J.oreworJ - Samford Universitylibrary.samford.edu/digitallibrary/pamphlets/cod-000915.pdf ·...

Samford University Library

J.oreworJ

In 1952 five million U. S. farm workers produced more than

3 billion won h of cotton. Seven million other skilled workers and

alesmen received the raw cotton, transformed its fiber and seed

into a vast array of products, and sold them at a value of S 10 bil

lion for daily usc by every American .. . man, woman, and child

... sold ier and civilian.

Year in and year out. co:ton is the world 's largest industry.

··couon from Soil to Consumer·· is the story of that industry.

T his edition is specially adapted for the general education

field. h s intent is to bridge the gap between the ultra-popular and

the ultra-technical literature that has been written about cotton,

and to give the student an over-all comprehension of its place in

the world today.


CONTENTS

I. Cotton Through the Ages __ ----- ----- -----------Cotton in England --------------- ----------

Rise of the Inventon

Cotton in the United States ____ - ··--·---- .... _ - - - ------ -------Rise of New England Textiles, Whitney's Gin, Other Industry Landmarks, Development of Southern Textiles, War and Industrial Expansion

Pag~

2

The Cotton Industry Today _______ --------~----····----- 4 Cotton in the World Economy. The U. S. Cotton Textile Jndu,tr}

II. The Culture of Cotton ---------- ----------- --- ---------------- _ 6 Land Preparation ------------------ --- ------------------------ -----------Planting ---------------------------·---------------------------------Cultivating ------------------- _ _ __ .. ··--·-------------·---

Weed Control, Insect Control, Development of the Boll

Harvesting ·-·-----·------------------- _ ... Defoliation, Hand Picking, Mechanical Harvesting

6 6 6

7

III. Initial Processing of Cotton ------------------- --------- ------- 11

Ginning -------------------·--- ---- - ----------- ------------ 11 Cottonseed ----- ----------------------- II Classifications of Lint ---------Marketing Cotton ___ -------- _

Spot Ma•keb, Futures Exchanges. Hedging

II 13

IV. Cotton Spinning and Weaving ------------ 16 Spinning Processes _____ __ _ _________ 16

Opening and Picking, Carding, Combing. Drawing. Roving. The Spinning Frame, Twisting and Winding, Yam Sizes and Numhers

Weaving-------------------- -·_ __ ________ 18 Warp Preparation, The Loom, Types of Weaves, Trimming and Inspecting

V. Finishing Cotton Cloth -------------- ---------- ---------------------- 21

VI.

VII.

Preliminary Preparation _ __ _ __ ____ -------- __ .... __ --------------------- 21 Singeing, Kier Boiling and Bleaching, Mercerizing. Tentering, Shearing, Drying

Dyeing --------------------- ---___ __ - ----------------- 2~ Stock Dyeing, Yam Dyeing, Piece Goods Dyeing

Printing ------------- __ _ _______ _____ 22 Block Printing, Roller Printing. Duplex Printing. Discharge Print-ing. Resist Printing, Screen Printing, Crepe-Plisse Printing. Photo-graphic Printing

Conditioning Processes _ __ _ 21 Starching and Filling. Calendering. Special Finbhes

Non-Woven Cotton Fabrics ------------------ - ---- 2:l

Web Fabrics ---------------- ---- -------- 2:l Bonding ------------ 25

Knitted Cotton Fabrics _____ 26

Knitting Machines -------------------------------------- 26 Weft-Knit Fabrics --------·- _ -------------- 27 Warp-Knit Fabrics -----------· - ·--- ---------··.. ... ---··-- --- --- 27

\ Samford University Library

CONTENTS-(Continued)

Pog~

VIII. Oualitv Characteristic:> o£ Cotton ... ... ...... ................ 29 ' ' \\·e:m n!t Qualit\ , Launderabilit, , .-\bwrbcncy. Coolness, Warmth,

IX.

hrinkal!e Rc:-"tance. Colorfa\lness. Stre:n~th. Flexibilit\', rermeal>alit, , Pe,.,.par:lllon Rcsa>tance, Stre tchability, Water Repellency. lle:u Rc:.iq:mce. \ e rs:uilit''

Peacetime and ~filitary u ses o£ Cotton Fiber and Seed --------·------.. ··- -· Peacetime u ses . ·------

Cou on in the Home. Apparel Couons, Industrial uses

32 32

Military Uses .... ------------------ -......... 33 Cottonseed Uses _ .. .. ......... _.................. 34

Oil, Cake or :\leal, Hulls, Linters, Linters in \\'ar

X. Cotton Fabrics (Descriptions) Apparel Fabrics ............. ..

36 36

Household Fabrics . ----··----.................................... ........................... 40 ~arrow Fabrics Industrial Fabrics

• • •

ILLUSTRATIONS

Cotton Cield at harvest time -----------------------..... - ....................... __ , __ _ Cultivation of cotton --------................... . Pest control practices, harvesting machines ________ .... __ , ...... _ ........................ .

Cotton gin, cottonseed oil mill, classing room .... ---------------------............. .. \Varchousc, futures exchange ____ .............. ------------·-------··--------·----·--·· Spinning mill . . ........................... - .............. _ ................................... - ................ .

\ Veaving mill ...................... --------------·-----·-····------.. ------------ ----- -----Knitting machines ··----------................................................................................. ..

·II 4 1

5 8 9

12

15 17 19 28


I Cotton Through the Ages

The early history of cotton is veiled in antiquity, its origin lost in the legends of unrecorded time. The trail of its past wan· ders across two hemispheres and back through many civilizations. Ancient records unearthed in the ruins of the city of Moh.enjo-dare in the Indus Valley of India reveal that cotton was grown and used there as early as lJ,OOO B.C. About the same time, natives of the Nile Valley in Egypt had mastered the art of spinning and weaving. In the West, early explorers exhumed mummies wrapped in luxurious cotton cloth from the tombs of preInca Peru. But the place where cotton first sprang to life remains a mystery to mankind, for this fiber is older than history itself.

From India, cotton cultivation spread to the East and West. Herodotus, father of history, spoke of the plant in 445 B.C., telling of the na tives of India who ". . . possess a kind of plant, which, instead of fruit, produces wool of a fimter and better quality than that of sheep." It was brought to the Greeks in lJOO B.C. by the armies of Alexander the Great.

The medieval Arabs carried cotton over the trade route from India, and it is their word "Quttan" or "Kutn", meaning "a plant found in conquered lands", from which our word cotton is derived. "Muslin", as originally applied to fine cottons woven in Mosel, is another word based on the Arabic language. Ancient writers described this cloth as being so sheer that it was invisible when spread over the ground and saturated by the dew of night. It was indeed, as the Arabs called it, "webs of woven wind."

Cotton growing and weaving were not established on the continent of Europe, however, until 100 A.D., when it was grown in Spain under the Moors and in Sicily under the Arabs. Its European penetration was mostly ronfincd to those two countries until the Crusades brought cotton to the North and West. China was growing cotton as a decorative plant by 700 A.D., and a hundred years later it was introduced to Japan by a shipwrecked inhabitant of India. From 800 to 1400 the cotton industry flourished in Europe, Asia, and Africa. By 1500 cotton was generally known throughout the world. As early as 1600, about fifteen hundred people were

employed by a thrivi ng textile industry in Timhukw. in <kqx:'t Aft i«t

Cotton was not indigenous to the Eastern Hemisphere alone. Explorations show that it was used as early as 200 B.C. in what is now Peru. Columbus be l ieved he had reached India when he found Sea Island cotton growing in the Bahamas in 1492. H is diary on the historic day of October 12 states: "The natives came swimming toward us ... (bringing) bales of cotton thread . . . which they exchanged with us." Among the treasured gifts that Columbus brought back to Isabella was a skein of cotton thread. He noted that the Indians used cotton nets for beds and other domestic articles and that their women were dressed in cotton breeches.

COTTON IN ENGLAND

Cotton made its debut in England late in the 12th century. It was used primarily for candle wicks, embroidery yarns, and clothing. Not until after the defeat of the mighty Spanish Armada, however, was cotton to become a great fac tor in Engl i sh economy. With the safety of the seas assured, British sailors blazed a path to the East over which the white gold was soon to travel.

Establishment of the British East India Company in 1599 marked the eve of a new age in commerce. Cotton trade from the East became so impo rta nt and brought such changes to the English economy that the wool industry flamed in protest. Unfortunately for cotton, these were the days before Adam Smith rose to champion free trade and competition. \ Vool manufacturers succeeded in forcing a fiber monopoly and influenced Parliament to pass a law in 1700 forbidding the sale of cotto n goods in England. In 1712 a companion act was passed, prohibiting the wearing of a ll printed goods regardless of fabric. A fine of five pounds for wearing cotton and twenty pounds for selling it was imposed upon the people. T he Manchester Act of 17lJ6 lifted the 24-year-old ban and permitted the wearing of cotton and linenmixed calico. By 1750 more than !10,000 people in Manchester and Bolton were en· gaged in cotton manufacture.


