandeachotheras the JCCATprogressed.Studentsevenbeganrequestingadditionaldebriefingsessionstodiscusstheirobservations,indicatingapersonalcommitmenttotheproject.Thiswasalsoevidentinthefinalexamcomments:“moretimededicatedtointerviews”and“groupmeetings(class,notinstitutional)weregoodbutshouldbeusedmoreoften.’’Coursesthatapplyactivefieldparticipationforthefutureprofessionalshouldconsiderthepositionofthesestudents.Thestudentislefttodisentangleethicallychallengingexperienceswith-outassistancefromfacultyorpeers. Inaddition, relyingsolelyon thepractitioner’sperceptionofhowdailyactivitiesmergeintotheoverall


organizationalmissionwillmostlikelylimitthegrowthofthestudent’sunderstandingoftheirfuturevocation(Sgroi&Ryniker,2002).Thiscanresult in the student developing an overall negative perception of theagencyandfield,wheninfactitmaybesimplyanisolatedexperience(Jordan,Burns,Bedard,&Barringer,2007).JCCATSuMMARy

Inhindsight, thisclasswasanexhaustingendeavor for instructorsandstudents.Thesetypesofexperiencesaboundwiththepossibilityofpitfallsinplanning,student(faculty)personalityclashes,andfacilityin-cidents threatening theadvancementof theproject. In thiscase, thesetypesofproblemsfailedtoreartheiruglyheads,makingtheresultfullyworththeeffort.Itwasrefreshingtoseetheexcitedundergraduatestu-dentknowledgablydiscussingissueswithprofessionalsinthefield.Stu-dentsintriguedbywhattheyhear,viewinthemedia,orreadoftenhaveanalmostuncontrollabledesiretobeapartofsomethingtheyhaveonlyobservedhaphazardly.Bycouplingknowledgeofthesystemwithactualobservation, these JCCAT students were able to develop an informedoutlookoftheimpacttheindividualfacilitystaffcanhaveonachievinganorganization’smission.Thisisespeciallyimportantforstudentsen-teringafieldwheresubsystemsexistwithinasystem,buteachmaintainsadiverseandsometimescompetinggroupofactivities.Forexample,thejuvenilejusticesystemhasjudges,police,andcorrectionalworkersallparticipating inageneralmission,buthavingspecificduties that tendtooverlapandconflict(Leiber,Schwarze,Mack,&Farnworth,2002).Teachingearlythateffortsofcooperationdomatterasawaytoreachthemissionofanorganizationisanecessityforeducators. TheJCCATclassshouldbecommendedforimprovingtherelation-ship between academia and current practitioners in this specific field.Onefacilitymanagerwrote:“Thiswasagreatday...manyof thestaffinvolvedappreciatedbeingableto‘showoff’theirtalentsandeducateothers.Itwasawin/winsituationforeveryone.”Theaccoladesgivenstudents by facility representatives were numerous and seemed to fo-cusclearlyonthelevelofunderstandingoftheJCCATclassofsystemmechanics,or“howpreparedtheywereforwhatwedo”and“thefeed-back I received frommystaff is thatyour studentsweregreat..Theyseemed real interested and asked good questions. My people enjoyedyourpeople,comebackANYtime.”Thepost-tourQ&Awithadminis-tratorswouldoftenresembleapeerdiscussionmorethanaclassroomortrainingsession.BytheendoftheJCCATtours,facilitystaffandthestu-dentswereopenlycomparingprogramandsystemsfromdifferentsiteswherethesepractitionershadalsotraveled.Theseexperiencesserveasconfirmationtothevalueemployersplaceonthosewithcollegedegrees,easingthetransitionfromstudenttopractitioner.


Althoughtheco-instructorswerehappywiththestudentturnoutandeffortsforthiscourse’sinauguralrun,futureJCCATtypecoursescouldbegreatlyenhancedbyexpandedrecruitmentanddevelopingmethodstoeasetheburdenforstudentstoparticipate.Thesemethodscouldincludestudent travel funding, scholarship opportunities, or simply makingspaceavailableincurriculumrequirementstoallowstudentsthechancetopersonalizetheirowneducation.Inthisclass,havingmalestudentsinvolvedmayhaveprovidedasignificantlydifferentperspectivetotheinformationgleanedfromthoseonthetour.Facilityadministratorsalsocommentedopenlyon theneed foryoungermale rolemodels for theyouthintheircare,apoolhighereducationcanprovidethesefacilitieswhichareoftenfoundinremote,ruralareas. Applied learning experiences in the workplace provide faculty auniqueway for students to remainbonded to theirfieldof interest.Athorough understanding of organizational needs will greatly increasethecourseplanner’sability todevelop these typesofapplied learningexperiences(Jeffords,2007).Earlyinthecourseplanning,facilityad-ministratorsdiscussedtherealityofoneacademicdisciplinenotbeingsufficienttoproduceaneffectiveenvironmenttochangetroubledyouth.Inretrospect,thetensionproducedinmixingacademicdisciplinesfur-therenhancedthelearningexperienceand,intheend,servedtobetterpreparethesefutureprofessionalsforthischallengingvocationandthewiderangeofindividualstheywillbeworkingwith.Academicsmustbewillingtocrosstheoftenwellguardedacademicboundariestodevelopthe typesofworkplaceopportunities thatwillbenefitboth thestudentandthefield.

REFEREnCESBailey,T.,Hughes,K.,&Moore,D.(2004).Working knowledge: Work-based learning and education reform.NewYork,NY:RoutledgeFalmer.Best,J.(2006,April14).Fromfadtoworse.Chronicle of Higher Education, 52(32),p.6-7.Biddinger-Gregg, S., & Schrink, J. (1997). Legal ramifications of student internships. Justice Professional, 10(1),61-74.Clear,T.(2001).Presidentialaddress:Hasacademiccriminaljusticecomeofage?Justice Quarterly, 24,709-726.Finckenauer,J.(2005).Thequestforqualityincriminaljusticeeducation.Justice Qua- terly, 24,413-426.Holtz, D. (2009, Winter). Summer corrections. Western: The Magazine of MWSU, p. 6. Retrieved April 1, 2009: http://www.missouriwestern.edu/magazine/documents/MWMagazineWinter09.pdfHughes,K.,Moore,D.,&Bailey,T. (1999).Work-based learning and academic skills. ColumbiaUniversityInstituteonEducationandtheEconomy(IEEBriefNo.27).Jeffords,C.(2007).Gainingapprovalfromajuvenilecorrectionalagencytoconductex- ternalresearch:Theperspectiveofagatekeeper. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 5(1),88-100.


Jordan,W.,Burns,R.,Bedard,L.,&Barringer,T.(2007).Criminaljusticeinterns’obser- vationsofmisconduct:Anexploratorystudy.Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 18(2),298-310.Kolb,D.,Boyatzis,R.,&Mainemelis,C.(2001).Experientiallearningtheory:Previous researchandnewdirections.InR.J.SternbergandL.F.Zhang(Eds.),Perspectives on thinking, learning, and cognitive styles (pp.227-247).Mahwah,NJ:LawrenceErl- baum.Kolb,A.,&Kolb,D.(2005).Learningstylesandlearningspaces:Enhancingexperien- tial learning in higher education. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 4(2),193-212.Leiber,M.,Schwarze,K.,Mack,K.,&Farnworth,M.(2002).Theeffectsofoccupation andeducationonpunitiveorientationsamongjuvenilejusticepersonnel.Journal of Criminal Justice, 30(4),303-316.Resnik,L.,(1987).Learninginschoolandout:Presidentialaddress.Educational Research- er, 16(9),13-20.Ross,L.,&Elechi,O.(2002).Studentattitudestowardsinternshipexperiences:Fromtheo- rytopractice.Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 13(2),297-312.Sims,B.(2006).Creatingateachingandlearningenvironmentincriminaljusticecourses that promoteshigherorder thinking.Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 17(2), 336-357.Sgroi,C.,&Ryniker,M.(2002).Preparingfortherealworld:Apreludetoafieldwork experience.Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 13(1),187-190.Shaefer,J.(1996).Learningbyliving:Studentinternships.Corrections Today, 58(4),12-15.Stichman,A.&Farkas,M.(2005).Thepedagogicaluseofinternshipsincriminaljustice programs:Anationwide study. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 16(1), 145- 165.Wimshurst,K.,&Allard,T.(2007).Criminaljusticeeducation,employmentdestinations, andgraduatesatisfaction.The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 40(2),218-235.Wolff,M.,&Tinney,S.(2006,May).Applied learning as a best practice model: A strategy for higher education student success.Paperpresentedat theAssociationof Institu- tionalResearchNationalConference,Chicago,IL.

93

Student motivation and Assessment of Applied Skills in an equine

Studies Program

K.I. tumLIn MidwayCollege

R. LInAReS MidwayCollege

m.w. SChILLInG MississippiStateUniversity

Student motivation is a universal teaching challenge. A holistic approach to assessment was developed for cognitive and psychomotor tasks in equine studies. First-year students (n=55) were either randomly provided (PR) or not provided (NP) a rubric 3 weeks prior to skills testing. The PR students earned lower total scores (p < 0.05) than NP students (12.8 and 17.1 ± 5.3, respectively). In individual categories, PR and NP students had similar (p > 0.05) pass superior scores. Third-year students (n = 7) self-rated task performance us-ing an affective rubric and reflection exercises. Although the original goal was to promote standardization of hands-on skills, these data indicate that students are more goal-oriented than process-oriented; furthermore, use of affective rubrics for self-assessment promoted a learner-centered approach to motivation.

Midway College held a virtual monopoly on equine programs inKentuckywhenitsprogramwasstartedover20yearsago.Asstudentandindustrydemandforequineacademicshasincreased,approximately185 institutions in theUnitedStateshave launchedprogramswithdi-verseofferingsasdegrees, concentrations,or coursework focusingonthehorseindustry(NationalAssociationofEquineAffiliatedAcadem-



ics,2009).ThisdemandhasfollowedthegrowthoftheequineindustryintheUnitedStates.TheAmericanHorseCouncil(2005)reportedinanationalstudytargetedathorseownersthatthereareapproximately9.2millionhorses,whichishigher(3.6million)thantheuntargetedstudybytheUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture,NationalAgricultureSta-tisticsService(USDA,2002).Inadditiontohorsenumbers,theAmeri-can Horse Council concluded that the equine industry has a dramaticimpactontheUnitedStateseconomy.IntermsoftheGrossDomesticProduct (GDP), this industry contributes a total of $39 billion, whichisgreaterthanthemotionpictureindustry,railroadtransportation,fur-nituremanufacturingandtobaccoproductmanufacturingservices(TheAmericanHorseCouncil,2005).InKentuckyalone,theequineindustryhasareportedeconomicimpactofmorethanonebilliondollars(CenterforBusinessandEconomicResearch,2004).Forthefirsttime,the2010WorldEquestrianGameswillbehostedintheUnitedStatesinLexing-ton,Kentucky.Thiseventwillcreatejobsandinternshipopportunitiesinseveralaspectsoftheindustry.Recently,asagreaterpercentageofstudents fromurbanizedcommunitieshaveenrolled inappliedanimalscienceprograms(Brittetal.,2008;Hoover&Marshall,1998;Reilingetal.,2003),developmentofstandardizedcurriculumandassessmenttomeettheneedsofstudentswitheitherextensiveornon-existentanimalhandlingskillsisnecessitated. Althougheducationalopportunitiesintheequineindustryhavein-creasedoverthelast20years,thereisnouniversallyadoptedskillsetrequired for graduates of existing equine programs. Potential careerpathsrequiremasteryofbothhands-onskillsandbusinessknowledge(Conners&Brady,2009;Houge-Davies,2004;Kretler,1995).Forin-stance,anequineprofessionalhavingdirectcontactwithhorsesshouldbeable toassess thehealthandwelfareof thehorse, senseand inter-pretphysicalchangeswiththeirhandsandvisualinspections,interpretbehavior, perform training of the horse for a specific purpose, assessandmanagefeedingandnutritionalneeds,communicatewithclientsandmedical professionals, and perform accounting tasks plus many morebusinessmanagementactivities(Conners&Brady,2009;Houge-Davies,

AUTHOR NOTE: Kimberly I. Tumlin, Ph.D., Assistant Professor at Midway College; Rachel Linares, M.B.A., School for Career Development, Midway Col-lege; Wes Schilling, Ph.D., Dept. of Food Science, Nutrition, and Health Pro-motion, Mississippi State University. The authors would like to thank all of the students for their participation in this project and for their valuable feedback on the teaching and learning process. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to: Kimberly I. Tumlin, 512 E. Stephens St, Midway, KY 40347, e-mail: [email protected]

Tumlin,Linares,Schilling /STUDENTMOTIVATIONANDASSESSMENT 95

2004;Landers,2002).Clearly,thewidearrayofskillsnecessitatedforsuchcareersconfoundsdevelopmentofacademicstandardsforteachingequinestudies. The Equine Studies Program at Midway College consists of twoBaccalaureatedegreesandoneAssociatedegree.TheBaccalaureatede-greesareBachelorofScienceinEquineStudieswithConcentrationinEquineHealthandRehabilitationandBachelorofArtsinEquineStudieswith Concentration in Applied Equine Management. All degree pro-gramsrequiremasteryofhands-onskillsinadditiontospecificcognitiveandassessmenttasks. Atentry,themajorityofstudentsdisplaysomelevelofequineexperience,butthereisneitheracommonlevelofpro-ficiencynorasimilartrainingbackgroundamongstudents.Toaddressthesedifferences,afourcoursesequenceofPracticumclassesisrequiredofallequinestudiesstudentsatMidwayCollege. Hands-onskill learning isoftenevaluatedonlybyachievementoftheassigned taskafter repetitivepractices. Similar to rotememoriza-tionoffacts,thisrepetitiveperformancecanbeperceivedasboringorinsignificant,therebydecreasingintrinsicmotivationtolearnanewskill(Char,2009).Further,pre-existingknowledgeofequinehandlingdoesnotcorrelatetore-learningskillsinasafemethod(Meeketal.,2005).Whenstudentsdonotperformaskillfollowingthein-housemethod,itismoredifficulttoreducepotentialsafetyhazards.Besidessafety,thelearningprocess isoftendisruptedbecause inexperiencedstudentsareinitiallynotascomfortablehandlinghorsesandlookforguidancefromexperiencedstudents(Meeketal.,2005).Appliedlearningwithhorsesisunlikechemistryexperimentswheremixingofspecificchemicalspro-videsapredictablereaction(ornoreaction).Horsesareunpredictableanimals that react to the environment to satisfy basic survival needs.Therefore, this unpredictability poses a problem in standardizing theteachingandlearningprocessandcanpresentinterferenceaslesscon-fidentstudentsexpresslowermotivationinsituationsthatareperceivedtobeunsafe.Inconsiderationofthesechallenges,ateachingtoolwasinvestigatedasameanstolinktheprocessofcriticalthinkingtoaction. Generally,rubricsarepartofateacher’sdailyroutineinwhichru-bricsarecreatedandutilizedtoaccuratelyachieveagradingstandard.Rubricsareaformofauthenticitysettoguidebothstudentsandteach-ers inassignmentevaluationandareoftensubjective innature. Theyarecommonlyseeninwritingcoursesandusedforassessmenttestinginprimaryschools(Andrade,2000;Andrade&Du,2005;Char,2009;Loveland,2005). AccordingtoLoveland(2005),rubricsarevitalbe-causeoftheneedforcleardescriptionsofprojectexpectations,anduponreview,rubricsprovideaclearlydelineatedpathforstudentstoimprovetheirwork.Lovelandalsostatedthebenefitsofawell-plannedandthor-ough rubric for teachers. Development of an original rubric requires


instructorstotakearetrospectiveviewofataskforwhichtheyarewrit-ing the rubric (Leonhardt, 2005). Other authors echoed the need forrubricstobeclearandconcise(Andrade,2005;Andrade&Du,2005;Issaacson&Stacy,2009).Ifstudentsdonothavepriorknowledgeofthecategoriesdefinedonarubric,thenrubricusagecancreatefrustra-tion,bedismissed,orbeusedonlyinapartialformat(Andrade&Du,2005).Toincreaseeffectiveuseofrubrics,studentsshouldpracticeus-ingtheassessmenttool(Andrade,2000;Hafner&Hafner,2003;Tan&Towndrow,2009).Oftenstudentswillusearubricasastudyguideoroutlinefordevelopingwrittenprojects(Andrade&Du,2005),medicaltaskperformance (Brownetal.,2006),and formativedevelopmentofmusicskills(Leonhardt,2005)indicatingthatsuchanassessmenttoolisusefulintheteachingprocess. Forthisresearchproject,arubricwaschosenasateachingandas-sessmenttoolbecauseeachhands-ontask,orpsychomotorskill,couldbesubdividedintopartsandperformancemeasurescouldbeevaluated;therebytheprocessofteachingandlearningthetaskwouldbestandard-ized.Intheory,providingtheassessmenttoolpriortoataskshouldim-provestudentscores;therefore,theobjectiveofPhaseIwastodetermineifpriorknowledgeoftheassessmenttoolwouldincreaseoverallscoresaswellasscoresonindividualstepsascomparedtogroupsthatdidnotreceivetherubric.BasedonresultsfromPhaseI,asecondobjectivewasdevelopedtodetermineifstudentmotivationtoperformhands-onskillsisenhancedwhenprovidedwithanaffectiverubricforself-assessment.

METhoD

PhASEI

Afaculty-derivedrubricwasdevelopedforashowmanshippattern,whichisaskillcommonlyfoundinshowinghorsesforcompetitionandsale.Thistaskisuniversalinthatallbreedsanddisciplinesinthein-dustryuseshowmanshipformarketingtheirhorsesand/orservicebusi-nesses.Althoughsomevariationsinhorsepresentationandhandlerdressexist,effortsweremadetopreparearubricwhichwouldbeapplicableacrossbreedsanddisciplines.Theshowmanshipskillinvolvesthestu-dentmakingpreparationswithahorseseveralweekspriortocompletingthetask;therefore,studentswouldrequireadequatetimetoprepareforassessment. Steps to create an original rubric were modified using apreviouslydescribedmethod(Leonhardt,2005).Therubricwassubse-quentlyrevised,basedonstudentandfacultyfeedbackfollowinganini-tialreviewaspreviouslysuggested(Murthy&Etkina,2005).First-yearstudents(n=55)wereeitherrandomlyprovided(PR)ornotprovided(NP)therubricthreeweekspriortoskillstesting.Inthisinstance,the


taskwasdesegregatedinto11categorieswithapasssuperior,pass,orfail scoring category worth 2, 1, and 0 points, respectively (Table 1).Once the studentswereassessedusing the rubric,datawereanalyzedbytheProcGLMprocedureofSASwithjudgeandwhetherornottherubricwasprovidedastestvariables.Significancesweredeterminedatp<0.05withtendenciesnotedbetweenp=0.05andp=0.10. PhASEII—PILoTSTuDy As the equine industry incorporatesnon-invasiveperformanceen-hancingtechniquessuchashydrotherapy,massage,andwatertreadmillexercise,thereisincreaseddemandforindividualswithbothknowledgeandtheabilitytosynthesizeandevaluatehealingandphysicalconditionvisually and through tactile sensations. Unlike human rehabilitation,horsesdonotprovidereliablefeedbackonhowthestudentisapplyingtouch;furthermore,educatingstudentstohave‘thinkinghands’presentsa challenge. A holistic approach to teaching sensory perception wasimplemented inaseriesofmanual integrationcourses. Theactivitiesweredesignedinasequentialformattopromotemovementthroughallsixcognitivelevels(Bloom,1956),andusingmethodsfromanexperien-tiallearningmodelpreviouslyappliedinalarge-animalpracticalcourse(Reilingetal.,2003).Toolsforteachingtouchinotherfields,suchasnursing,wereusedinconjunctionwithlecturematerials.Further,labo-ratoriesweredevelopedusingheatingpacksandfalsehairsamples tosimulateheatandcoldperception.Duringatouchlaboratorystudentswere expected to apply self-massage techniques on the arms, hands,shoulders,andheadtoexplorefeeling.Studentswerealsoassignedtoapplymassagetechniquesonaprojecthorseforthecourseoftwosemes-ters. Studentswererequiredtoself-assessaffectivecharacteristicsof“comfort”and“feeling”(Table2)immediatelyfollowingcompletionofaforementionedexercises.Studentswerethenaskedtoreflectontheex-perienceinawrittenformatandwereledinaninformalgroupdiscussionregardingtheaffectiverubrictodetermineusefulnessandmotivationtolearnthenoveltasks.

RESuLTSPhASEI

Sampletasksandassessmentstandardsincludedameasurableout-comeformanyoftheshowmanshipsteps(Table1).Forexample,thetaskofpivotingahorse90degreesismeasurablebytheamountofpivot.However,sometaskswereconsideredmoresubjectivebytheratersthanthosewithaclearlyquantifiablevalue.Foreachtaskcategory,students


Stu

den

t M

oti

vat

ion a

nd A

sses

smen

t

22

Tab

le 1

: R

ubri

c fo

r th

e sh

ow

man

ship

tas

k

Task

P

ass

Su

per

ior

Pass

F

ail

Sta

nd h

ors

e at

cone

1;

read

y a

nd w

aiti

ng

to b

e ju

dged

Hors

e is

sta

ndin

g q

uie

tly i

n t

he

pro

per

stan

ce f

or

the

bre

ed/t

ype

show

n.

Hors

e's

should

er i

s at

the

cone.

Han

dle

r is

show

ing i

n t

he

appro

pri

ate

quar

ter,

exhib

itin

g a

pre

cise

show

stan

ce.

Hors

e is

sta

ndin

g q

uie

tly i

n t

he

pro

per

stan

ce f

or

the

bre

ed/t

ype

show

n.

Hors

e's

should

er i

s nea

r th

e co

ne.

Han

dle

r is

show

ing i

n t

he

appro

pri

ate

quar

ter,

exhib

itin

g a

loose

but

tech

nic

ally

corr

ect

show

sta

nce

.

Hors

e is

not

stan

din

g i

n t

he

pro

per

stan

ce f

or

the

bre

ed/t

ype

show

n.

Hors

e's

should

er i

s unev

en w

ith t

he

cone.

H

andle

r is

not

show

ing i

n t

he

appro

pri

ate

quar

ter.

H

andle

r is

not

exhib

itin

g a

pro

per

show

sta

nce

.

Wai

t fo

r th

e ju

dge

to

nod i

n

acknow

ledgm

ent

of

the

han

dle

r

Han

dle

r w

aits

for

the

judge

to n

od.

Aft

er t

he

nod, th

e han

dle

r m

oves

pro

mptl

y i

nto

the

pat

tern

.

Han

dle

r w

aits

for

the

judge

to n

od.

Ther

e is

a s

light

hes

itat

ion b

efore

the

han

dle

r m

oves

into

the

pat

tern

Han

dle

r does

not

wai

t fo

r th

e ju

dge

to

nod. T

her

e is

an o

bvio

us

hes

itat

ion

bef

ore

the

han

dle

r m

oves

into

the

pat

tern

.

Wal

k f

rom

fir

st t

o

seco

nd c

one

Lin

e of

trav

el i

s st

raig

ht.

H

ors

e

moves

off

wit

hout

hes

itat

ion w

ith a

bri

sk f

orw

ard m

oti

on. H

andle

r

mai

nta

ins

a pro

per

dis

tance

aw

ay

from

the

hors

e an

d e

ven

wit

h t

he

hors

e's

ear.

Lin

e of

trav

el i

s fa

irly

str

aight.

H

ors

e

moves

off

wit

h s

ligh

t hes

itat

ion w

ith

forw

ard m

oti

on. H

andle

r m

ainta

ins

a

pro

per

dis

tance

aw

ay f

rom

the

hors

e

and e

ven

wit

h t

he

hors

e's

ear.

Lin

e of

trav

el i

s not

stra

ight.

H

ors

e

show

s obvio

us

hes

itat

ion i

n s

tart

ing

forw

ard. H

ors

e m

ay e

xhib

it

bac

kw

ard m

oti

on. F

orw

ard m

oti

on i

s

sluggis

h a

nd l

acks

ener

gy. H

andle

r

does

not

mai

nta

in p

roper

posi

tionin

g

in r

elat

ion t

o t

he

hors

e.

Hal

t; P

ivot

90

deg

rees

to t

he

right

at c

one

2

Hors

e hal

ts s

quar

ely w

ith s

hould

er

even

at

cone

2. N

o b

ackw

ard

movem

ent

is o

bse

rved

. H

ors

e m

oves

smooth

ly i

nto

the

piv

ot,

kee

pin

g

forw

ard m

oti

on w

ith t

he

front

feet

and l

eft

hin

d f

oot,

and p

lanti

ng t

he

right

hin

d f

oot.

T

he

hau

nch

turn

is

exac

tly 9

0 d

egre

es.

Hors

e hal

ts s

quar

ely w

ith s

hould

er

even

to c

one

2. N

o b

ackw

ard

movem

ent

is o

bse

rved

. H

ors

e sh

ow

s

slig

ht

hes

itat

ion m

ovin

g i

nto

the

piv

ot,

kee

pin

g f

orw

ard m

oti

on w

ith

the

front

feet

, an

d p

lanti

ng o

ne

of

the

hin

d f

eet.

T

he

hau

nch

turn

is

exac

tly

90 d

egre

es.

Hors

e does

not

hal

t sq

uar

ely. H

ors

e's

should

er i

s not

even

wit

h c

one

2.