From 1750 to 1900 the history of cotton in England consists largely of the development of world trade coupled with the rise of mechanical inventiveness. A handful of Fnglish mechanics were to wrest the cotton empire from mighty India and reshape the economy of the entire world. Brita in's su· ptt'IIMC\ of the \{';" and the ingenuity of her people destined her to become the textile queen of the world until America later challenged he• title. Like a bur:.t of powerful ex· plo,ives, the rapid maturation of the cotton industry shook the British Empire, and Brit· t.mni;~ 'at upon a couon tluonc.

Rise of the Inventors The 18th century tells a story of irony and

fabulous miracles. In the lives of five mena woolen manufacturer's son, a poor cottage weaver, a barber, a musician, and a clergyman - is wtitten one of the most remarkable stories the world has ever known. Ironically enough, it was John Kay, the son of a woolen manu· facturer, who ignited the industrial revolution th:u was to make cotton the king of the textile world. His flying shuttle, invented in 1730, increased production of cotton looms four-fold and enabled English weavers to ptoduce broad woven fabrics like those of India. This first product of textile ingenuity ,,·as destroyed by mob violence, however, for its soci:ll implications were immediately recogni7ed by workers who were dependent upon hand methods for their livelihood.

:"\ext of the invemive geniuses was James I Iargteaves who. in 1770, gave to the world the first practical spinning frame. A little girl, perhaps, is responsible for this early machine, for I largreaves conceived the idea after observing a spinning wheel his daughter had accidentally upset. In her honor it bears the name of "Spinning Jenny".

It remained for the creative mind of Richard A1 kwright, a barber, to establish the couon industry on a modern basis by conceiving the roller spinning method which, in 1771, he installed in the world's first cotton mill at Nottingham. His utilization of horse power harnessed to his looms marked a new phase in textile history. By I 790, over 150 mills had been organiLed on his system. First of the textile inventors to gain repute, Ark· wright rose from the masses to become a knighted millionaire, remembered today as the father of the modern textile mill.

One of the most famous but pathetic figures of this period was Samuel Compton. Crafts-

2

man, mus1c1an, mechanic, and sensitive dreamer, it was his spinning mule that finally gave to England in 1779 complete control over the difficult art of spinning cotton. Although it was a combination of previous machines, his invention is still the basis of our modern spinning frame. Thousands of people became wealthy through his mechanical contributions, but he was left in poverty.

Last of the great forefathers of the English textile industry was Edmund Cartwright, a clergyman turned inventor, who gave the world its first automatic power loom in 1785. His improvements on earlier methods of spin· ning and his harnessing of the engine revolu· tionized the tex tile industry and wrote another chapter in the pages of cotton's history.

The following years marked a period of rapid invention directed toward improving these basic machines. Details were perfected, machines enlarged, and speed increased. Hand labor faded into the past and the machine age was born. By the time history could record the t ransformation, England had ceased to be an agricultural nation.

COTION IN THE UNITED STATES

The development of cotton in America played a vital role in the economic growth of our nation. Tidewater planters in the South· east grew cotton on a moderate basis as early as 1607. Tobacco was more popular and profitable, however, and remained the chief crop of the colonies until Cromwell imposed a crippling tax on colonial exports in the middle of the 17th century.

Even before the Revolutionary War, extensive efforts were made to establish the textile industry in the South, but a turn of events made it more advantageous for this region to supply raw cotton to others than to compete in finished production. The great rise of the English textile industry offered an unlimited market for Southern cotton and the invention of Whitney's gin made production practical on a tremendous scale.

With such abundant wealth so easily obtainable, the thoughts of industrialization were soon minimized to obscurity. The South could easily and profitably feed hungry New Eng· land mills and export its surplus to the world. A plantation economy arose, for it was agri· culture, not industry, that seemed the shortest road to prosperity.


RUe of New En1land Testilea If the South, in its early days, had not the

necessary resources or desire to become a manufacturing region, New England d id. What one region laded, the other claimed in abundance. Natural power, skilled labor, and mechanical ability all favored the North. The New England textile industry gained impetus when the Cromwellian Parliament banned colonial wool. Losing the British wool mar· ket, :\'ew England rushed to cotton. Legi~la· tion was passed favoring the spinning of

. cotton, rewards were offered for inventions and mill establishments, and the people were trained to become eHicicnt textile workers.

There is no absolutely accurate record of the first successful American cotton mill. A Philadelphia manufactory was established in 1775 and operated for two years before being destroyed by the British in 1777. Ten years later a mule-powered mill was built in Bev· erly, ~fassachusetts, and wa~ visited by Presi· dent Washington in 1789. It remained in continuous production until 1815.

The mill that represents the birth of our modern textile industry, however, was established in 1793 at Pawtucket, Rhode Island, by the "Father of American :\fanufacturing", Samuel Slater. Before coming to ,\ mcrica, he had worked as an expert machinist in the first English mill completely equipped with Ark· wright's water-powered system of cotton pro· cessing. Although a law forbade machinists to leave England, Slater, posing as a barber, managed to reach this country and reproduce from memory Arkwright's spinning machinery.

Slater took the lead in the expansion of cotton spinning mills in New England, and lived to see the industry grow from his single mill to more than 100 factories. He and his associates became the first large-scale builders of textile machinery and launched an American cmterprise that is today unsurpassed anywhere in the world.

Whitney's Gin The invention of the cotton gin was another

historic event that was responsible for America's rise in textile production. A year after Slater's first mill was established, Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson granted a patent on a machine that revolutionized the ginning of cotton and elevated the South to the foremost production region in the world. Eli Whitney, last of the famous fathers of textile invention, g-.ave to the world the machine that was des-

tined to reshape the economy of many nation~. Hi\ "gin"- ' hort for t·nginc - inot';l\t'cl 1111.11 U. S. cotton export~ h om IHi,OilO pott111l' in 179~ to mon· than 62,000,000 pounds by 1811. The f<l\h valm· of tht· <otton !lop iiHI\'.I'Cd

from $150,000 to 0\U "H.OOO,OOO in tlw lc:n· year p('riod lnllowi ng I 7!1 I. :\ow th.tt !litton could be ginnl"<l in \olumc ,pinning ancl weaving grew into <1 11 tmendom in<h"ll ).

Though Slate1 had lntrodu<rd modt'lll )·II n making mtthod,, ll lt-lll:lllll"d lor F t.uH j,

Cabot Lowdl. " 'oung Ho~wn mrn h.111t , 10

bring to , \mel ic a the jt·aloml\ ~-;u;n dul w <1 n of the power loom. Rq>roduc 1ng tht m.11 hin· ell from memon, a~ O,latcr had done, Lowell and hi, a'~oCJ:tte~ in IRI :I wmpl1ttd tht , pin· ning proce'' lmm bait: to woH·n lah1 it ttndt'l one roof in their \\'altham. \ l.h'><Hhuwth, mill. B) IR I6 there \\Til 500.1100 '>plnd lc, in Amt•J ican cotton mil h. c·mplo\ 1111-; mo1 < than 100,000 workers and ll J>ll''>Ulllll~ ':1:10 1100.00() of invested capital.

Other Industry Landmarks

In 1828 the invention of the ring spinnmg frame by John Thorpe gave the infant Amer· ican industry the advantage it needed in world competition and provided the basis for modern mass production. This invention made spinning faster, more simple, and less expensive. While mills were being perfected, adventurous Yankee sailors opened up ~he sea· ways of the world to American textilt prod· ucts and established our commerce on a par with that of Great Britain.

It is intereMing to note that the first textile patent was granted to James Davenport in 1794 for his carding and spinning machines. The first textile trade mark, consisting of a label of lead bear ing the seal of the Beverly, ;\fas,achmeth. mill. made it~ appt'<u <tnt c in 1788. and wa'> auacht·d to thl' t>nd of all rloth. Thl' fir'>t textile adH'J tl'>emcnt pmmotrd torduro" pwdutcd b~ Baker and 1\lk n o( Beverly in 1789.

Development of Southern Textiles

In the South, early attempts to establish textile mills were made about the same time as the ventures at Philadelphia and Beverly. The first successful Southern mill was erected by Samuel Sc henck m·ar Li ncolnton. '\mth Carol ina, in 18 13. and operated until it ''"' destroved dm ing the Ci\ il \\'.tr. I h;lt , ;unc year .Joel Battle ('~tabli,hrd the Rnrh \ fount, ~orth Carolina, Mills. and today this firm vies with the W ill iam W hitaker ~ <;om \ fill at


J'JuJ.ult Jpl11.1 fol clw III II' nl clw old1 '' mill in I IJ1 II,IIJOII 01\ JIIC J ,IIJ.J Oil< !.Ill d Ull cilt' ,,llllt'

jll\11 '·\ " " '·'"''' l.llllih . 1 I \ m uh'.s S!llatc't pionca in la 1 ge-~ca le

testi .," 11 '' tcturing \\ ,t) \\' illiam Gregg. I lis mill, lmih 11 C.• .m ite' illc, South Carolina, in 1 '15, is m I in operation under its original charter. ,\ g1cat cruqdcr for indu)trial ex· p:tmion :111<1 ~cial bcuer~ncm_ of the Soutl~, Cregg built complue null villages for lm \\(>lkcr' and met their nce<b with kindne~s .u1d undc1,t.u1ding. lie pro hibited child J.,bor, nude ''hool attendance compulsory, . uul huu i,ht·d free textbooks for the children ul hi' ,,·o1 kc1 '· lie rdused to usc slave labor .111d unbodied into his mill operation the tht m ic: of p1 ogre'' that won him fame as a le.,dt•J of th<. South.

lmmt·diatcly before the C iv il W ar, the \outh wa~ of vital imponance to the British

,uJc indu' u' I>unng 1859-60 the linited \ Itt:\ t:X J>Oilt:d tO } ngland 2,522.000 bale) Of , •lton, and w;t\ followed nc't by the 1 ast hulit:,, cxpm ting onlv 563.000 bales.