Bac

kw

ard m

ovem

ent

is o

bse

rved

.

Hors

e sh

ow

s obvio

us

hes

itat

ion

movin

g i

nto

the

piv

ot

and s

how

s

bac

kw

ards

moti

on w

ith t

he

front

feet

.

The

hau

nch

turn

is

not

equal

to 9

0

deg

rees

.

Tro

t/jo

g f

rom

cone

2

to c

one

3

Lin

e of

trav

el i

s st

raig

ht

to t

he

judge.

Hors

e m

oves

off

wit

hou

t hes

itat

ion

wit

h a

bri

sk f

orw

ard m

oti

on. H

andle

r

mai

nta

ins

a pro

per

dis

tance

aw

ay

from

the

hors

e ev

en w

ith t

he

hors

e's

ear.

Lin

e of

trav

el i

s fa

irly

str

aight

to t

he

judge.

H

ors

e m

oves

off

wit

h s

light

hes

itat

ion w

ith f

orw

ard m

oti

on.

Han

dle

r m

ainta

ins

a pro

per

dis

tance

away

fro

m t

he

hors

e ev

en w

ith t

he

hors

e's

ear.

Lin

e of

trav

el i

s not

stra

ight

to t

he

judge.

H

ors

e sh

ow

s obvio

us

hes

itat

ion i

n s

tart

ing f

orw

ard. H

ors

e

may

exhib

it b

ackw

ard m

oti

on.

Forw

ard m

oti

on i

s sl

uggis

h a

nd l

acks

ener

gy. H

andle

r does

not

mai

nta

in

pro

per

posi

tionin

g i

n r

elat

ion t

o t

he

hors

e.

Table1:Rubricforthesh

owmanshiptask


Stu

den

t M

oti

vat

ion a

nd A

sses

smen

t

23

Han

dle

r an

d h

ors

e

hal

t at

co

ne

3;

han

dle

r st

and

s h

ors

e

Ho

rse

hal

ts s

qu

arel

y w

ith

sh

ou

lder

even

at

con

e 3

. N

o b

ack

war

d

mo

vem

ent

is o

bse

rved

. H

ors

e is

stan

din

g i

n t

he

pro

per

bre

ed s

tan

ce

wit

hin

6 s

eco

nd

s o

f th

e h

alt.

H

and

ler

is s

ho

win

g i

n t

he

app

rop

riat

e q

uar

ter,

exh

ibit

ing

a p

reci

se s

ho

w s

tan

ce.

Ho

rse

hal

ts s

qu

arel

y w

ith

sh

ou

lder

even

at

con

e 3

. N

o b

ack

war

d

mo

vem

ent

is o

bse

rved

. H

ors

e is

stan

din

g i

n t

he

pro

per

bre

ed s

tan

ce

wit

hin

15

sec

on

ds

of

the

hal

t.

Han

dle

r is

sh

ow

ing

in

th

e ap

pro

pri

ate

qu

arte

r, e

xh

ibit

ing

a l

oo

se b

ut

tech

nic

ally

co

rrec

t sh

ow

sta

nce

.

Ho

rse

do

es n

ot

hal

t sq

uar

ely

. H

ors

e's

sho

uld

er i

s n

ot

even

wit

h c

on

e 3

.

Bac

kw

ard

mo

vem

ent

is o

bse

rved

.

Ho

rse

is n

ot

stan

din

g i

n t

he

pro

per

bre

ed s

tan

ce.

Han

dle

r is

no

t sh

ow

ing

in t

he

app

rop

riat

e q

uar

ter.

H

and

ler

is

no

t ex

hib

itin

g a

pro

per

sh

ow

sta

nce

.

Han

dle

r p

rese

nts

ho

rse

in q

uar

ters

Han

dle

r co

nsi

sten

tly

sta

nd

s in

th

e

app

rop

riat

e q

uar

ter

in r

elat

ion

to

th

e

jud

ge.

M

ov

emen

t in

fro

nt

of

the

ho

rse

is p

reci

se a

nd

qu

ick

, u

sin

g a

min

imu

m o

f st

eps.

Han

dle

r co

nsi

sten

tly

sta

nd

s in

th

e

app

rop

riat

e q

uar

ter

in r

elat

ion

to

th

e

jud

ge.

M

ov

emen

t in

fro

nt

of

the

ho

rse

is s

mo

oth

, b

ut

lack

s p

reci

sen

ess

and

en

erg

y.

Han

dle

r d

oes

no

t st

and

in

th

e

app

rop

riat

e q

uar

ter

in r

elat

ion

to

th

e

jud

ge.

M

ov

emen

t in

fro

nt

of

the

ho

rse

lack

sm

oo

thn

ess

and

lo

ok

s

stil

ted

an

d a

wk

war

d.

Han

dle

r tu

rns

ho

rse

27

0 d

egre

es t

o t

he

rig

ht;

wal

ks

to l

ine

up

are

a

Ho

rse

mo

ves

sm

oo

thly

in

to t

he

piv

ot,

kee

pin

g f

orw

ard

mo

tio

n w

ith

th

e fr

on

t

feet

an

d l

eft

hin

d f

oo

t, a

nd

pla

nti

ng

the

rig

ht

hin

d f

oo

t.

Th

e h

aun

ch t

urn

is e

xac

tly

27

0 d

egre

es.

Ho

rse

dep

arts

smo

oth

ly i

nto

a f

orw

ard

, en

erg

etic

wal

k.

Ho

rse

sho

ws

slig

ht

hes

itat

ion

mo

vin

g

into

th

e p

ivo

t, k

eep

ing

fo

rwar

d

mo

tio

n w

ith

th

e fr

on

t fe

et,

and

pla

nti

ng

on

e o

f th

e h

ind

fee

t.

Th

e

hau

nch

tu

rn i

s ex

actl

y 2

70

deg

rees

.

Ho

rse

dep

arts

fai

rly

sm

oo

thly

in

to a

forw

ard

wal

k.

Ho

rse

sho

ws

ob

vio

us

hes

itat

ion

mo

vin

g i

nto

th

e p

ivo

t an

d s

ho

ws

bac

kw

ard

s m

oti

on

wit

h t

he

fro

nt

feet

.

Th

e h

aun

ch t

urn

is

no

t eq

ual

to

27

0

deg

rees

. H

and

ler

turn

s h

ors

e th

e

wro

ng

dir

ecti

on

. H

ors

e sh

ow

s

hes

itat

ion

at

the

wal

k a

nd

do

es n

ot

exh

ibit

an

en

erg

etic

gai

t.

Han

dle

r li

nes

up

an

d

rem

ain

s sh

ow

ing

ho

rse

Ho

rse

is s

tan

din

g q

uie

tly

in

th

e p

rop

er

stan

ce f

or

the

bre

ed/t

yp

e sh

ow

n.

Han

dle

r is

sh

ow

ing

in

th

e ap

pro

pri

ate

qu

arte

r, e

xh

ibit

ing

a p

reci

se s

ho

w

stan

ce.

Ho

rse

is s

tan

din

g q

uie

tly

in

th

e p

rop

er

stan

ce f

or

the

bre

ed/t

yp

e sh

ow

n.

Han

dle

r is

sh

ow

ing

in

th

e ap

pro

pri

ate

qu

arte

r, e

xh

ibit

ing

a l

oo

se b

ut

tech

nic

ally

co

rrec

t sh

ow

sta

nce

.

Ho

rse

is n

ot

stan

din

g i

n t

he

pro

per

stan

ce f

or

the

bre

ed/t

yp

e sh

ow

n.

Han

dle

r is

no

t sh

ow

ing

in

th

e

app

rop

riat

e q

uar

ter.

H

and

ler

is n

ot

exh

ibit

ing

a p

rop

er s

ho

w s

tan

ce.

Ov

eral

l -

Han

dle

r's

atti

re

Han

dle

r is

dre

ssed

in

th

e ap

pro

pri

ate

atti

re f

or

the

bre

ed/t

yp

e b

ein

g s

ho

wn

.

Att

ire

is o

f th

e h

igh

est

sho

w c

alib

er.

Han

dle

r is

dre

ssed

in

th

e ap

pro

pri

ate

atti

re f

or

the

bre

ed/t

yp

e b

ein

g s

ho

wn

.

Att

ire

is f

un

ctio

nal

, cl

ean

an

d f

itte

d.

Han

dle

r is

no

t d

ress

ed i

n t

he

app

rop

riat

e at

tire

fo

r th

e b

reed

/ty

pe

bei

ng

sh

ow

n.

Att

ire

is d

irty

, h

as

ho

les

in i

t, a

nd

do

es n

ot

fit

wel

l.

Ov

eral

l -

Ho

rse'

s

app

eara

nce

Ho

rse

is v

ery

cle

an a

nd

pas

ses

the

wh

ite

glo

ve

test

. A

ll m

ark

ing

s ar

e

gle

amin

g w

hit

e.

Ho

rse

is

app

rop

riat

ely

cli

pp

ed.

Man

e an

d t

ail

are

bra

ided

/ban

ded

ap

pro

pri

atel

y.

All

equ

ipm

ent

is c

lean

.

Ho

rse

is c

lean

, w

ith

so

me

du

st

sho

win

g o

n t

he

wh

ite

glo

ve

test

. A

ll

mar

kin

gs

are

clea

n.

Ho

rse

is

app

rop

riat

ely

cli

pp

ed.

Man

e an

d t

ail

are

clea

n,

bru

shed

an

d f

ree

fro

m

tan

gle

s.

All

eq

uip

men

t is

cle

an.

Ho

rse

has

ob

vio

us

dir

t sh

ow

ing

an

d

do

es n

ot

pas

s th

e w

hit

e g

lov

e te

st.

Mar

kin

gs

hav

e st

ain

s o

r v

isib

le d

irt.

Ho

rse

is n

ot

clip

ped

. M

ane

and

tai

l

are

tan

gle

d a

nd

dir

ty.

Eq

uip

men

t

clea

rly

has

no

t b

een

cle

aned

.

Stu

den

t M

oti

vat

ion

an

d A

sses

smen

t

24

Fin

al S

core

: N

um

ber

of

“Pas

s S

uper

ior”

x 2

=

Num

ber

of

“Pas

s” x

1 =

N

um

ber

“F

ail”

x 0

=


earnedascore(Fail=0,Pass=1,PassSuperior=2)thatwascompiledtoequatetoatotalscore.Anoverallscoreof11wasconsideredpassingfortheassessment.TheresultsdemonstratedthatthePRstudentsearnedalower(p<0.05)totalscoreof12.8thantheNPstudentsearnedof17.1(Table3).Inconsiderationofindividualscorecategories(Table4),thePRandNPstudentshadsimilar(p>0.05)passsuperiorscores.Interest-ingly,PRstudentsdemonstratedhigher(p<0.05)passscoresthantheNPstudents.Conversely,higher(p<0.05)failscores(1.4)werenotedinNPstudentsascomparedtoPRstudents(0.1).

Student Motivation and Assessment

6

Table 3: Total scores for students (n = 55) either provided the rubric (PR) or not provided

the rubric (NP) prior to the skill assessment.

Student Group Total Score1

PR 12.8b

NP 17.1a

(5.3) 1Total scores for all rubric categories (mean square error for total scores)

ab Values with unlike superscripts within a column are significantly different at p < 0.05

Table3:Totalscoresforstudents(n=55)eitherprovidedtherubric(PR)ornotprovidedtherubric(nP)priortotheskillassessment.

1Totalscoresforallrubriccategories(meansquareerrorfortotalscores)abValueswithunlikesuperscriptswithinacolumnaresignificantlydifferentatp<0.05 Student Motivation and Assessment

27

Table 4: Individual score categories for students (n = 55) either provided the rubric (PR)

or not provided the rubric (NP) prior to the skill assessment.

1Individual scores for all rubric categories (mean square error for total scores

ab Values with unlike superscripts within a column are significantly different at p < 0.05

Score Category1

Student Group Pass Superior Pass Fail

PR 2.3a 6.1

a 0.1

b

NP 3.3a 2.0

b 1.4

a

(3.5) (2.9) (0.2)

Table4:Individualscorecategoriesforstudents(n=55)eitherprovidedtherubric(PR)ornotprovidedtherubric(nP)priortotheskillassessment.

1Individualscoresforallrubriccategories(meansquareerrorfortotalscores)abValueswithunlikesuperscriptswithinacolumnaresignificantlydifferentatp<0.05

Student Motivation and Assessment

25

Table 2: Assessment rubric for comfort and feeling

Comfort I was/am 20%

comfortable with

performing this

exercise.

I was/am 40%

comfortable

with

performing this

exercise.

I was/am 70%

comfortable with

performing this

exercise.

I was/am 100%

comfortable with

performing this

exercise.

Personal

Feeling

I am exhausted; I

feel drained; I feel

sore in my hands

and shoulders; I

am 100%

dissatisfied with

the session

I am neutral; I

feel neither

drained nor

energized; I

feel sore in my

hands and

shoulders; I am

only 25 %

satisfied with

the session

I am neutral; I

feel neither

drained nor

energized; I feel

good overall; I

feel sore in my

hands and

shoulders; I am

only 70%

satisfied with the

session

I am energized or

at least feel the

same as I started

the session; I feel

grounded; I feel

only minor

soreness in my

hands and

shoulders; I am

100% satisfied

with the session.

Table2:Assessmentrubricforcomfortandfeeling


PhASEII Astandardizedrubric(Table2)forassessingaffectivevaluesinper-formingtactileskillswasratedas100%(7of7responses)usefulbystu-dents.Whenaskedtoanalyzeindividualprogressoverthesemester,stu-dentsindicatedthattheircomfortandpersonalfeelingscoresdecreasedundertwoconditions:whenataskwasnovelorwhenexternalstressors(exams, personal situations, lack of rest) impacted their participation.Facultyobservationsof student involvement incourseactivitiesnotedthat as students realized that their peerswere also feelinguncomfort-ableortired,theclasswasmorelikelytoparticipateindiscussionsandexpressedmoreeagernesstoapplythetechniquesinapracticumsetting.

DISCuSSIon

Results fromthe initialstudyagreewith theconcepts identified inboth the arts and music fields (Mason & Steedly, 2006; Meier et al.,2006;Leonhardt,2005).Therewerenotablediscrepanciesintheuseofindividualstepsoftherubric,makingassessmentcomplicated.However,basedonfocusgroupdiscussionswithraters,thefaculty-derivedrubricwasdesegregatedintoappropriatecategoriesandconsidereduseful,al-thoughmeasurementof‘usefulness’wasnotdeterminedinPhaseI.Fromthesediscussions,theimportanceofprovidingamethodforquantifyingperformanceundereachtaskcategorywasnoted. Althoughnotclearlyaddressed,otherworksutilizingrubricsforpsy-chomotorskillsoftenincludesomeformofquantitativemeasure(Brownet al., 2006;Seybert&Barton, 2007), although suchvalueswerenotconsistentlyincludedinrubricsusedforwritingskills(Andrade,2005;Loveland, 2005). By nature, the rubric as an assessment tool shouldmakegradinglessredundantbylimitingthenumberoftimesaprofessorwritesthesamecommentandprovidesameansforstudentunderstand-ing of grading standards (Brookhart, 2003). Descriptors such as “few,”“widevariety,” “slowly,” “many,” areopen to interpretation resultingindifferencesbetweenraterandstudentinterpretation.Thedifferencesbetweentheneedforquantitativemeasureinrubricsforcognitiveskillsascomparedtopsychomotorskillsmayberelatedmoretofieldofstudy.Forinstance,innursing,a“likelyharmful”scoreinarubricdealingwithapplicationofaseptictechniqueforpreparationofasepticproductsmayresult in injury, illness or death depending on the ultimate use of theproduct(Brownetal.,2006). Inconsiderationofanincreasedrisk tohumans or animals, rubric categories should be quantifiable by time,proportions,orotherformsofmeasuretolimitraterinterpretationandsubjectivity. As ameans to address clarity in rubricuse, proportionswere implemented into the rubricdevelopedforPhase II. Theuseof


proportionsgaveraterstheabilitytoassessthevalueoftheiraffectiveresponseonacommonlyknownscale.Thesealterationsaidedincreat-ingclarityoftheassessmenttool,whichisinagreementwithpreviouswork(Andrade&Du,2005;Meieretal.,2006). MurthyandEtkina(2005)designedarubrictoassesstheirstudents’abilities in devising solutions to a laboratory problem and conveyingtheirsolutioninawrittenformatreportsinalargeenrollmentintroducto-rylaboratorycourse.Theaveragefinalexamscoreforthesamplegroupwas 78.3 as compared to the class average of 75 out of 100 possiblepoints.Theauthorsindicatedaneedfordevelopmentandrevisionoftherubricpriortouseandsuggestedthatstudentperformanceimprovedaf-terreceivingtherubric(Murthy&Etkina,2005).ThesedatacontradictthefindingsinPhaseI.ApparentlystudentsinPhaseIPRgroupweremotivatedtoaccomplisha“passing”score,butnotmotivatedenoughtoachievea“passsuperior”score. Further, thereweremorestudents toboth“fail”and“passsuperior”intheNPgroupsreflectingthehighestandlowestmotivationforachievingtheoverallskill. Compilationofstudentreflectionsintoseveralthemesdemonstratedinbothphasesofthisstudythattheoverallexperienceofusingarubricwaspositiveandalleviatedmuchoftheconfusionoftenassociatedwiththe “how-to’s” of hands-on skills. The students in Phase II reflectedthattherubricsshouldbecreatedforallequinecoursestohelpalleviatesubjectivityinassessment.Thisthemesupportsthefacultyobservationthatperceptionoffairnessinassessmentandclearnessofexpectationsenhancesmotivationandwillingnesstolearntheseskillsandagreeswithsimilarfindingsinthewritingfield(Andrade&Du,2005)andfororalpresentations (Hafner & Hafner, 2003). Despite this positive theme,therewerestudent-derivedrecommendationsforimprovementoftheas-sessmenttools.Thefirstrecommendationthemewasthatsomestepsintheskillsrubricshouldbeweightedascriticalpoints,andtheskillstepsshouldbeevenmoredetailedtomaketheteachingandassessmenttoolmore effective. Another recommendation was that all students couldhavebenefitedfromhavingthetoolinadvanceforpracticinghands-onskills;however,basedonstudentscoresinthistrial,thisperceptiondoesnotresultinachievementofthehighestpossiblescore.Thisdiscrepancybetweenattitudetowardstherubricuseandperceptionofperformancelevelwasalsoobservedintheapplicationofmusicskills(Char,2009;Schmidt,2005).Assessmentofastudent’smotivationtopracticeataskascomparedtoperformanceofthattaskmaybeabettermeanstodif-ferentiateintrinsicfromextrinsicmotivators(Schmidt,2005).


uSEoFRuBRICSAnDSTuDEnTDEVELoPMEnTInAPPLIEDLEARnInG

Bloom’sTaxonomyofLearningdictatesthatlearningoccursinthreedifferentmanners:cognitive(knowledge),affective(attitude),andpsy-chomotor(skills)(Bloom,1956).Inanequinestudiesprogram,abaselevelofcognitivelearningisnecessarysothatthestudentunderstandstheory and background common to the industry. Also necessary is ahighlevelofpsychomotorlearninginanefforttoachievepracticalap-plications.Thispresentsachallengetotheinstructorwhomustbalancethelevelsandapplicationofcognitiveandpsychomotorlearningwithina given lesson. In addition to complicating the teaching process, thecombinationofcognitiveandpsychomotorelementscreatesachallengeinassessingstudentperformance. Studentsdemonstratingaparticulartask(evidenceoftheskill)arenotusuallyexpectedtoalsodemonstratecognitivelearning(eitherinverbalorwrittenformat).Conversely,stu-dents demonstrating cognitive learning generally are not required todemonstratepsychomotorlearningwithahorseintheclassroomenvi-ronment. Aframeworkdescribingthedifferentstagesofpsychomotorlearn-inghasbeenpreviouslydescribed(Simpson,1972).Withinthisframe-workastudentprogresses throughthestepsofperception,set,guidedresponse,mechanism,complexovertresponse,adaptation,andorigina-tion. Thesedivisionsprogress frombasic learningof a skill (percep-tionandset)toadvancedmasteryoftheskillresultinginspontaneousimprovementasaresponsetospecificproblems(origination).Withinanequinestudiesprogram,professorsencouragestudentstoprogressfromguidedresponsetoatleastthemechanismstep.Asstudentsprogresstothemechanismcategory,theyhavemovedintotheintermediatestagesof learning. During this type of psychomotor learning, response andactionsbecomehabitual,andthestudentdisplaysamoderateamountofconfidencewhendisplayingskills(Simpson,1972).Studentsinequineprograms are traditionally assessed by demonstration and subsequentcomparisonofthepsychomotorskilltoastandard,whichisdefinedin-houseorbyarespectedequineprofessional.However,achievementoftheskillisnotalwaystheentirepurposeofteachingthetask,andsomemethodsofperformingindividualskillsputboththehorseandstudentinpotentiallydangeroussituations.Theseskillsareoftennotintuitiveorinherentlylogical;therefore,safetyissuesandprograminconsisten-ciesdictate theneedfor theseskillsandthe learningexperience tobestandardized.Intheequineindustry,judgingstandardsassociatedwithshowingofvariousbreedsanddisciplinesexist;however,clearholisticstandards that reach across all breeds or disciplines do not. In otherfields,therearestandardizedtestsforoutcome-basedcognitivelearning.


Thedatapresentedinthistrialindicateacombinationofanassessmentrubricdevelopedforaspecificpsychomotortaskandanaffectiverubricforself-assessmentareviableoptionsforteachingandassessingappliedskillsintheequinestudiesfield. Previousexperienceswithhandlinghorsesaffectstudentcomfortinperformingappliedtasks(Meeketal.,2005).Throughfurtherdevelop-mentofrubricsforotherequinestudiesskills,asindicatedinthisstudy,thehands-onexperiencecouldbestandardized.Furthermore,well-con-structed rubricsmay also assist indeveloping intrinsicmotivation forlearningtheseskillswhenstudentsdemonstratepre-existinghorseexpe-riences.Inexperiencedstudentscouldbenefitfromthesetoolsbyhavingaclearlydelineatedstep-wiseprocess.BothAndradeandDu(2005)andBrookhart(2003)reportedthatformativeassessmentof“goodwriting”resultsinstudentstransferringtheirrubric-basedconceptionsofqualityworkintoothercoursesandtootherstudents.Asacademicprogramsin the equine studiesfieldgrow, furtherdevelopmentof teaching andassessmenttoolswhichstandardizehands-onskilllearningandthecriti-calthinkingprocesswouldpromotecohesivenessofequinestudiespro-grams,enhancestudentmotivation,andprovideameansfordocument-ingstudentprogress.Otherfieldsofstudythatdonothavethebenefitofmultipleleadinggenerationsmightalsobenefitfromdevelopmentofsimilartoolstopromotestandardization,motivation,anddocumentationofstudentlearning. Experientiallearningandmorespecificallyactivelearningisanin-structionalmethodwhichengagesstudentsinthelearningprocessandrequiresthatstudentsthinkaboutwhattheyaredoinginsteadofsolelymemorizingfacts(Lohuisetal.,1999;Prince,2004;Tan&Towndrow,2009).Inthisstudy,rubricswereusedasapplicationsofuniversalintel-lectualstandards(Paul&Elder,2001)for teachingandassessmentofhands-onskills. Basedon focusgroupdiscussions, thestudent learn-ingexperiencewaspositive,andthetoolsservedaseffectivemeansforlinkingcriticalthoughttoaction.Studentswereencouragednotonlytoperformaskill,buttoevaluatehowtoperformthatskill.Thisobserva-tionhasalsobeenrecentlydocumentedinstudentslearningmusicskills(Char,2009). Byusing rubrics in thismethod, theprocessofcriticalthinkingwasintroducedinanon-threateningmanner.Studentsclearlystruggledwithconvertingfromcognitivetoaffectiveandself-reflectiveactivitiesasindicatedthroughobservableexpressionsoffrustrationanddissatisfaction in Phase II. These observations support the data fromPhaseIofstudentsbeingmoregoal-orientedthanprocess-oriented.TheresultsfromPhaseIclearlydelineatedthatfirst-yearstudentsmaynotworktothehighestscorelevelwhenprovidedwiththeassessmenttool,whichisinagreementwithresultsinthemusic(Char,2009)andwriting(Andrade&Du,2005)fields.Motivationinthird-andfourth-yearstu-


dentsisoftenperceivedaslessaboutcomfortandmoreaboutfocusingon graduation or employment goals. Clayton (2009) stressed the de-velopmentoflearningobjectivesfor“criticalreflection[that]generates,deepensanddocumentslearning”(p.7).Similarly,innursingclinicaleducation,theuseofrubricsaidednotonlyininstructorfeedback,butalsostudentapplicationofcritical thinkingandreflection(Isaacson&Stacy,2009).InmakingtheshiftfromPhaseItoPhaseII,courseac-tivitieswerealignedwithmovingstudentsthroughaclearlydelineated,step-wiselearningexperience.Althoughasmalldataset(n=7),studentfeedbackinPhaseIIsupportstheneedforcriticalreflectionpreviouslyoutlined(Andrade,2000;Clayton,2009;Isaccson&Stacy,2009),notonlyfordocumentation,butalsotoenhancemotivationandengagementinthelearningprocess. One student’s reflection regarding the use of rubrics in Phase IIstated,“…creativityinteachingstartswiththeabilitytoteachinunex-pectedorunlikelysituations. Teachingisnotamatterof thequantityofthecontent,butthequalityoflearning. AlthoughatfirstIdislikedthe tasks and found them cumbersome, as the semester progressed,these toolshelpedmeassessmyqualityof learninginawaythathadnot been previously given to me. I find myself now thinking—whatproportionofthetaskdidIreallycomplete?AmIcomfortableandpre-pared?WhatdidIlearn?”Thisreflectionexemplifiestheconceptofanengagedpedagogyandashiftinstudentperspective.Bothengagementandperspectiveshiftsaregoalsofapplied learningandcritical reflec-tion (Clayton,2009). As furtherevidenceof thisshift inperspective,anonymoussharingofstudentresponsesfostereddiscussionandgreaterwillingnessofstudentparticipationasobservedbyincreaseddiscussionintheclassroomandpeer-to-peerinteractionsinPhaseII.Studentsratedtheircomfortlevelgreaterwhenthetaskwasassociatedwiththeknowl-edgeorcomprehensionlevelsthanwhentheactivityrequiredanalysis,synthesis,orevaluation. These reflectionsalso raised interestingdataregardingspecifictactilesensations.Themostdifficultsensorypercep-tion to teach is temperaturesensitivity.Thisperception isconfoundedwhentheambienttemperatureisnearfreezing,suchasthatfoundinanunheatedstableduringthewintermonths.Developmentofstandardizedmodelsaidedinteachingthissense,althoughmoreworkondevelopingreliablemodelsisnecessitated.Applicationofaffectiverubricsinotherfieldsmayaidinfurtherelucidatingtheissueofstudentmotivation.FuTuREDIRECTIonSAnDConCLuSIonS