\\ ar ancl lncJu.,tr ittl Expaneion l·om H..ll~ of bitterly contested war, a com·

pletc br.t·akdown of commerce and industry, the < hange h om )la\'e to free labor, together with the lrmuation and futi lity of the recon· struction period , placed the South in a position ,,·here it could be saved only by the otelg} and '·lf·de\'o tion of its own pe?ple. But tht \outh met the challenge. Sur rcd hv 1ht '"''t:'' of \\'illiam Cregg, Southern b;,,inc'' men were convinced that industry could flom i'h in Dixie. 1 heir ambitions were Mimul;Jtcd bv the l ntelnational Cotton Expo· ~i tion o£ 188 1 in Atlanta, which was staged Jl' im;u ilv to encourage better methods of plant ing and ginning. The new machines .hown thc1e in~pired many who saw them. \ l llh ~p1 ang up throughout the South, where 11101 e than 80 per cent of the industry is locotted today. B' 1895 the South had safely passed bcvond embnonic industrialism, and the d reams of men of vision had become reality in the ~ew South

The year~ between the first and second \\'od d Wars marked another great period of Southern textile industrialilation. In the last , c.u of World \\'ar I there were I ·1,529,063 active spindles in place in the South, and 18.065,857 111 the ~orth. At the beginning of World War II , the South had increased its c l)l.lCJ t\· to li,939,000. while 'xew Lngland\

'J>III(lln had decl ined tO 5,33 1,000. Or the tMtion' 23,195,000 ~pind lc:. now in pl.tcc. 18,51J,OOO a1c loca ted in the Sou th and 1,:? 1:?,000 in 'xcw l.ngland.

THE COTTO~ INDUSTRY TOOA Y

Cotton today is one of the wo1ld's mo:.t vi tal and necessa1 y crops. Jts production. process· ing. and ~ale constitute one or the major ractOI) in ,,·orld pro:>pe1ity and economic sta· bility. ~fill ions of individuals and many nations arc dependent on cotton for income and success .

Cotton in the World Economy

Wodd cotton production increased, a fter Wodd War II, from a low of 21,000,000 bales in 191516, to an t:)timated 31.800.000 bale~ in 1951 52, averaging 28,3 12,000 ba les for the period. Production has risen most in the dollar exchange area, increasing only moderately in the Melling countries.

World consump tion of cotton during the 1950-51 :.cason was above prewar. It a\·craged 28.835.000 ba les over the past five-year period. 1 he rate of cotton mill consumption has been '"b't.tntiallv higher than the prewar average in the l 'nitcd States, Pakistan , some of the Latin ,\ merican countries. and in other pan~ or the wm ld where there has been expansion in mill capacitv since before the war. Con· sumption in Fmopc is about equal to the prewar average. The J apanese cotton texti le in· dusn v ha:. accelerated its operations grcat lv ~ i nce the end of the war, but production Still is less than three-fourths of the prewar level.

\Vorld co tton ex po rts, amounting to 9.000,000 in 191!H6, declined to 8.750.000 bales in 1917-18; then increased to 12.500.000 bales in 1951-52. This rise was due mainly to a large increase in cxpon s from the {.; nitccl Sta tes.

Fmopean impon s tota led 8,000,000 bales in 19:') 1-52 compared to an average o£ 8,500.000 bale) in 1935 to 1939, and 6.000,000 in 1916. Impo1 ts into J apan declined from 2,800,000 bales !n 1939 to 233,000 bales in 19 16, but 1 ecovercd to 2,000,000 bales in 1951-52.

The U. S. Cotton Textile Industry Cotton production is America's greatest

agricultural industry. Currently more than \ :t SIJ 1.111111.0110 annu.JI ln(OIIIC. OJ :Jj />1'1' lt'll(

o f 1111' totnl o'fllllt' of l 111/t•d \tfl/1' } ffll'lll emf''· '' dt l l l'l'tl f11m1 rnttrm fllld rol/rmwt•d.


About 8 per cent of the nation's populauon, or wme 13,000,000 people, mal..c all or part of their living by growing, procc~sing. manufacturing. and selling cotton and its product~.

.\lore than }I :>.000,000,000 arc invc~tcd in the raw cotton industry.

"1 he Cniu::d States has harvested an a,·erage of 13,100,000 bales of cotton a year since 191/, ahno'>t live time., as much as Rus'>ia. the "·odd\ '><"concl );uge'>t producu. I he l ' nitcd ''Jlates ~hare of the world's cotton harvest has fluctu;ned. Production declined hom 60 per cent in 190913 to II per cent in 1931-38. This trend has been reversed since the war, however. and the United States is now growing about II per ccm of the world's cotton.

1\ot only docs the United States produce more cotton than any other country in the \\'Orld, but it is also the largest comumcr ol cotton goods. Dming the past fi,·e years. consumption has averaged 9,150,000 bales. about three times as much as in India. the second largest consumer.

I od.l) the textile ph.1sc ol the totton llldu~ll) i., a nt•twol 1.. ol app1o'\illl.llcl) 1,!!00 c:'tahJi,hmcnh IO<atnl iu !!7 states lrom .\lau1c to Texa,. .\lor c than SO pt'T cent of the spindles .111d iO per cern of the lo(>Ob arc loc.ncd in tht ~outh . :-\cnth Carolina, llo\\' the heart of ti't ind 1sll), h,,., :!ti per c cnt of the nauon's :.!:l,l!l,i,OOO 'Pilldl~., in pbcc. :-outh (...rrolin.l ha, :.!:; per c:cnt, lo!Jc,,,·cd by C eorgi.r "ith ll per c em and .\ f.1"<t< hus<:tts with ~~ pu cent. ·r here arc in operatiou today .tppwxnn.nclv 86,11~ cuding machincs, !1,13S comber', and ·l!l~.s·,; loom, :l\uaging a ppwximatcly 6,11 ;,.

GOO.OOO pounch ol tc xuiL> )C-111)' In the po .. t· war per ioc!. t•nitccl ~t:ll<.'> tC\.tlle export, ha\'C an~• agnl about 311 200.000 pound,, n1al..ing thi~ nation one of tht: wm ld\ l:ugnt <'porter~.

Cotton Lt'xtilc tmplo)llll'lll ha., ,t\'CI,Ignl .q>pmxlmatdy ·191 000 pc:ro;orh 'incc the w.n. falltng only ,Jightl) flo111 :l pL.lk of 5~~1,000 <111ployul 111 I'll~. \\"or l..ing <t>llllitrolh h \C

llliJIIIJ\~c! 'llollllh. J'J<,llll \\,lgl' ,1\(IJgl' .ll)()ut '1.311 an hour'" <omp.ucd ,,ith 39 cents in 193!1.

Co/1011 (irld at hamrst tim~. Chemical d~(oliarlts hau~ strrpp~cl off l~nr·rs lu /il(i/itrllr l'i(/tmg.

5


II Th e Culture of Cotton

(;Quon is grown in the United States across a great area of land known as the Cotton Belt. From Virginia on the Atlantic to California on the Pacific, from the southeastern corner of Missouri to the Gulf of Mexico, more than 8.500,000 people in 20 states make their Jiving from the soil by planting cotton on the nation's 1,100,000 cotton farms.

Production methods vary in the d ifferent areas of the Cotton Belt. Soil types, climate, moisture, growing conditions, and topography influence cultural practices and determine such factors as types of cotton planted, size of fa1 ms, crop income, and per-acre yields.

Land preparation, planting, cultivating, and harvc:>ting are the major steps in cotton production. Irrigation is practiced in areas where moisture is insufficient. Supplementary practices which are often followed to increase production or guard against losses include: fertil izing, thinning the young plants, insect control, artificially defoliating the plant, destroying and turning under the stalks after harvesti ng. and planting winter cover crops.

LAND PREPARATION

The first step in the culture of cotton is disposal of residue from the previous crop. Where cotton follows corn or a previous crop of cotton, a stalk cutter or shredder is usually used to d es troy the old plants. Machines called "disk harrows," or other suitable soil turning equipment, may be used further to break up and cover the sta lks.

In some cases, with or without removing stalks from a previous crop, a winter cover crop of legumes is planted in the fall to protect and improve the soil. The cover crop is then turned under when the land is plowed.

After the land has been plowed, tractor- or mule-driven machines further prepare the soil for planting. Ridges, clods, and crusts are broken and leveled with "spike tooth har· rows," or other suitable equipment.

PLANTING

After the land is properly prepared, a mechanical planter opens a small furrow, drops and covers the seed, and packs the earth on top.