Asanunexpected result,when techniquesweredemonstrated stu-dents focused more on trying to mimic exact movements, instead ofreflectingon theirownperceptions. When techniqueswerenotdem-


onstrated,studentsdevelopedtheirownapproachtothetask.Theau-thors are currently investigatingdemonstrationof a skill as comparedtowrittenorverbalexplanationofskills,inrelationtothelearningandassessmentprocess.Thisresearchdirectionbuildsonpreviousresearch(Meeketal.,2005)incombinationwiththequestionsregardingassess-mentfoundinthisstudy.Asamodelfordistancelearning(eitheron-lineorvideoconferencing),previouslyunpublisheddataregardingstu-dentperceptionofPowerPointpresentationswasinvestigatedinasmallgroupofstudents(n=14).Forthetestcourse,thecontentwaspresentedsolelythroughverbalexplanationandwritingonawhiteboard.Allstu-dentshadpreviouslybeeninequinestudiesclasseswhichweretaughtusing primarily PowerPoint lectures. Two questions were asked on avoluntarysurveytodeterminestudentpreferenceofdeliverymethod:1)Ipreferredthattheprofessorwroteonthedry-eraseboardforteachingthecoursecontent;2)Iwouldhavepreferredthattheprofessorhadpre-paredallPowerPointpresentationsforteachingthecoursecontent.Stu-dentsevaluatedthesequestionsusingafive-pointscalefrom“stronglyagree”to“stronglydisagree”.Studentpreferenceofdry-eraseboardwas100%“stronglyagree”or“agree”.Interestingly,onlyatotalof33%ofstudents“agree”withtheuseofPowerPointpresentationsforteachingcontent,without any “strongly agree” answers. Thenext stepwas todiscernwhystudentspreferredtheuseofthedry-eraseboard.Duringaninformaldiscussion,amainthemeemerged.Studentspreferredthehand-writtenmaterialbecausethecoursepacewassloweranddiscus-sionmoreinteractivethanwhenusingPowerPointorothertechnology.Thisfeedbackconflictswithuseofdigitalvideotechnologyinbiologyasanassessmentofstudent-teacherinteraction(Tan&Towndrow,2009)and use of music recording software to motivate beginner musicians(Char, 2009). In equine studies, there is an increased pressure to becompetitivewithonlineprogramssuchasbusinessorhealthcareadmin-istration. Theexperiential learningaspectofequinestudiesandotheragriculturalfieldsiswhatdrawsstudentstotheseprograms(Lohuisetal.,1999;Meek&Marean,2006;Reilingetal.,2003).Inconsiderationof student feedback regardingPowerPointutilization in the traditionalclassroomandPhaseIIobservationspresented,deliverymethodofap-pliedskillsandsubsequentcognitionof“how-to”performthatskillarenotequitableintermsoflearningandattitudetowardslearning.There-fore,thevalueofassessmenttools,suchasskillsrubrics,combinedwithmethodofdeliverywarrantsfurtherinvestigationinanappliedlearningmodel. Althoughtheoverallresearchobjectivewastopromotestandardiza-tionofhands-onskills,thesedataraiseseveralinterestingquestionsre-gardingappliedlearningpedagogy.Rubricsaidedinstudentmotivationtolearnandperformskillswhenprovidedearlyinthelearningprocess;


however,studentsmayonlyworktoapassinglevelorotherlevelwhichtheyfeelisacceptablefortheirpersonalgoals.Theassessmentrubricassistedstudentsinde-mystifyinganoveltaskintheequinestudiesfield,asdocumentedinthefocusgroupdiscussions.Tasksshouldbealignedwithwell-definedobjectiveswhichprovidepurposefulprogression,andhavemeasureableoutcomes.Demonstrationascomparedtodescriptionoftasksdelineatedonanassessmentrubricwarrantsmoreresearch.Stu-dentsexpressedmotivationforandengagementinthelearningprocesswhenusingaffectiverubricsforself-assessment.

REFEREnCES

TheAmericanHorseCouncil.(2005).The economic impact of the horse industry in the United States(Vol.1-5).Washington,D.C.:Author.Andrade,H.(2005).Teachingwithrubrics.College Teaching, 53,27-30.Andrade,H.(2000).Usingrubricstopromotethinkingandlearning.Educational Leader- ship,57(5),13-18.Andrade,H.,&Du,Y.(2005).Studentperspectivesonrubric-referencedassessment[Elec- tronicversion].Practical Assessment Research & Evaluation, 10(3),1-11.BloomB.S.(1956).Taxonomy of educational objectives, Handbook I: The cognitive domain.NewYork:DavidMcKayCo.Britt,J.H.,Aberle,E.D.,Esbenshade,K.L.,&Males,J.R.(2008).Invitedreview:Animal sciencedepartmentsofthefuture.Journal of Animal Science, 86,3235-3244.Brown,M.C.,Conway,J.,&Sorenson,T.D.(2006).Developmentandimplementation ofascoringrubricforaseptictechnique.American Journal of Pharmaceutical Educa- tion, 70(6),1-6.Brookhart,S.(2003).Developingmeasurementtheoryforclassroomassessmentpurposes anduses.Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 22(4),5-12.CenterforBusinessandEconomicResearch.(2004).The 2002 economic and fiscal impact of the Kentucky equine industry.Lexington,KY:Author.Char,L.(2009).UsingGarageBandtomotivatestudentstopractice.Proceedings of the 14th Annual Technology, Colleges, and Community Worldwide Online Conference, RetrievedJune27,2009fromhttp://hdl.handle.net/10125/7969Clayton,P.H.(2009,February).Generating, deepening, and documenting learning: The power of critical reflection in applied learning. Paper presented at the 4th Annual ConferenceonAppliedLearninginHigherEducation,St.Joseph,MO.Conners,S.,&Brady,C. (2009).The importanceofbusiness in theequinecurriculum [Electronicversion].Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 29(5),441-442.Hafner,J.,&Hafner,P.(2003).Quantitativeanalysisoftherubricasanassessmenttool: Anempiricalstudyofstudentpeer-grouprating.International Journal of Science Edu- cation, 25(12),1509-1528.Hogue-Davies,V.(2004).Careers with horses.Irvine,CA:BowtiePress.Hoover,T.S.,&Marshall,T.T.(1998).Acomparisonoflearningstylesanddemographic characteristicsofstudentsenrolledinselectedanimalsciencecourses[Electronicver- sion].Journal of Animal Science, 76(12),3169-3173.Isaacson,J.J.&Stacy,A.S.(2009).Rubricsforclinicalevaluation:Objectifyingthesub- jectiveexperience.Nurse Education in Practice, 9(2),134-140.Kretler,B.(1995).50 careers with horses!Ossining,NY:BreakthroughPublications.Landers,T.A.(2002).The career guide to the horse industry.Albany,NY:Delmar,Thom- asLearning.


Leonhardt,A.(2005).Usingrubricsasanassessmenttoolinyourclassroom.[Electronic version]General Music Today,19,10-16.Lohuis,C.T.,Lohuis,M.M.,&Petrongolo,R.A.(1999).Thepotentialofopenlearningin animalbreeding[Electronicversion].Journal of Dairy Science, 82,1586-1594.Loveland,T.R.(2005).Writingstandards-basedrubricsfortechnologyeducationclass- rooms.Technological Teacher, 65,19-30.Mason,C.Y.,&Steedly,K.M.(2006).Rubricsandanartsintegrationcommunityofprac- tice.Teaching Exceptional Children, 39,36-43.Meek,K.I.,Coleman,R.J.,&Schilling,M.W.(2005).Amodelfordistancelearning:Skills learninginanequinemanagementcourse.Proceedings of the Equine Science Society, 19,287.Meek,K.I.,&Marean,R.(2006).Assessmentstandardizationofhands-onskillsinequine studiescourses.Journal of Animal Science, 84,suppl.1,408.Meier,S.L.,Rich,B.S.,&Cady,J.A.(2006).Teachers’useofrubricstoscorenon-traditional tasks: Factors related to discrepancies in scoring. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policies and Practice, 13(1),69-95.Murthy,S.,&Etkina,E.(2005).Developmentofscientificabilitiesinalargeclass.InJ. Marx, P. Heron, & S. Franklin (Eds.), American Institute of Physics Conference Proceedings, 790,133-136.NationalAssociationofEquineAffiliatedAcademics.(n.d.).Resources and information. RetrievedJuly1,2009fromhttp://www.naeaa.comPaul,R.,&Elder,L.(2001).Critical thinking: Tools for taking charge of your learning and your life.London:Prentice-HallInternational.Prince,M.(2004).Doesactivelearningwork?Areviewoftheresearch[Electronicver- sion].Journal of Engineering Education, 93,223-231.Reiling,B.A.,Marshall,T.T.,Brendemuhl,J.H.,McQuagge,J.A.,&Umphrey,J.E.(2003). Experiential learning in the animal sciences: development of a multispecies large- animal management and production practicum. Journal Animal Science, 81, 3202- 3210.Schmidt,C.P.(2005).Relationsamongmotivation,performanceachievement,andmusic experiencevariablesinsecondaryinstrumentalmusicstudents.Journal of Research in Music Education, 53(2),134-147.Seybert,A.L.,&Barton,C.M.(2007).Simulation-basedlearningtoteachbloodpressure assessmenttodoctorofpharmacystudents[Electronicversion].American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 71(3),1-6.SimpsonE.J.(1972).The classification of educational objectives in the psychomotor domain.Washington,D.C.:GryphonHouse.Tan,A.L.,&Towndrow,P.A.(2009).Catalyzingstudent-teacherinteractionsandteacher learning in science practical formative assessment with digital video technology. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(1),61-67.UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture,NationalAgricultureStatisticsService.(2002). Census of agriculture.RetrievedJune29,2009fromhttp://www.nass.usda.gov/census/

109

Demographic tipping Point: Cultural Brokering with english

Language Learners as Service- Learning for teacher Candidates

and educators

wenDy L. mCCARty UniversityofNebraskaatKearney

RoSemARy CeRVAnteS EducationalServiceUnit10

GeRALDIne StIRtz UniversityofNebraskaatKearney

Changes in the demographic composition of the United States relative to the increase in English language learners (ELLs) in newcomer and refugee populations generate the need for cultural brokers, particularly in the ranks of educators and teacher candidates. Applied learning, especially as used in service-learning opportunities in teacher candidate prepa-ration programs, can produce educators with greater cultural understanding and skills in best practices for literacy instruction. Examples of service-learning for this purpose are highlighted, as well as emerging strategies in professional development for educators who work with ELLs and their families.

“Americaisonitswaytobecomingamicrocosmoftheentireworld.Oneoutofeverytenpeopleisforeign-born.Oneoutofeveryfiveschoolchildren is foreign-born or had foreign-born parents. We are literallybecominga countrymadeupof everycountry in theworld.”So said



KennethPrewitt,formerdirectoroftheUnitedStatesCensusBureauin2000(Pipher,2002,p.55).Bythemidpointofthiscentury,ournationwillbeevenmoreraciallyandethnicallydiverse,accordingtoprojec-tions released in August 2008 by the Bureau. Today’s minorities cur-rentlycompriseaboutone-thirdoftheU.S.populationandareexpectedtobecomethemajorityby2042;thenationisprojectedtobe54percentofformerminoritiesby2050.In2023,today’sminoritieswillcomprisemorethanhalfoftheU.S.populationofchildrenaswell.By2050,chil-drenareexpectedtobe62percentofformerminorities,comparedto44percenttoday;thirty-ninepercentareprojectedtobeHispanic,upfrom22percentin2008.TheHispanicpopulationisprojectedtonearlytripleduring2008-2050,anditspercentageofthenation’stotalpopulationisprojectedtodouble,from15percentto30percent—meaningnearlyoneinthreeU.S.residentswouldbeHispanic(Bernstein&Edwards,2008). Asacountrymadeupofmanycountriesthroughouttheworld,theUnitedStates is facingademographic tippingpoint—acultural learn-ingcurvenotyetseeninitshistory.Whennewcomersandmembersofthemainstreamculturespeakdifferentlanguages,thelearningcurveisespeciallysteeponbothsides.TheU.S.CensusBureaureportedthatin2000, 4.4millionhouseholds encompassing11.9millionpeoplewerelinguisticallyisolated—nearlydoublethatofthepreviousdecade.Lin-guisticisolationisdefinedbytheBureauasahomeinwhichnooneaged14oroverspeaksEnglishatleast“verywell”(Shin&Bruno,2003).Al-thoughmainstreamersmayassumethatnewcomersdonotwanttolearnEnglish,manyspeakmultiple languagesalreadyandareindeedlearn-ingEnglish(Pipher,2002),eventhoughittakesmostEnglishlanguagelearners(ELLs)fromonetothreeyearstolearnsocialEnglishandfivetosevenyearstolearnacademicEnglish(Sutton,1998). TheU.S.DepartmentofEducationdefinesELLsasnational-origin-minoritystudentswhohavelimitedEnglishproficiency.ELLsrepresentoneofthefastestgrowinggroupsamongtheschool-agedpopulationinthis nation as well, increasing by over 169% from the years 1979 to2003(Francis,Rivera,Lesaux,Kieffer,&Rivera,2006).Ofthose,thenumberwhospokeEnglishwithdifficulty(i.e., less than“verywell”)grewby124%(Hill&Flynn,2006).Over400differentlanguagesare

AUTHORNOTE:Wendy McCarty, Ed.D., senior lecturer in the Teacher Edu-cation Department, College of Education, University of Nebraska at Kearney; Rosemary Cervantes, MA.Ed., Educational Services Unit 10, Kearney, NE; Ger-aldine Stirtz, M.A.Ed., Director, Office for Service-Learning, University of Ne-braska at Kearney. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Wendy L. McCarty, Teacher Education Dept., College of Education, Univer-sity of Nebraska at Kearney, Kearney, NE 68849; e-mail: [email protected]

McCarty,Cervantes,Stirtz/CULTURALBROKERINGASSERVICE-LEARNING 111

spokeninthisgroup;Spanishismostcommon,spokenby70%ofELLs(Franciset al.,2006). In fact,ELLsareexpected tocomprise30%ofschool-aged population by 2015 (Hill & Flynn, 2006). This dramaticincreaseinthenumberofELLsattendingU.S.schoolsoverthepast25yearshasrevealedcriticallearning,language,andacculturationneedsofstudentsandfamilies.Whoisbestpositionedinourculturetoaddresstheseneeds?Howcanitbedone?

EDuCAToRSASCuLTuRALBRokERS

Culturalbrokeringisdefinedastheactofbridging,linking,orme-diatingbetweengroupsorpersonsofdifferingculturalbackgroundsforthepurposeofreducingconflictorproducingchange(Jezewski,1990,ascitedinNationalCenterforCulturalCompetence,2009).Aculturalbrokeractsas“ago-between,onewhoadvocatesonbehalfofanotherindividualorgroup”(NationalCenterforCulturalCompetence,2009,p.1).Culturalbrokerscanhelptoeasepeopleintoeachother’sculturesbyassistingnewcomersandmembersofthemainstreamculturetonavigatethetensionsoffindingbalancebetweenrespectforethnictraditionsandrespectforhumanrights(Pipher,2002).CulturalbrokersalsocanhelpELLsacquirelanguagethroughmeaningfuluseandinteractionindiffer-entsocialsettingsandfordifferentpurposes(Campbell,2010).Whereisthebestplacetofindsuchculturalbrokers?Inourschools. Schools are frontline institutions for acculturation, where childrenreceive the information theyneedabout theworld inwhich theynowlive;therefore,educatorsarethemostimportantculturalbrokersinoursociety.Nearlyallnewcomerandrefugeefamilieshavetremendousre-spect for education and educators (Pipher, 2002). They recognize theneedtolearnthelanguage,andhencetheculture,assoonaspossible;childrenwanttolearnEnglish,learninschool,andfitintotheirnewso-ciety(Campbell,2010).Becauselanguagelearningisculturallearning,everylanguagereflectsthenorms,behaviors,andbeliefsofauniquecul-ture;therefore,“thelearningofanewlanguagealsoinvolvesthelearningofnewnorms,behaviors,andbeliefs”(Campbell,2010,p.316).Pipher(2002)alsostates,“ToreallybecomeAmerican,refugeesmustbecomebothbilingualandbicultural” (p.76).Furthermore, teaching languagerequires educators to learn the culture of the language: “All languagelearningisculturallearning”(Heath,1986,ascitedinCampbell,2010,p.315). Tobeeffectiveculturalbrokers,educatorsmustbeabletocommu-nicatewith students and their families.Wheneducators facilitate lan-guagelearning,theyserveasculturalbrokersandhelpstudentsandtheirfamilies to work through cultural conflict and encourage them to be-comeempoweredtohavecontrolovertheirdestiny.Thisfacilitationof


languagelearningoccursmostappropriatelyandeffectivelybybuildingonwhat students and families alreadyknow.Theconcepts, language,andstrategiesthatchildrenhavealreadyacquiredathome,their“fundsofknowledge,”aretheconnectingpointsuponwhichtoteachnewcon-cepts,language,andstrategies(Campbell,2010).Rejectionofchildren’shomelanguageandculturemayresultinresponsesthatincludefailuretolearn,withdrawalandpassivity,and/orpowerstruggleswithandre-sistancetoteachersandtheschoolculture(Campbell,2010).Students’native language and culturemaybe treated as inferior, notworthyofbeingusedastoolsintheschoolsetting.“Infact,whenwedonotallowstudents tobuildon their existing language,weand they lose agreatdealofrichnessandvalue,andweperpetuatethemyththatnon-Englishlanguagesarenotschoollanguages”(Campbell,2010,p.320). Thechallenge,then,liesindevelopingeducatorswhoaremuchbet-terpreparedthanthoseinpreviousgenerationstoteachinlinguisticallyand culturally diverse classrooms and to effectively use the funds ofknowledge thatchildrenand their familiesbring to theschoolexperi-ence.Ofcourse,classroomteachersorevenELLteacherscannotlearnallthereistoknowaboutthevariousculturesinschools.Educatorscan,however,betterinterprettheculturesofdiversestudentpopulationsintheirschoolsthroughawarenessofhowmuchcultureaffectslanguageacquisitionandbehavior,insightintotheirownculture,anddiscernmentnottointerpretthebehaviorofothersthroughtheeyesoftheirowncul-ture(Haynes,2005).Thisawareness,insight,anddiscernmentcancer-tainlybedevelopedthroughprofessionaldevelopmentwithexperiencedteachers,butinitially—andperhapsmostimportantly—itcanbedevel-opedthroughtheappliedlearningexperiencesofteachercandidatesandeducators.

CuLTuRALBRokERInGASSERVICE-LEARnInG

Appliedlearningemphasizestherelevanceofwhatisbeinglearnedto theworldoutside theclassroom,andmakes thatconnectionas im-mediateandtransparentaspossiblesothatstudentscanfocusonlearn-ingandapplying theskillsandknowledge theyneed to solveaprob-lem, implement a project, or participate in the work force (VictorianCurriculum and Assessment Authority, 2006). This results in the for-mationofpartnershipsandconnectionswithindividualsandorganiza-tionsoutsideschoolthatprovidethenecessaryout-of-schoolcontextsforstudents todemonstrate therelevanceof their learning.Researchindi-catesthatexperientialimmersionisthebestwayforstudentstodevelopempathy, tolerance, respect, and appreciation for people, languages,andculturesdifferentfromtheirown(Michie,2003).Noddings(2005)concursthat“socialactioncanandmust‘extendbeyondschoolswallsto the wider world’ where faculty create learning opportunities at an


appropriatedevelopmentallevelforstudentsthathelpraisetheiraware-ness of social justice by allowing them to experience, to be with the‘other,’forwhomwemustcare”(p.7). Whenteachereducationprogramsstructureapplied learningexpe-riences that allow teacher candidates to interact with people differentfrom themselves, teachercandidatesareempowered toconstruct theirknowledgebaseaboutdiversityfromlifeexperience.Theassumptionisthat theseteachercandidates,witharicherbackgroundofexperiencesinculturallydiversesettings,willbebetterpreparedtoteachculturallydiversestudentsthanthoseteachercandidateswhohavelivedinsulated,monocultural lifestyles and who have had limited experiences incul-turallydiversesettings.Modest,andsometimesdramatic,changescanoccur in teachers’ attitudes and behaviors regarding diversity (Smith,1998).Although theroleofeducatingpeople tobeculturalbrokers ishardlytouchedoninthescholarlyliterature(Michie,2003),areviewofempiricalstudiesconcludedthatexperienceswithmembersofdiversepopulationsareworthwhileforteachers,andpositiveresultscanaccrueforstudentsandteachershavingthecontextsandsupportwithinwhichtointerprettheirexperiences(Smith,1998).Appliedlearningcanpro-videboth thecontextand the support forboth teachercandidatesandeducatorstobecomeculturalbrokers. These applied learning experiences, when structured as service-learning, canhelp teacher candidates learn aboutother languages andcultures,tohavegreaterinvolvementininternationalaffairs,toputtheirowncultureinperspectiveandseeitinanewway,andtosimplyfeelusefulandhelpful.Pipher(2002)states,“HavingaculturalbrokercanmakeatremendousdifferenceinhowsuccessfullyanewfamilyadaptstoAmerica.Peoplecomeheretraumatized,andthetraumadoesn’tendwitharrival.Withoutguidanceandsupport,it’sdifficulttosurvive”(p.85).Pipher’ssuggestionsforculturalbrokeringlendthemselveswelltoservice-learningapplicationsinteacherpreparationcourses.Sheadvo-catesvisitingwithnewcomersandrefugeeswheneverpossible,onthestreetsorinthestores,andespeciallywhenseeingsomeonelookinglostorconfused.Helpingwhenandwhereaneedisidentifiedisattheheartofservice-learning,suchastutoringinafter-schoolprogramsorforGEDandELLclassesandvolunteeringatagenciesthatserveimmigrantsandrefugees.Followingisonesuchservice-learningopportunity that tookplaceincentralNebraskaastheresultofacoordinatedeffortbetweentheUniversityofNebraskaatKearney(UNK)andEducationalServiceUnit(ESU)10inKearney,Nebraska.