6

In some cases, fertilizer is applied at the same time the seed are planted. T he time for plant· ing var ies with the locality and the weather, generally ranging from around February I in South T exas to J une 1 in northernmost sec· tions of the Belt.

T he amount of seed planted per acre is influenced by farming practices, soil types, rainfall, method of p lanting, the known germination of the seed, and whether "fuzzy" or delinted seed arc planted. Some types of planters drop the seed in hills, spaced a desired distance apar t. This is called "hill dropping," or planting to a stand. The practice still most commonly followed, however, is to drill an almost continuous stream of seed in the seedbed.

CULTIVATING

After the young plants begin to grow, they must be thinned so that there are two or three plants per hill every nine to fourteen inches. Thinning is usually done by workers with hand hoes, although mechanical chopping is increasing in importance every year. Whole families often work together at this first step in cultivation, chopping out surplus stalks, weeds, and grass with big, broad-bladed hoes.

As the evenly-spaced plants grow, weeds must be kept out, both by plowing between the rows and by additional hoeing. Again workers and machines go into the fields. A number of d ifferent types of mechanical cultivators are in use across the Cotton Belt. They are equipped with various cultivating devices such as "sweeps," "shove ls," " tee th," or "prongs" to loosen the soil and uproot grass and weeds. Local conditions determine the number of cultivations necessary. Some farmers may work their crops as many as eight or nine times a season.

Weed Control

For many years, farmers, mechanics, and agricultural engineers have labored to develop a successful method of controlling weeds and grass by machine. T he flame cultivator is one of. the most important devices developed for th1s purpose. T he operating principle of the machine is much the same as the Army's flame thrower. Four to eight noules, two to a row,


mounted near the ground, emit a continuous blast of flame produced from either butane or propane gas. Two jets of fire straddle the cotton row. The flame cultivator depends for its value on the toughness of the cotton stalk after it has passed its early growth and is about the size and height of a lead pencil. Weeds and grass wither and die under the heat, but the tough cotton stalk remains undamaged.

Until the plant has matured enough to withstand flame weeding, other methods help the cotton farmer fight one of his biggest battles. Improved cultivators, rotary hoes, and rotary hoe attachments for cultivators help to keep weeds and grass under control. Rotary hoes are high-speed cultivating machines which are designed to travel through the field at rates up to 7Y2 miles an hour. In this type of equipment, fast-turning, sprocket-like wheels with numerous teeth supplement the conventional sweep.

At present, there are two methods of chemical weed control. They may be used separately or in combination. In either case they are supplemented by mechanical and flame cultivation. One method is to apply the chemical in a 10- to 14-inch band over the drill area at the time of, or just after, planting-before cotton plants emerge. During the next few weeks this band is not disturbed. Under favorable conditions, the young germinating cotton plants are not harmed by the chemical, but germinating weed and grass seed are killed. This method is called pre-emergence weed control. The other method is called post-emergence. It involves spraying an area six to eight inches wide on either side of the cotton plant. The spray kills tender weed and grass seedlings without harming young cotton plants. But the chemicals must be applied carefully because they will kill the cotton too if sprayed on leaves or branches. The post-emergence spray can be repeated two or three times.

lnseet Control Each year, through reduced yields, the cot

ton farmer loses about one out of every eight bales to insect pests. The boll weevil accounts for about 90 per cent of this damage, and a host of other pests account for the remainder. In 1952 it was officially estimated that l.4H,OOO bales, valued at about $289.768,000, were lost to insects. This was enough cotton to have produced approximately one billion men's dress shirts, 367 million overalls, or 267 million double bed sheets.

7

Aside from the boll weevil, the principal insect enemies which the farmer must combat are thrips, the cotton leafworm, cotton bollworm, cotton fleahopper, lygus bug, cotton aphid, spider mite, and the pink bollworm.

To reduce damage caused by these insects, farmers must dust or spray the growing cotton many times a season, depending on weather conditions and degree of infestation. Insecticides most generally used are toxaphene, benzene hexachloride, aldrin, dieldrin, calcium arsenate, TEPP, chlordane, parathion, DDT, sulphur, and nicotine. Application methods range from the one-row hand duster carried on the back of the worker to sprays and dusters mounted on airplanes which can cover as many as 1500 acres a day. Tractor-mounted dusters and sprayers are the most generally used type and can apply poison to as many as eight rows at a time. A new practice is to spray and culti vate in the same operation.

Development of the Boll

About 21 days after the squares (flower buds) are formed, the cotton blossom appears. \Vhen the flower first opens, the petals are creamy white to deep yellow, later turning pink and finally dark red. The third day after opening they wither and usually fall off. leaving the young ovary attached to the plant. The ovary ripens, enlarges, and forms a pod which is known as a "cotton boll."

Inside the boll, the moist fibers grow and push out from the coating of the newly formed seed, expanding the boll until it is mature and ready to open. The mature boll resembles a giant raindrop, and is about an inch in diameter and an inch and a hal£ long. Although the boll enlarges rapidly up to the time of maturity, some time elapses before it is ready to open. Usually, about 45 to 65 days are required between bloom and open boll, depending upon the variety, climate, and time of season.

HARVESTING Defoliation

Frost causes the cotton plant to shed its leaves naturally, but in many cases the cotton matures several weeks prior to the first frost. Where this happens, chemicals can be applied to the plant to cause it to shed its leaves prematurely.

When the cotton plant is thus "defoliated," all its bolls are fully exposed to sunlight and air. Boll rot is reduced, and the bolls open more rapidly and uniformly, allowing a higher


. ~'.: ·· ..

~· -~.

.r--· ,.J.I' .... ~..-:

.!Jii:lr - ...... - . · . ·~- .

~

I - · ~ . e~· .

.. ~.:. ..

f

r orm mochintry ex~dites planting and cultivation of cotton crop. T op leh: preparing new beds prior to plontm g. "J op right: plorlling sud IIL'O rows at o time. Uottom: cult iuMmg yotmg plorliS.

8


Aaia/ pest control and muhanica/ harvestt:rs aid t:f/iCJt:nt production. Top: f>larrr d u!liug crop with msuticide. Bouom lefl: mechan•cal cotton picker. nouom righ1: m uha111ca/ cot tou si11JIIu:,,

9 Samford University Library

percentage of cotton to be gathered at the first picking-ahead of wet fall weather which dam.tge5 fiber and seed. Defoliated cotton dries out faster and is much easier to pick by hand.

Defoliation is almost a necessity if cotton is mechanically harvested. With both mechani· cal pickers and mechanical strippers, defoliation assists in at least three valuable functions: ( I) removal of the bulk of leaves that interfere with machine efficiency, (2) prevention of green leaf stain in the lint, and (3) elimination of much dry leaf trash.

Defoliation also helps to reduce insect losses. It removes the food supply for late boll weevil broods, prevents army worm damage, and helps control the pink bollworm and cotton aphid.

Defoliants arc usually applied when the youngest bolls are 25 to 30 days old. Tractors or airplanes apply the chemicals with equipment similar to that used for applying insecti· cides.

Band Picking

Now that the plant has been freed of most of its leaves, the bolls are exposed to the warm sun, and soon split open from the pressure of the packed fibers inside. The fluffy white cotton stands out like a powder pu((, cling· ing to the split segments of the boJI which are called "burs"'. The cotton is now ready to be picked.

At harvest time, all available workers- men. women, and children- turn to the task of pick· ing the fleecy cotton from the open boJis.

When cotton is picked by hand in the South· cast, Delta areas, Rio Grande Valley, and irrigated sections of the Far West, the laborers pick the seed cotton from the open bolls. Workers in the semi-arid areas, such as the ll igh Plains of Texas and Oklahoma, pull o(( the entire boll instead of picking the cotton from the bur. This method is known as "hand snapping."

l\lechanieal Harvesting

"1 he increasing scarcity of labor is one o£ the big factors which has speeded up the

10

development of mechanical harvesters. These machines can gather more cotton in a lew mm· utes than the average worker can harvest from sunup to sundown. It is estimated that machines harve~ted approximately 18 per cent of the 1952 crop of 15,000,000 bales.

There are two types o£ mechanical cotton harvesters: the "picker" and the "stripper." The spindle-type cotton picker consists essen· tially of vertical drums equipped with revolv· ing, barbed, or smooth wire spindles, which engage and pull the cotton from the open boJis.

In cotton yielding 300 pounds o£ lint per acre, the hand picker can gather about 15 pounds of seed cotton per hour. A single-row mechanical picker on the same land harvests almost 650 pounds an hour. The spindle-type picker can harvest anywhere from five to fif· teen acres o£ cotton per day-an average of 250 or more acres per season-depending on the yield, whether the machine is one- or two-row, and other factors. Manufacturers o£ the spindle-type machines claim they can pick from 95 to 98 per cent o£ the open cotton, leaving only a small amount in the field. ;\Icchanical pickers arc used primarily in areas having cottons with lush growth and high yields.

Strippers are used primarily in western T exas and western Oklahoma. They are most effective with cottons o£ low height and low yield and in level fields with long rows. Early strippers of the sled type were tractor· or muledrawn devices with teeth which combed the cotton, the boJis, and parts of the plant (rom the stalk as the equipment moved down the row. Present-day strippers, though a great improvement over sleds, still are once-over machines. In the roJier-type stripper, boJis are puJied off when they enter the roJiers o£ the machine. Mechanical fingers accomplish the same job in the finger-type stripper.

All strippers harvest two rows at a time, are tractor-mounted, and are capable of harvesting nearly a bale of cotton an hour and £rom 10 to 15 acres per day. A single stripper can harvest as much cotton as 26 laborers hand snapping the boJis.


III Initial Processing of Cotton

GINNING

After cotton has been picked from the plant, it is loaded on wagons or large trucks and carried to the gin where the fiber, or lint, is separated from the seed. The principle of the modern cotton gin is basically the same as that developed by Eli Whitney in 1793. Gins today also are equipped to remove excessive moisture, trash, and foreign matter from cotton, in order that a higher quality bale may be delivered to the spinning mill.

The gin "stand" consists of a series of circular saws mounted on a horizontal revolving shaft. These saws project through a set of steel ribs, and as the cotton is fed onto the ribs, the revolving saws engage the lint, pull it from the seed, and carry it through the ribs. It is then removed from the saws, either by brushes or by air suction, and conveyed to the baling press where it is compressed and packaged into bales. Each bale is wrapped in bagging material and tied with strong steel bands. An average bale of cotton weighs about 500 pounds. From the gin, the fiber and the seed journey separate roads.

COITONSEED

After leaving the gin, the seed go to the crushing mills where they are "delinted" of their downy fuzz by a mechanical process similar to the one used in the ginning operation. The very short fibers that are removed from the seed in the delinting process are called "linters." These linters are used for absorbent cotton, low grade yarns, mattresses, and for chemical purposes where cellulose is needed.

Next the hulls are removed from the delinted seed. Usually the hulls are consumed as livestock feed, though some are used in the manufacture of plastics and others as a source of furfural, a chemical which is used in the production of nylon, synthetic rubber, and other products.

The oil inside the seed is pressed out at the crushing mill. Some of the most modern mills also use a chemical process known as "solvent extraction" to obtain the oil. Cottonseed oil is used in the production of margarine, shorten-

II

ing, salad dressings, mayonnaise, and other food products requiring animal or vegetable oil. The pressed meat of the seed is a golden yellow meal unusually high in protein content. It is a valuable source of feed for livestock.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF LINT

Arter the lint cotton is baled <tt the gin, H ts classed and graded. Samples arc taken from each bale and clas~ed by expens according to staple length, grade, and character.

The term "staple length" refers to the length of the fiber. Cotton of a given variety will produce fibers classifiable within a more or less definite length range. Since the length of fibers in a single bale may vary, the designated staple length is that which the classcr con siders predominant.

In spinning, one staple length cannot be substituted for another differing more than a small fraction of an inch without readjust· ment of the machinery. Difference in staple length also affects the strength of the yarn and the fineness to which it can be spun.

On the basis of staple length, cotton may he divided into five commonly used but unoffici<tl groupings:

(1) Very short cotton (not over~ inch). This is mostly unspinnable and finds its main use in batting and wadding. The harsh type, of which none is grown in the United States, is also used in the nap of cotton blankets.

(2) Short-staple cotton (13/16 but less than 15/16 inch). This cotton is readily spin· nable and is used in many of the coarser and cheaper kinds of goods.

(3) Medium-staple cotton (15/16 but less than 1 Vs inches). This cotton represents the bulk of United States production, with great quantities for domestic consumption and for export.

(4) Ordinary long-staple cotton (IVs to lYs inches), of which the United States produces the bulk of its requirements; imports are relatively small.


-........ - - - --- - - -·-

J: ' .... . ,

1 op ldt: cottou giu; lmt pours dou•11 ci111U, S('(d drop to bottom of gm stnud. T op right: presses squu:l' rid1 o1/ f•om sud iu cottouucd oil mill. llou o m: classmg cotton for grnde and stapll'.

12


(5) J~xtra long-staple cotton (1% inches and longer). DonH:~tic production is rc::lativtly ~mall. 1 raditionally, the United ~tate~ gets much of ib extra long-staple cotton hom Egypt. But there is growing interc.,t in increa.,ing dome>tic production.

ln the Cnited 5tatcs, the last two groups arc classified a~ long-staple cotton. Long staples anount for about 3 per cent of our domestic crop. The staples represented by group three account for 83 per cent, and those included in groups one and two account for about 1·1 per cent. Staple length largely determines the usc of cotton and the competition of one variety with another, but grade and character also affect selection of cotton for a particular purpose.

The term "grade" in cotton classification refers to color and brightness, the amount of foreign matter, and ginning preparation. Standards for grading American cotton have been established by the united States government. They arc invariably used in the trade and arc revised from time to time. For white cotton, the grades in the order of their highc~t 1aluc an (,ood \fiddling. ~trict \fiddlin~

\fiddl1ng. ~ll in Lo" :'diddling. Lo" \lid dling. ~lll< t ( .ood Ordinan. Good Onl111.11 1 The largt·-.t pcrn.:magc of our donH·,ur.tll) gm11 n <olton !a ll-. bdow the cla.,,i[ication oi C.ood :\ I iddl111g.

l hne arc abo fi1c distinct color groupings indirating the degree o( ,,·hitencss. the'><.: being White. Spotted. Tinged. Yellow Stained. and Grey.

The term "character" refers to the diameter, strength, body, maturity, uniformity, and smoothness of the fibers and to all other qualities not covered by staple length and grade. Uniformity in all contributes toward a high value of cotton, while lack of it is a detriment in the market value a nd spinning quality of cotton.

Fine silky cottons which take a high luster in mercerization are selected to make fine goods in which a soft, lustrous finish is required. Coarse, rough cotton is more dc~irablc in the production of most industrial products. Character, like staple length, is inherent in the variety of cotton, but environment sometimes affects these properties.

13

Cotton i~ n ... ld) fur ~.tic aft~:r tilt: d,t\ c:rs have <.:'>tablishcd an approxnnate ,,due for each b;tlc. The nta1l.:eting of cotton is a com ple.x operation, and includes all the tran,,tctions dealing with buying, ~cllrng. or te .tic from the time the cotton 1s ginned unlll n rete ht·, the mill.

(,rower~ usually ~ell their cotton to a loc.Jl buyer or merchant a£ter it has been ginned and baled, hut if they decide against im· mtdiatc sale, thev may store it and borrow money on it. Cotton ~torcd in approved warehouses 1s like having money in the bank, for cottc>n is a non-pc1 i,Iublc nop and a secure basis for a loan.

Spot ;\lark<'t~

To a1d in disseminating accmatc information concerning pric<.:~ for cotton, the Dep.trt· mcm of Agri<:ul t ut c h,,, dc'i3n.Ht d . \ti.lnt.l, Augusta, Charlc,ton, :\fontgomov, '\l'w OrJe;nl'>, :\fcmphi-., Little Rock, 1>.1llts, llouston, Gall'c,ton, l.uhbocl.:, and Frc.,no a' bon.t frdc cotton '\pot" markch. A quot.nion commit tee in c.1ch <it) rn.tke' a da1h sun<' of the n1.1rket and rc.pons loc,d price, tO thC' lkp rtmcrll and to the cotton t;'\Ch,tngb.

The term "~pot" cotton ,,·as fir~t applied to cotton actually in a \\'arehousc, at a port, or on the spot at any markc.t. .-h now used, the term applies to all baits actually bought and sold, as contrasted with "fututt;~"-the huring and selling o( cotton for future ddi\CI) in som<.: stated later month. ~pol quot.ttiOih tome from the , ·arious spot c'chang<.:' and mill , en tcrs and may differ according to localit~. :-ipot prices arc indication' of what hu)cr, wJII offer and 1d1at sellers will accq>t for cotton.

The current price for spot cotton i~ pub· li;hcd daily on the stock market pag<.:' of man} ncw,JMpcrs. Price is gi,·en in <cnh per pound to the ncare't 1/ 100 of a cent. ;\fiddling cotton \\'ith a ~taplc of 15/16 inch i~ the ba~e !pt:rlit\, and prkn for quality differcmc' arc mc.1~urcd from thi~ ba,c. Buyer,, in making an oHcr on a particular bale of cotton, take imo cothrdu.l· tion the prices being paid for cotton on the leading ~pot markets. ·1 h<.:y aho ukc into account the pt ices bid on fuwrc> contraus hy


people huring and ,ciJ ing <olton for l:n er de· liHJ\ the tdati\'C \ ,tl u<. of d iffere lll gtadc) .uul ' ·t.tplc length,, ft cight, itt:>mance, and ~~~" r•gc l h;u g~.;~.

luturt• .. J~"dwngcs

I ntm , o;ch.lllgc~ at e no\\' operating in ' " Y01l.., Cluc.1go, a nd :\ew Orleans. Out· id, the l nu<.·d t ;llc~ tiH.tc arc exchange, in

Iimitul opc1.1l10n Ill Bombay, . \ lexandria. Sao Paulo, and K.n aclu . I he c, like spo t ex· <.h.lllg<:,, .n e ·'"on.tuon~ of l>uyet:. a nd sellc• ), fotmul to f.tlilitatc couon tt.tdtng. '1 he mem hu ~ 111,1\ huv ;llld ,ciJ for thcnhch·es. or act as agcnh £;11 th~ir cu~tomct ' · l xcha ngc no t only .ud in tl" 111.11 kcting of cou on by making price fJIIo t.ttJom ·" .• ilablc, but they act as a barom· Ctt·t 111 tdkning p••rn for ~cvet a l momhs in the ltun•e, tl'nd111g w ~tal>il i1e and stimulate bu, i nc" .