FLAME:SERVICE-LEARnERSASCuLTuRALBRokERS

TheUNKCollegeofEducationrequiresteachercandidatestocom-pleteaservice-learningexperienceasaprerequisiteforadmissioninto


the teacher educationprogram.Studentswhoenroll in the entry-levelcourse in the professional education course sequence are required tocompletetheirservice-learningexperienceduringthesemestertheytakethecourse;logisticsforstudentplacementsarecoordinatedbythedirec-toroftheOfficeforService-Learningincollaborationwiththefacultyofthecourse(UniversityofNebraskaatKearney,2009). Teachercandidateswerefirstgiven theopportunity toput culturalbrokeringskillstouseinaservice-learningsettinginaprograminitiatedbyESU10,thelocaleducationalresourceagency.ESU10isaregionaleducation agency that provides supplementary educational services toK-12schooldistrictsinelevencountiescoveringnearly12,000squaremiles incentralNebraska,servingabout30,000studentsandapproxi-mately2,200teachers(EducationalServiceUnit10,2009).In1999theELL program of ESU 10 secured a multiyear Title VII Developmentand Implementation Grant from the U.S. Department of Education todevelop, adapt, and implement the Project FLAME (Family Literacy:Aprendiendo, Mejorando, Educando) program with eight communitysites, involving663parents and910children2½ through12yearsofage, 14 teacher education candidates, 26 teachers, 18 paraprofession-als,and12schooladministratorsthroughoutthethreeyeardurationoftheprogram.Specificculturalandliteracyskillstrainingwasprovidedbythegrant to136educatorswithinthetargetcommunities(ESU10,2002).FLAMEwastheprogramofchoicebytheESU10ELLprogramafter an extensive searchwas conductedon family literacyprograms;thosewithmedicalmodels(“somethingiswrongwithyou”),militarymodels(“waragainstilliteracy”),orpatronizingtones(“ifyouwerejustmorelikeus,you’dbebetter”)wererejected.The“LaFamilia”philoso-phyofFLAMErespectsHispanicculture;familyisthemostimportantsocialunit,sotheprograminvolvestheentirefamily.FLAMEutilizesanassetmodelthatbuildsonthestrengthsthatfamiliesandstudentsal-readybring:theirlanguageandtheirculture,theconnectingpointsuponwhichnewlanguageandculturalknowledgearebuilt.TheFLAMEproj-ectincentralNebraskahashelpedfamiliesprovidecircumstancesandinteractionsthatsupportliteracyskills,whetherinSpanishorEnglish,usingculturally-relevantpracticeandallconductedwiththetoneofre-spect. ProjectFLAMEwasfirstdesignedbyProfessorsFloraRodriguez-BrownandTimothyShanahanoftheUniversityofIllinoisatChicago(UIC)CollegeofEducationin1989aspartofarequestforfundingfromtheU.S.DepartmentofEducation.Theoriginalpurposeoftheprogramwas to supportparentsofpreschoolersandprimarygradestudentsbyprovidinginformationandsharingknowledgeaboutwaystoprovideahomeenvironmentrichinliteracylearningopportunitiesfortheirchil-dren.FLAMEisbasedonthebelief,supportedbyresearch,thatparents


canpositivelyaffecttheirchildren’slearningandschoolachievementbyprovidingasupportivehomeenvironmentandservingasconfident,suc-cessful learnermodels.Additionally,FLAMEbelieves that successfulfamilyliteracyissensitivetothesocial,linguistic,andculturalcontextsofthefamiliesserved.TheFLAMEcurriculumhastwelvefamilylitera-cysessionsthatincludetopicscoveringbooksharing,bookselection,us-ingthelibrary,andcreatinghomeliteracycenters;helpingchildrenlearnthealphabet,read,write,dohomework,andlearnsongsandgames;andhelpingparentsconnecttothecommunitythroughclassroomobserva-tions,field trips,andcollaborationwithotherparents.Thecurriculumisnotrigidlystructuredandisintendedtoberesponsivetoparticipants’needs and concerns.Adoption sites are encouraged to revise, expand,andadapteach lesson toparentalneedsandcommunitycontext (UICCollegeofEducation,2003). In central Nebraska, the curriculum was adapted to put additionalemphasisonincreasingaccesstobooksandliteracymaterials.ParentswereencouragedtoattendESLandGEDclassesalreadyofferedintheirown communities, and literacy activities for children replaced baby-sitting. Insteadofusinggraduate-levelstudentsas in theoriginalUICimplementation,ESU10collaboratedwiththeUNKCollegeofEduca-tiontoprovideservice-learningplacementsintheFLAMEprogramforteachercandidateswhoassistedwithliteracyactivitiesforthechildrenand theirparents.Service-learnersparticipated inmeet-and-greetwiththefamiliesupontheirarrival;childrenwouldgotoaseparateareatoworkwithUNKstudentswhoreadbookstothemandfollowedupwithliteracyactivitiessuchashelpingthechildrenwritetheirownstoriesinaparticularpattern.AtthesametimeparentswouldmeetwithFLAME-trainededucatorsfromtheeightcommunitysitesinsessionsthatcov-ered literacy topics mentioned previously. After the literacy activitieswerecompletedinbothgroups,parentswereshownwhattheirchildrenhadexperienced,andthenchildrensharedwiththeirparentswhattheyhaddone.Thechildrenreadtotheirparents,andUNKstudentsmodeledforparentshow to interactwith theirchildrenappropriately regardingthe readings and engaged with family members regarding their chil-dren’swork.Thiswasfollowedbysocialtimewithfoodandrafflesforliteracymaterialsthatwereconductedbythechildrenthemselvessotheyhadpracticereadingnumbers.MostoftheUNKstudentsdidnotspeakSpanish;theyhadtofigureouthowtocommunicatewithELLsandlearnnot tobeafraid to speak to someonedifferent from themselves.Moststudentsalso sangand read inSpanisheven if theywerenotSpanishspeakers(ESU10,1999).


STuDEnTIMPACT Akeyoutcomefortheseservice-learnerswaslettinggoofthefearof communicating. They moved from hanging back with their fellowcollege students, to being given a job to do and doing it. They wereabletodevelopcloserelationshipswiththechildren;olderHispanicchil-drenwhospokeEnglishforthemostpartwereabletotalktotheUNKstudentsandreceivedencouragementtogotocollege.Service-learnersweresurprisedathowmuchtheyenjoyedparticipatingwiththefamilieswhiledevelopingadeeperunderstandingofLaFamilia.Excerptsfromtheirservice-learninglogsfollow(ESU10,2002):

“OneofthemostimportantthingsthatI learnedduringmyser-vice-learningexperiencewasrespectforothers,nomatterhowdif-ferenttheyarefromme.ThegroupsofchildrenthatIworkedwithwereallHispanicandmanywerefromverylow-classfamilies.Be-forethisexperienceIwouldnothavelookedatthesechildrenandtheirfamilieswiththesameempathyIdonow...IhavelearnedthatIcannotjudgepeoplebasedonappearances.” “IinteractedwiththemandcouldactuallytelltheyunderstoodmeeventhoughIwasspeakingEnglishornotspeakingatallbecausepeople have an unspoken language that everyone can understand.However,IdidstarttousesomeofmySpanishthatIlearnedinhighschoolandthoughtthatIhadlongtimeforgotten[sic].TheyweresimplewordsandphrasesbutIthinkitshowsthatIcared...IwasatfirstabithesitantaboutworkingwithallthesepeoplethatspokeadifferentlanguagethanmebutnowIrealizethatasIcontinuewithmy field experience I can make an impact on them and they willdefinitelymakeanimpactonme.” “WhenteachingIneedtousemorethanjustmywordstoteach...IamnowexcitedforanyopportunitythatmayariseformetoworkwithotherlanguagesbesidesEnglish.” “Ilovethisprogram.Ithinkitisafabulousideatogettheparentsinvolvedwiththeirchildren’seducationandtohelpbuildconfidenceinthechildren...whenIbecomeateacherIwillhaveavarietyofchildrenandculturesand learningaboutothercultureshelpsme tounderstandmystudentsandwhatmethodofteachingworksbestforthem.” “Afterbeingplacedwiththisliteracyprogramforasemester,IwasabletoputforthmySpanishspeakingskillsintoreallifesituations.WhatIlearnedfromboththechildrenandparentswasbeyondwhatIanticipated.Theytaughtmesomuchabouttheirlanguageanditwaswonderfulbeingabletosharewiththembymeansofcommunication.” “Trying tocommunicate ina languageother thanmynative lan-guage isdifficultandsometimes frustrating,butalsoverygood for


me.IthinkithelpsmetodevelopmoreofaculturalsensitivityandtounderstandthedifficultiesthesefamiliesmusthavehereintheUnitedStates.” “IamverythankfulforhavingtheopportunitytoworkwithProjectFLAME.AsaresultofFLAME,Ihavefoundmyselfto[be]amoreopen-mindedandknowledgeableperson.Thisprogramhasalsomo-tivatedmetopursueanendorsementintheESL[EnglishasaSecondLanguage]area.IhaveseenhoweffectivethisprogramhasbeenandIhopethatI,asateacher,willbeabletohelpmystudentsasmuchasFLAMEhashelpedtheirs.”

Allofthestudentscompletingtheservice-learningexperience,with-outexception,statedthattheyexperiencedatransformationfrominitialbiasesaboutminoritiesandlanguagelearningtogreaterunderstandingand acceptance. All students were from small, rural Nebraska towns,with limitedexposure to andexperiencewithminoritypopulationsofanykindpriortoattendingUNK.Theconsistentoutcomeforthesestu-dentswasanincreasedsenseofconfidenceastheypreparedtoteachinclassroomsmuchmorediverse thantheirhometownschoolshadbeenforthem.Onlyonestudentcommentreflectedalesspositivesentiment,thatofdislikeforsomeofthenecessary“officework”thatwentintopre-paringforthesessions.Yet,eventhiswasavaluablelearningexperienceaswell:“Inowrealizehowmuchworkplanningjustonelessonis...Iwilldefinitelybeorganizedwhenitcomestomeplanningandcreatingmyownlessons”(ESU10,2002). Becausetheservice-learningcomponentwasnotspecificallyinclud-edintheoriginalobjectivesoftheFLAMEgrantassubmittedtotheU.S.DepartmentofEducation,programevaluationsfromtheUNKservice-learnerswerenotapartofthegrantreportingprocess.Therefore,assess-mentoftheservice-learningcomponentinfutureprojectimplementationwouldcertainlybenefitfrommorestructuredpre-sessionorientationandpost-sessiondebriefing, in addition to the reflective journaling for theUNKservice-learningcourseandtheinformalpreparationanddebrief-ingwithESU10staffthattookplaceonthewaytoandfromsessions.CLIEnTIMPACT

EvaluationresultsoftheoriginalpilotingofFLAMEinIllinoisindi-catethatchildrenoffamilieswhoparticipatedshowedsignificantgainsincognitivedevelopment,pre-literacyand literacyskills,andvocabu-larydevelopmentinbothSpanishandEnglish.ResultsfurthershowedthatparentschangedtheirattitudestowardsteachingtheirchildrenandalsobecamemoreproficientinEnglish,evidencedbysignificantgainsinEnglishproficiencyasmeasuredbytheLanguageAssessmentScales


(Rodriguez-Brown,Shanahan,&Wagner,1999).Theseclaimswereval-idatedbytheOfficesofBilingualEducation,CommunityAffairs,andEarlyChildhoodoftheIllinoisStateBoardofEducation,whichallowedFLAMEtoqualifyforadisseminationgrantfromtheU.S.DepartmentofEducationinordertocarrytheprogramnationallyasafamilyliteracyadoption model. In 1996, the U.S. Department of Education awardedProjectFLAMEafive-yearAcademicExcellenceGrant to export theprogramto trainoverfiftyadoptionsites, including theone incentralNebraska(Zygouris-Coe&Smith,2001). InNebraska, theESU10FLAMEprogrammirrored theseresults;80%ofparentswhoattendedFLAMEclassesincreasedthenumberofhomeliteracyactivitieswiththeirchildrenandimprovedtheirchildren’saccesstoreadingandwritingmaterialsasevidencedbyself-reports.Onanevaluationscaleaskingparentstoratethedegreetowhichthepro-gramaccomplished itsobjectives, thecomposite scoreacrossall siteswasninetyoutof100points(ESU10,2002).Althoughtheparentspre-viouslyfelttheywerenotabletohelptheirchildrenbecausetheycouldnotspeakEnglish,nowtheyrealizedtheycouldhelptheminSpanishthroughthetransferofSpanishskillstoEnglishinvocabulary,content,and concept development. Additionally, parents participated more inschoolactivities,attendedschooleventsmoreoften,andservedasrep-resentativesofotherparents(Bransford,2002).FollowingareexcerptsfromparentevaluationsoftheESU10FLAMEprogram(ESU10,2002)[translatedfromSpanishtoEnglish]:

“ItisnicetoknowthatthereissomeoneinterestedintheHispaniccommunity,andespeciallywhosupportsandisinterestedinourchil-dren.”“Ilikethewaythatyousupportourchildren’seducationandalsothewaythatyouhavethechildrenworkinginschoolactivitiesandthewaythatteacherstreatuswhenwearetogether,andthetalksthatyougiveusonhowtohelpourchildrentoreadbetter.”“IlearnverymanydifferentthingssothatIcanhelpmydaughterswiththeirhomework.”“Itisaveryimportanthelpforourchildren’seducation.Thankyou.”

“Me gustaria que este programa continuara mas anos”–“Iwouldlikethisprogramtocontinueformoreyears”wasthesentimentconsis-tentlyexpressedbyparentswhocompletedprogramevaluationsinthefinalyear,anditwastheonlyconcerntheyraised.Inseveralinstances,parents also expressed a desire to continue sessions during the sum-merandforlongerhours“para aprender mas para ayudar a nuestroshijos”–“sothatwecanlearnmoreandhelpourchildren.”Participatingfamiliesreportedastrongersenseofconnectiontothecommunitiesthat


werenowtheirhomesandexpressedadesire tohelp tosecure futureprogramfundingsothattheirchildrencouldcontinuetobenefit.Withoutexception,theirremarksfocusedonhelpingtheirchildrenfirst(ESU10,2002). Additionally,theNebraskaFLAMEprogramprovidedscholarshipsforteachercandidates,paraprofessionals,andeducatorstopursueESLteachingendorsements;sixty-ninescholarshipswereawardedduringthe3-yearproject period.Theprogramwas recognized as anoutstandingeducationalprogrambytheFoundationforEducationalFundingandtheNebraskaAssociationofStudentFinancialAidAdministratorsinApril2002(ESU10,2002).