'l'o assure an adequa te supply of cotton, mill ' mu,t contract for delivery months in ;uh :me e. • \ future~ contract is a legal agree· metll to deliver, on the pan of the mercha nt, .111d to a<<< pt. bv the ~pinn<.r. cotton at any agreed ptice during a s p ecifi ed calenda r month. It thus a<.sures both sale and delivery.

Uy contracting for fu ture delivery, mer· chant~ and spin ners "hedge" to pro tect them· ' d\'C, ag.tin~t lo"~ from price fluctua tion.

J h ·df:ing

\ hal<: of cotton m:ty change in value con· ' l<kt;tblv on its long jom ney from farm to l!'t:til 'tote. Fach businessman who handles the bale cxp<:cts to make his notmal profit from the value he adds to the cotton by pro· , ·iding nu1 kcting ~e• vices, spinning, weaving. 01 .nl\ o th<.-r OJX:t.uion he pc• forms. But he '>l'ek' to a\oid a l o~" which could ca ncel out hi' not nMI profit cau\ed by a drop in the p• i< c of cotton \\'hile the bale is in his hands. Hy hedging. he in~m e~ himself against such a ~pcculatin lo .. s a nd i\ able to concentrate on hi' main job of sc•' icing and p•ocessing cotton.

'1 he p• inc iplc of hedging is to keep an even 01 balanced po~ition in the mat ket at a ll t imes. T hi' i .. done by selling fot future del ivery on thl' futuH, ndt.lllgt'' .tg.tan't un~old holding:.

and by bu) 111g lot fu ture dcl ive1) o n the fu· lilt c:. exc h.lllge:. aga inst fot ward sales.

\ \ "hen •• merchant buy:> an actua l or "spot" b.tlc of cotton, he hedges by selling a " future" b;~k \\'hen he sells a "spot" ba le, he hedges 1}\ bu) 111g a "future'' bale. Prices on both the spot .111<1 !mutes exchanges tend to move up ;tnd down together. 1 hus, wha t he loses in one u.uh.t( tlon '' largely offset by a ga in in the o ther.

l lcr<. 1' an example: Jn :'\ovembcr a mer· chant bu) ~ a bale of cotton- a t a pr ice per pound that m.tl..n t lw co 1 rome to I iO: he hnlgt' .11 tht ,anw tinw b) ~clli ng for '> 160 a "future" bale for del ivery the following July.

The pt icc of cotton falls . By Ma rch, when the merchant sells h is bale to a m ill, he finds it 1s wmth onh '1150. 01 20 Ie · than he pa id fo r it. But at the same t ime he can buy back a Juh h rttn (·, bak for only 110. or ·zo Ie than he has sold it (or. The $20 profit he ma kes in the futures market offsets the $20 ln:.s he suffered in spot colton.

·1 hm, hedging is a form of insurance which n:duccs the risk in the colton business to a nunimum. lt shifts the risk to speculators who arc the professiona l r isk-bearers in cotton trad ing.

The merchant's job is to assemble many grades of cotton during the fa ll harvest to meet the particular requirements of textile m ills throughout the year. llis profit comes from the set vice he thus performs for his customers. lie hedges by selling futures contracts as he buys raw cotton. Otherwise he would have to charge much more for his services to cover the r isk involved in stocking a large supply of cot· ton a nd tying up a large amount of capital.

i\lills also do a gt·cat deal of hedging. A mill with a large invento ry of manufactured co t· ton cloth may sell fu tures to protect its stock against a ny drop in the price of raw cotton. As the cloth is sold, the mill buys futures.

Another mill may make a sale of cloth for future del ivery before it obta ins cotton of the exact quality required to fill the order. The mill can hedge the sale by buying futures, so that if the cost of its raw cotton turns out to be higher tha n expected, a profit on the futures transaction can make up the difference .

A farmer may hedge also. In the spring he may sec a n attractive December futures price


and sell as many bales of December futures as he expects his farm to produce. " ' hen he harvests and sells his cotton, he will buy back his December futures. In this way he is more sure of the price he will receive for his crop, and he protects himself against the possibility of a sharp drop in couon prices between planting and harvesting time. In so doing. however, he

abo lo1egoc~ the po,~ihility of g.t~nmg hom any adv;\llc e 1n cotton pttccs.

. \ftcr cotton h:1' been cl.t"i{icd and sold on the ma1 kct to the ~hipper~ or milb, it i, 11\ll.llly

stored in 1 a rgc w;u chou ~e,. ' I hc1 c it a \\':• it~ shipment to the 'pinning mill a, the next ~tcp in ib journey hom field to fini,hnl f.ti>J ir

Left: bales for export are compressed at warehou~e. Right: tradi11g on floor of future> cxclumgf'.

15


IV Cotton Spinning and Weaving

Couon tc"ilc: manufacturing i~ generally di' ickd into two major operations spinning :u1d ''Ca\ ing Spuwing b mually considered to include 'tiiOU\ prepar.ttory and cleaning procoso. 'uch !I\ opening and cleaning the r .1\\' couon, pic king. c.u ding. comblllg, dt aw· mg. to\'ing. in addition to tlu; actual !>p1nn111g (Jf tile )•tin. 1\\ the 1.1 w fiiKr pa-.,c, tluough these psocc ,<',, it i' ~ucce,~1vch c.tlkd "lap," ''sli, c1," ''wdng," and fin;tlly ">arn." \\'ea\' iug include, the :.~:veta! MlJ>!> necc~saty to pre· p:u e tile \\,11 p and filling );II m for the loom\, the ,,.c,l\ ing p1on" it,elf, and th<: i•hpection o f 1 he wo\'Cn doth.

Opt·nin~ nnd Pirking

C · 1t1on . 11 in·, .tt th<: 'pinning mill in bales \\(:ig h ing on th<.:• :1\'t·t.lge about 500 poumh. \ her the meta l band\ and jute wrapping, have

been JCIIIO\ Cd, COtiOn from \e\'Ct:tl bale' i\ fed imo a nl:H hine c.dkd a "bknding feeder." J:lo1drng i~ one of the mo,tc:,,cmial ptocc~c in the m ill o pc1-:t tion, fm a 'Pinner mmt obtain n~o~ximum fihc1 unifmmitv in order to main· 1.1i11 <on~t .tnt qu.tlity in h(~ )atn.

Lum ps of fibc1 :n c loosentd and tht heavier impm itics 'II< h a' d i1t, lean,, bur,, and seed p:u t ic lc' :n e 1 nnm·c.·d bv machine) knO\\'n a~ " p i< kcr ' ·" . , hc'e 11\a(hil;<.:, continue the clean· ing of tile cotton and fotrn it into " laps," or wJJ,, . .IHIIII 18 inc he, in d iameter a nd 45 inch~.;~

''ide. l n fosm and 'hapc. thc~c lap~ re,cmblc a hsm hcnt wuon 'old in <h u~tor<:~.

( arcling

I ht· toll of picl..cr lap i' fed into the carding m.u hinc whne the initial proce s of :.~raight· cuing and p.u.tlleling the tangled rna~ of fiber tak<;, pttcc. llcre. the lap is unrolled ami dr.l\,·n onto a revolving C)linder which is w\ elcd ,,ith ~hon p•ouuding wire points . • , he < ~ lindu pull\ the fil>et ~ all in one direc· tinn, p.ntlr di,cntanglc:. them, and shapes them into :t thin web. J n thi~ form, the cotton i dr.twn tluough a (unncl·:.hap<:d device which mold it into a "~li"er" a 1 otmd, ropelikc Mrand about the diameter of one's finger.

16

Combing

In the p•oducuon of high quality y.uns whnc c.xccptional ~moothness, fineness, and ~trength at c dbiH.d, the fiber) arc combed a~ well ·•~ c.11 dcd. I he card ~liven. pass through ~pecial pre. pat ;uot y pt occ:.:.c~ to comolidatc :.liver) .tnd sll aightc n the fiber:., after which the)' a1e pa,,cd through the comber. Finetoothed comb~ continue the procc~ of straight· c ning the couon until the shon fibers, called "noib," arc 'cp:u a ted from the longer· ones. While not l>ttit.tble for combed yarn produCts, noih arc :.pinnablc, and arc often used in the production of coar:.c in:.ulating ym n:., o:.na· burg:.. and other similar products.

I h <: lo ngc.·r fibc1~ remaining after the noils arc runovcd arc.: fo1mcd into "comber sliver:.," in which tht libel~ arc straighter than in card sl iver~.

Drawing

I he next ~tcp after carding or combing is d1 awing. in which se,•er.tl slivers arc combined into a ~uand which b drawn out, without twist· ing. and reduced to about the same diameter a"> o ne o f the original s live• :..

Roving

Fo llowing the drawiog process, the condcn:.cd sliver~ a1 c taken to the "slubber," the first of a series of machines called "roving f1 a me~:· H ere the couon is slightly t wistcd and drawn imo a ~maller wand.

Only one proce~ of roving is used for most yatns, but mcdium-si1ed and finer yarns m.ty require two or three roving processes. The 1 o' ing strand b the final product of the several drafting operations which precede the actual spinning.

T h e Spinning Fra me

;\lost of the spinning in this country is done on "ring spinning frames." The couon, in the fo1 m of roving, is fed to the spinning frame where it is futthcr drawn out and twisted into yam of required si1e, and wound on bobbinsin a single operation .


Spinning mill: Top left: sliver comes from carding maclum:. Top 1 ight: sl•vcr f(d to roving framr. Bottom le£1: drafting and twisting sliver 11110 rovi11g. Bottom right: spmnmg )"filii from rovwg.

17


'1 he•c <lit.' two gent.'• a I ya• n cla:.sific:u ionswarp and filling. 'I he lengthwise ya1 ns in a fab• ic a•c c.tlled the "warp." They u ually re· quile a higher degree of twist than filling yarns and arc u\u:tlly ,,·otmd onto the bobbins in a diH 1 t•nt ,,·;ty from the fill ing yarns. The cross· WI'>C ' .11 ns arc called the "filling" or "weft." I h~:'c undc•go li ttle ~tra in in weaving and therefore ~<·quire little preparation prior to wc.,ving.

T" i ting nnd Winding

~rills arc equipped to furnish various types of varns as needed by their particular cus· tomers, such as single yarns, plied yarns, or cabled \':trns. Ply yarns are two or more single yarns twisted together. The terms three-ply and four-ply. for example. designate three and four strands respectively. Ply yarns are used in considerable quantities and are produced on twisting mach ines which, in appearance, are similar to ring spinn ing frames. T wo or more plies may be twisted together to produce cable yarns and hawser cords, tire cords, and other similar products.

.-\ Cter being properly twisted, yarn must then be packaged in the desired form by such machines as cone, tube, or skein winders, spoolcrs, warpcrs, bcamers, and quillers.

Yarn Size and Numbers

As yarns are produced, the)' a rc numbered and classified according to site and function. 1 he basic unit of the cotton yarn numbering s' stem used in the United Sta tes is the hank, ,,·hich is a strand of cotton yarn 840 yards long (nearly half a mile). It weighs one pound, and the yarn count is therefore indicated as l 's. If the yarn is lighter and should require twice the yardage to weigh one pound, the yarn count is then 2's. Similarly, if the strand is much lighter and requires 8,400 yards to the pound, the count is IO's.

A medium count is 30's, which means 25,200 yards to the pound. Yarn spun in this country reaches as high as !60's containing 134,400 yards, or nearly 80 miles, of yarn per pound.

The counts of single yarn are generally indicated by placing a small "s'' after the figure reprc~enting the number of the yarn, as I O'l>, 20 s, and 30's. These numbers are frequently cxpr<:ssed as 10/ 1. 20/ 1, and 30/ 1 to d istingui~h single yarns from ply yarns. In referr ing to ply yarns, the figure indicating the number

18

of plies is wriuen arter the single yarn numbc• as 10/ 2, 20/ 3, and 30/ 4.

T he sile equivalents of ply yarns depend roughly upon the number of plies. A 10/ 2 yarn, containing two strands of IO's single yarn, would be roughly equivalent in sile to a 5/ I yarn; and 30/ 3 yarn, containing three strands of 30's single yarn, would be the ap· proximate equivalent of 10/ 1 yarn in size.

WEAVING

Warp Preparation

\ Varp yarn for weaving is rewound from the bobbins onto cones or cheeses. according to the type of warper to be used . Several hundred yarns a t a t ime are rewound from the spools or other form of package onto large "war per beams." These beams r es e m b I e spools, 26 to 32 inches in diameter and 4 to 6 feet in length.

To prevent breakage and possible injury from chafing in the loom, warp yarns are coated with a thin layer of starch or other siling material. This is a multiple process in which the threads are u nwound from an assembly of warper beams, immersed for a few seconds in the sizing mixture, dried by passing around huge steam-heated cylinders, and re· wound on loom beams.

After being sized, warp yarns are dra,,·n through the eyes of the fine steel wires of the loom "harness," or tied to the remaining length of an unwoven warp. This is ao exact· ing process, particularly in the case of fancy pattern weaves, and may be done either by hand or by intr icate mach ines.

The Loom

The principle of weaving has changed little through the years. Weaving consists of the interlacing of warp and filling yarns crossing each other at right angles. There arc three basic weaves- plain, twill, and sa tin. In plain weaving, which is the simplest and most common. only two harnesses are required, and alternate warp threads are drawn through each harness.

T he harness is a frame on the loom from which are suspended " needles" or fine steel wire with an eye through which yarn ends are passed to the weaving section of the loom. When one harness is lowered, the other is raised. At this precise moment, a "shuttle,"


II" caving mill: T op leh: dyeing packag~d yam b~fore u·~avmg. Top 1 ight: wiudiu!! warp )llrltS to Jn~pme Jur u•eavmg. fiottOtn )eft: U't'IIVillg 011 dobb) loom. llottom l ight: ptilllirtg clnig11s 011 fabric.

19


containing the filling yarn, is driven at a very high speed through the opening between the upper and lower layers of yarns. This harness motion is then reversed. The upper set of threads becomes the lower, and vice versa, as the shuttle is driven back through the new opening.

These harness motions, and the passage of the shuttle. occur in quick succession. If the speed is 180 "picks" per minute, it means that in one minute's time 180 filling t.hreads are woven into the cloth. In the case of a fabric having 60 picks to the inch, this would be equivalent to a length of three inches. At this rate. it would take just 12 minutes to weave a yard.

Types of Weaves

Twill weaves give the ef£ect of diagonal lines. To produce this ef£ect, it is necessary in the weaving operation to raise the warp yarns in a series of two or more, thus having two warp yarns up and one down, as in three har· ness twills-or three up and one down or two up and two down, as in four harness twillsas the shuttle passes through with the filling. This requires the use of three or more har· nesses, depending on the result desired.

Satin weaves produce a smooth surface without continuous twill lines. The absence of the twill is obtained by spacing the points or interlacing as widely as possible. Five or more harnesses are usually required for satin weaves, many combinations of which are also possible.

Figure and pattern weaves require the use of a larger number of harnesses, depending on the size of the pattern or design. A small pattern is usually woven on a loom having a "dobby head". This attachment controls the harness frames and regulates the patterns of the weave. Where the pattern is large or the design intricate, a "Jacquard" loom is used. This mechanism controls individual warp ends and thereby creates the pattern of the weave.

Trimming and Inspecting

After the woven cloth is removed from the loom, it is inspected in the cloth room, where it is passed slowly over an inclined board. The presence of any dirt, oil, grease, weaving imperfections, or other defects in the cloth is detected and marked by the inspector. Oil and grease spots are removed, defects elim· inated, and a second inspection made. The cloth is then graded according to first quality, second quality, short lengths, remnants, and rags.

Unless further finishing is performed in the same plant, the grey cloth is packed in bales or rolls and stored to await shipment to a finishing plant. It is now ready to be bleached, dyed, printed, or finished in other ways before it is finally manufactured into dresses, shirts, work clothes, or any of the thousands of other cotton products used by consumers throughout the world.


v Finishing Cotton Cloth

As cotton cloth comes from the loom. it is in a rough unfinished state, commonly ca lled "grey goo<h." Spinning and weaving milb , in most r ases, arc not tquippcd to finish their own d oth. For thi\ reason. grey goods arc sold to c-onverters who finish them according to l>pccific consumer demand.

Over the past twenty years new finishing processes have revolutionized the fashion field by giving cotton a large variety of new finishes with wide selling appeal. Cottons can be produced to look and feel like linen, silk, taHcta, or even wool. The same cotton cloth can be finished to appear as chintz, denim, chambray, gingham, ma telasse, moire, or pique.

Style consciousness of consumers, demand for brighter and more permanent colors, and increased preference for more durable finishes have greatly expanded the field of fabric finishing. Because of the tremendous variety and combinations of colors and finishes that are possible today, the finishing processes are quite numerous and complex. In addition, most finishing plants must be equipped and organized to meet continuing shifts in style and color demands.

In its simplest form, the finishing process consists of cleaning and preparing the cloth, dyeing or printing, and final conditioning for consumer usc.

PRELIMINARY PREPARATION

Unfinished cloth usually contains foreign matter which must be removed if a soft and attractive product is desired. Certain shades may be dyed without preparatory cloth treat· ments, but these are generally suitable for only a limited range of uses.

Singeing

The first step in the finishing process consists of singeing or gassing the cloth to remove lint and loose threads. This is done by rapidly drawing the fabric over hot pla tes or through gas flames at about 1500 degrees Fahrenheit, singeing both sides at the same time. Immediately after singeing, the cloth is immersed in a washing bath to prevent

l!J

igmuon. This bath frequently contains a desil ing solution or dilute sulfuric acid to di~solve any starches or other sizing materials that are present. Then the fabric is piled in a bin or "J" box for several hours to allow time for the starch to d issolve.