PoST-FLAMEIMPACT

ThoughtheProjectFLAMEgrantconcludedin2002,itservedasacatalyst forUNKteachercandidates toseekculturalbrokeringoppor-tunitieswithELLsinsubsequentyears,andforUNKteachereducationfacultytousethoseopportunitiesasservice-learningexperiencesfortheteachereducationprogram.ProjectFLAMEutilizedabout10%of thetotalnumberofservice-learnersfromtheUNKteachereducationpro-gram,whichaveragesapproximately150studentspersemester.Nowthepercentageofservice-learnersparticipatinginculturalbrokering-relatedactivitywithELLs, including language and literacydevelopment, hasgrowntonearlyhalf.IncentralNebraskacommunitieswheretheHis-panic ELL population is significant (20% in Grand Island, Nebraska,forexample),andinthesamecommunitieswhereProjectFLAMEhadbeenconducted,culturalbrokeringopportunitiesinservice-learningforteacher candidates has taken place in public school outreach centersand cultural welcome centers. Activities have included serving mealsfortheSalvationArmy;sorting,stocking,anddistributingfoodpantryitems;participatingincoatdrives;readingtochildrenandparticipatinginpovertysimulationsduringNationalHomelessMonth;servingneedyfamilies through theChristmasdrivesduring themonthofDecember;packingbackpacksonFridaymorningsforweekendfoodforchildrenin need; teaching and assisting with citizenship classes; facilitating amoms’groupinlearninglifeskills;providinghelpandadviceforfami-liesregardingapplyingtohighereducation;assistingwiththe2010cen-susandencouragingcitizenstovote. Unfortunately, thenumberof teachercandidatesseekinganactualESLendorsementplummetedtozeroby2003;thewaningofscholarshipmoniesattheendoftheESU10grantwasacontributingfactor.Butac-cordingtoDr.GlennTracy,leadinstructoroftheESLendorsementatUNK, the continuation and expansion of service-learning experiencesforteachercandidateshashelpedthenumberreboundtoasteadytento


twelveinthelastseveralyears,andtherewerethirteenenrolledintheprogramat theendof the2008-2009schoolyear(personalcommuni-cation,July9,2009).OfthesixtymajorsavailabletothenearlythreehundredteachercandidatesenrolledatUNK,theESLendorsementnowranksasthefifthmostchosenendorsementarea(UniversityofNebraskaatKearney,2008). In addition, educators have access to ongoing training in service-learning aspedagogy for their ownK-12 and college classrooms in agraduatelevelcourseavailablefromtheUNKteachereducationdepart-mentandtaughtbythedirectoroftheOfficeofService-Learning.Oversixtyfacultymembersfrommultipledisciplinesoutsideoftheteachereducationprogramhaveparticipatedintraininginstitutestolearnhowtoincorporateservice-learningintotheircourses.Inthisway,thenotionofculturalbrokeringwithELLpopulationsisexpandingbeyondbeginninglevelteachereducationstudentsintoclassroomsandschoolsthroughoutcentralNebraska. Concurrent with the growth of cultural brokering service-learningexperiences for teacher candidates, Nebraska’s own state Departmentof Education, in collaboration with the North Central Regional Com-prehensiveCenterandtheNebraskaCouncilofSchoolAdministrators,embarkedonaprofessionaldevelopmentplanforeducatorswhowerefacingchangesinclassroomandschoolELLdemographics.In2007theNebraska English Language Learner Leadership Institute (NELLLI)wasinitiatedtoincreaseteachers’andadministrators’understandingofresearch-based instructional strategies with ELLs, to increase partici-pants’understandingofthecorrelationbetweenleadershippracticesandstudent achievement, and increase participants’ capacity to lead ELLreform efforts in their respective districts and schools. Representativeteamsofeducatorsandadministratorsin26schooldistrictsacrossthestate,aswellasoneteamrepresentinghighereducationteacherprepa-ration programs, applied to become part of multi-day quarterly train-ing sessions. The teams have taken ELL best practices for languageacquisitionandculturalbrokeringstrategiesback to theirdistrictsandprovidedleadershipforongoingprofessionaldevelopmentwithintheirownschools.Inaddition,adesignteamwasformedfromtheNELLLItrainingparticipantstoprovideongoingsupporttoteams,andeventuallyallschoolsinNebraska(thoughwebaccesswillmakeuniversalaccesspossible) through thedevelopmentofanonline resourcecentercalledthe Continuous Improvement Process Toolkit, accessible through theNebraska Department of Education website (Nebraska Department ofEducation,2009). ThefirsttaskoftheNELLLIdesignteamwasthecreationofamis-sionandvisionstatement(NELLLI,2009):


THETEAMMISSION:WewillequipallNebraskaschoolstoeffectivelymeettheeducationalneedsofEnglishLanguageLearnersbycreatingreadilyaccessiblere-sourcesthroughtheContinuousImprovementProcessToolkit.

THETEAMVISION:AllEnglishLanguageLearnerswillreceiveresearch-basedinstructionintheEnglishLanguageandcontentareassothattheyareempoweredtoprogresstowardacademicmasteryandachievetheirfullestpotential.AllstudentsinNebraskaschoolswillrespectlanguageandculturaldif-ferences and communicate effectively with each other in English andconversationallyinasecondlanguage.AllPreK-16educatorswillreceiveongoingtraininginexemplarycur-riculum and instructional strategies that promote social and academicEnglishdevelopmentandculturalidentitydevelopment.

TheremainingtasksincludethecompletionofELLtrainingresourc-es that are user-friendly for educators and administrators in a varietyofschoolcontexts,andthecompletionofabookstudytobeusedasaprofessionaldevelopmenttoolinconjunctionwiththebookClassroom Instruction That Works With English Language Learners,byJaneHillandKathleenFlynn(2006).TheNELLLIdesignteamseekstocompletetheirworkonthetoolkitbytheendof2009. Evenmorerecently,thepassageofTheAmericanRecoveryandRe-investmentAct(ARRA)of2009hasprovidednewfundingforaddress-ingtheneedsofEnglishlanguagelearners:“OurrecommendationsarefocusedonELLsbecausetheyrepresentalargeproportionofstudentsat riskofunderachievement in statesanddistrictsacross thecountry”(StanfordUniversity,2009).ThefundingguidanceforthisactstatesthatparentsofELLsareinsufficientlyengagedinschoolsandineducationaldecision-making,soARRATitleIfundscanbeusedtoimproveavenuesforengagingparentsintheirchildren’seducation,perhapsresultinginaresurgenceofprogramssuchasProjectFLAME.

ConCLuSIon

Teachercandidatesandeducatorsarekeyculturalbrokerswithintheirrespective communities, and service-learning opportunities provide apowerfulpedagogythroughwhichtodeveloptheirknowledgeandskills.Byembracingculturaldiversityandlanguageacquisitionbestpractices,teachercandidatesandeducatorscancollaboratetosupportandempowerELLsandtheirfamiliestoconnectwiththeresourcestheyneedtoattainsuccessinthemainstreamcultureandtoeffectivelyprepareforbecom-ingthemajoritycultureintheverynearfuture.Indoingso,theyembraceourmoralimperative,asglobalcitizens,tocare(Noddings,2005).


REFEREnCES

Bernstein, R., & Edwards, T. (2008, August 14). An older and more diverse nation by midcentury. U.S. Census Bureau News. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/population/012496.htmlBransford,J.(2002).Educational Service Unit #10 Title VII development and implementation grant final three year program evaluation 1999-2002.Kearney,NE:Author.Campbell,D.(2010).Choosing democracy: A practical guide to multicultural education. Boston,MA:Allyn&Bacon.EducationalServiceUnit10.(1999).FLAME presentation manual.Kearney,NE:Author.EducationalServiceUnit10.(2002). FLAME evaluation manual.Kearney,NE:Author.EducationalServiceUnit10.(2009).About Educational Service Unit 10.RetrievedMarch 30,2009,fromhttp://www.esu10.k12.ne.us/info/Francis,D.,Rivera,M.,Lesaux,N.,Kieffer,M.,&Rivera,H.(2006).Practical guidelines for the education of English language learners: Research-based recommendations for serving adolescent newcomers,book 2. Portsmouth,NH:CenteronInstruction.Haynes,J.(2005).ESL teacher as cultural broker.RetrievedMarch30,2009,fromhttp:// www.everythingesl.net/inservices/crosscultural.phpHill, J., & Flynn, K. (2006). Classroom instruction that works with English language learners.Alexandria,VA:AssociationforSupervisionandCurriculumDevelopment.Michie,M.(2003,July).The role of culture brokers in intercultural science education: A research proposal.Paperpresentedatthe34thannualconferenceoftheAustralasian ScienceEducationResearchAssociation,Melbourne,Australia.RetrievedMarch30, 2009,fromhttp://members.ozemail.com.au/~mmichie/culture_brokers1.htmNationalCenterforCulturalCompetence.(2009).Bridging the cultural divide in health care settings: The essential role of cultural broker programs. Retrieved March 30, 2009,fromhttp://culturalbroker.info/2_role/index.htmlNebraskaDepartmentofEducation.(2009).Continuous improvement process.Retrieved March31,2009,fromhttp://www.nde.state.ne.us/CIPtoolkit/index.htmlNELLLI.(2009).NELLLI FrontPage.RetrievedMarch30,2009,fromhttp://nellli.pbwiki. com/Noddings, N. (Ed.) (2005). Educating citizens for global awareness. New York, NY:TeachersCollegePress.Pipher,M.(2002).The middle of everywhere: Helping refugees enter the American community.Orlando,FL:HarcourtBooks.Rodriguez-Brown,F.,Shanahan,T.,&Wagner,T.(1999).Project FLAME family literacy programtraining manual.Chicago,IL:Authors.Shin,H.,&Bruno,R.(2003). Language use and English-speaking ability: 2000.Wash- ington,D.C.:U.S.CensusBureau.RetrievedMarch30,2009fromhttp://www.census. gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-29.pdfSmith,G.(1998).Common sense about uncommon knowledge: The knowledge bases for diversity. Washington, D.C.: American Association of Colleges for Teacher Educa- tion.StanfordUniversity.(2009,March).The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act: Rec- ommendations for addressing the needs of English language learners.RetrievedJuly 31, 2009, from http://www.stanford.edu/~hakuta/ARRA/ELL%20Stimulus%20Rec ommendations.pdfSutton,C.(1998).HelpingthenonnativeEnglishspeakerwithreading.InM.Opitz(Ed.), Literacy instruction for culturally and linguistically diverse students (pp. 81-86).


Newark,Delaware:InternationalReadingAssociation.UICCollegeofEducation.(2003,July).Project FLAME.RetrievedMarch27,2009,from http://www.uic.edu/educ/flame/index.htmlUniversityofNebraskaatKearney.(2008). Teacher education report card.RetrievedJuly 31,2009,fromhttp://www.unk.edu/coe.aspx?id=1943UniversityofNebraska atKearney. (2009).College of education.RetrievedMarch30, 2009,fromhttp://www.unk.edu/acad/coe/KASE/index.php?id=2036VictorianCurriculumandAssessmentAuthority.(2006,July)Applied learning.Retrieved March 27, 2009, from http://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/vcal/Publications/Information_ Sheets/VCALinfoapplearn.pdfZygouris-Coe, V., & Smith, L. (Eds.). (2001). Document #4-001. Orlando, FL: Florida LiteracyandReadingExcellenceCenter,UniversityofCentralFlorida.

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ISSn:2150-8259

Missouri Western State University

3 FromCelebrationtoCriticalInvestigation: ChartingtheCourseofScholarshipinAppliedLearning ROYSCHWARTZMANandKELLYBOUASHENRY

25 Generating,Deepening,andDocumentingLearning: ThePowerofCriticalReflectioninAppliedLearning SARAHL.ASHandPATTIH.CLAYTON49 ExaminingtheDevelopmentoftheVictorianCertificate ofAppliedLearningandItsImplicationsforSchools andTeacherEducationinAustralia DAMIANBLAKEandDAVIDGALLAGHER 73 WillTheyRecognizeMyLectureintheField? TheJuvenileCorrectionsCritical AssessmentTourAppliedLearningExperience GREGLINDSTEADTandREGINAWILLIAMS-DECKER93 StudentMotivationandAssessmentof AppliedSkillsinanEquineStudiesProgram K.I.TUMLIN,R.LINARES,andM.W.SCHILLING109 DemographicTippingPoint: CulturalBrokeringwithEnglishLanguageLearnersasService- LearningforTeacherCandidatesandEducators WENDYL.MCCARTY,ROSEMARYCERVANTES, andGERALDINESTIRTZ

Journal of Applied Learning in Higher Education...experiential education, and critical pedagogy....

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