Kier Boiling and Bleaching

In order to complete the removal of motes, sizing, waxes, and other foreign materials, the cloth is boiled in large cylindrical tanks, called "kiers". T he fabric is d rawn from the steeping pits and plaited into the kiers so as to allow the boiling liquid to circulate evenly. After boiling, the liquid is drained off and the cloth is thoroughly rinsed.

If the fabric is to be finished white or is to be given surface ornamentation, the natural yellowish color must be removed by bleach· ing. This process is now combined with kier boiling. resulting in one continuous operation tha t runs the cloth through large stainless steel "J" boxes. These are heated by steam, externally and internally, to speed the reaction of caustic and acid on the impurities. In a second box is a bleaching agent. The cloth is run continuously through t h esc automatic machines at the rate of 200 yards a minute and emerges clean and white.

Mercerizing

After the cloth has been bleached and dried it may, if desired, be treated with caustic soda in a process known as "mcrceriLing." This may be done either before or after bleaching. Mercerizing adds strength and luster. making the cloth more absorbent and suscept· ible to dyes. Highly mercerized cottons assume a silky sheen which is especially desirable in making shirts, hose. and many other products.

Tentering

During these prepara t or y processes, the cloth becomes irregular in width and must be restored to proper dimensions by stretching, or "tentering", as it is technically called. This process is necessary in connection with several of the finishing steps. The damp cloth is run over a frame and is grasped bv


tenter clips on each side which gradually )trctch it to the desired wid th.

Shearing Before being dyed or printed , the cloth may

be sheared to remove surface irregularities. This may be done either before or after bleaching, but the fabric is softer after the bleach and is in better condition for this treatment. In the process of shearing, the cloth is brought into contact with a series of rotating spiral blades against which the surface of the cloth is brushed as it passes.

Drying

During the finishing processes, 1t IS necessary to dry the cloth frequently. Various types of drying machines are used, but those for general drying purposes are composed mostly of "dry cans". A dry can unit consists of several copper or stainless steel cylinders through which steam is circulated to mainta in the desired temperature. "Festoon" and "blower" dryers are also used, in which the cloth is passed through heated chambers in a loosely plaited form. "Tenter" dryers are used at those stages where it is desirable to maintain the character and width of the fabric during the drying process.

DYEING Color is applied to textiles at any one of

three stages of production: (1} to the loose fibers before spinning into yarn (Stock Dyeing}; (2} to the spun yarns before weaving or knitting (Yarn Dyeing}; and (3} to the fabric after weaving or knitting (Piece Goods Dyeing). Woven and knitted fabrics may be dyed in solid colors or printed with various patterns in one or more colors.

Stock Dyeing

Almost all raw stock dyeing today is done in large kettle-like machines, into which the cotton is packed directly from the bale and the dye liquid pumped through the cotton. (Properly prepared and dyed raw stock shows excellent penetration of dyes and colorfastness.) Although raw stock dyeing as a rule is more costly than other methods, for certain types of textile production it offers sufficient advantages to justify the extra cost.

Ynrn Dyeing

Cotton may be dyed any one solid shade after it has been spun into yarn. The dye has a chance to penetrate to the core of the

22

yarn, similar to the penetration of the fiber in stock dyeing. Yarn-dyed fabrics are usually deeper and richer in color, and tend to be more colorfast than dyed piece goods. Satisfactory fastness depends on inherent fiber characteristics, proper yarn preparation, correct choice of dyestuffs, and careful application. Yarn may be dyed in "hanks," "skeins,' ' "packages," " beams," or " ball warps."

Piece Goods Dyeing When cloth is dyed after it is woven, the

process is called piece goods dyeing. This is a fast and relatively simple method, and per· mits the production of any shade on short notice. It gives the manufacturer the advan· tage of flexibility in his operations and is the most widely used method of coloring fabrics. Most types of dye may be used in piece goods dyeing, and the result is only slightly inferior to that produced by the same dyes on stock or yarn-dyed materials.

The machines used in this dyeing operation depend on the fabric, the type of dye, and the effect desired . The ou tstanding dyeing proc· esses in common use today are: "Pad," "Jig," "Reel," "Continuous," "Pad-Steam Continuous," and the "Williams Process."

PRINTING Colors are printed on cotton cloth by a

method somewhat similar to paper printing. Pastes instead of inks are used, containing starch and resin which carry the dye. After printing, this starch-resin portion of the paste is usually washed out, leaving only the dye on the colored area. Cotton fabrics may be printed by any of the following processes, according to the effect sought or the quantity of goods required in each pattern.

In general, the most satisfactory and most used colors for high quality printing are vat dyes. These are supplemented by azoic dyes and a limited group of pigment colors, together with other special types. By and large, the same types of dyestuffs have approximately equal fastness whether the cloth is printed or piece dyed.

Block Printing

The art of cloth prmung is said to have originated in the Orient in the form of block printing. From there it eventually reached Europe, where it was the principal method of printing fabrics for centuries. The patterns were made of raised figures carved from


l

wooden blocks, similar to those used in early book printing. The doth was spread on a cushioned table and the pattern block, with color applied to the raised surface, was placed on the fabric and tapped by hand or mallet to transfer the color to the doth.

Although mechanical improvements have been made, this method of block printing is still in use today for certain special effects and, except for the development of new colors, the basic operation is still the same. Any fabric may be block-printed, and most types of dyestuffs, including vat dyes, may be used. Fastness of block prints is only slightly inferior to plain shade dyeing when the same types of dyes are used, but the operation is slow and costly.

Roller Printing

The ·most common printing machine today has as its main unit a large cylinder that is padded with a heavy fabric. As the doth passes between this padded cylinder and the engraved printing rollers, the padding forces the cloth into the engraving of the printing rollers under great pressure, thereby picking up the printing paste from the surface of the engraving. Each roller supplies a part of the finished design and prints only one color; hence it must be set carefully in relation to other rollers around the circumference of the padded cylinder to insure exact matching in multi-color patterns.

The number of printing rollers depends upon the number of colors to be printed. The rollers are supplied with color pastes by brushes which revolve in color pans below the rollers. As the printing roller revolves, a sharp blade scrapes the paste from the unengraved portion of the roller, leaving the engraving full of printing paste to be transferred to the cloth. This method of printing applies the dye to one side of the fabric only.

Duplex Printing In some cases, it is desirable to have the

cloth printed on both sides. To accomplish this, the cloth is either passed through the printing machine in two separate operations or a special machine, known as a duplex printer. is used to print both sides in a single run.

Discharge Printing

Disc·hargc printing, in its )implc~t form, is accomplished by "leaching out" or removing

portions of the color on a piece of dyed doth, leaving a design in white. The fabric is printed with a bleaching paste containing a chemical which discharges the dye. By adding to the bleaching paste a dye that is not bleached by it, the white portions of the design may be simultaneously replaced by another color. Red polka dots on a blue background are done in this way.

Resist Printing

Resist printing is the reverse of discharge printing. The pattern engraved in the roller is printed onto the white fabric with a "resist" paste. This paste contains a chemical which resists dyeing and, in some cases, a white or colored pigment which forms the design. The cloth is then passed through a dye bath, and the fabric is completely dyed except where it was printed to resist the color. The result is a white or colored design on a dyed background.

Screen Printing

Screen printing is used extensively when the yardage per pattern is too small for economical roller printing or when exceptionally large designs are desired. A printing screen is made of very fine silk, nylon, or metal, and is stretched on a frame. The parts of the screen not in the pauern are blocked out with suitable paints or enamels which are not affected by the printing paste. The pattern portion, unpainted, will allow the printing paste to pass through into the fabric.

In this process the screen frame is placed on the fabric which is stretched on a padded table. Printing paste is then pushed through the unpainted portion. The frame is raised and placed on the next section of the cloth, and so on.

Crepe, Plisse Printing Another printing method is called "crepe"

or "plisse", in which a caustic is printed onto the doth in stripes or moules. The caustic causes the printed portion of the doth to shrink while the remainder holds its original shape, resulting in a crinkled crepe effect.

Photographic Printing

Photographic printing, also known as Photo Engraving on prints, is a process used to obtain fine shaded or stippled effects, or hair lines, that are often desirable but which are diffi-


cult to engrave on copper rollers in the ordinary way. This method makes it possible to bring out dark ground, solid color, and fine shaded eCfccts all on the same roller in one operation of continuous etching. In many respects it duplicates the gravure process of printing.

CONDITIONING PROCESSES

Starching and Filling

After the cloth has been dyed or printed, it enters the final step where it is given the type of finish desired. The starching opera· tion imparts the basic finish and provides the foundation for the ultimate feel of the cloth. The starch is applied in different ways, usually by running the fabric through a size bath or by using a roller.

Calendering

Calendering provides the final finish to the cloth, removing wrinkles and giving it a smooth, ironed appearance. Several types of calenders are used, all of which are composed of a series of heavy rollers through which the cloth passes under great pressure. The fabric is first sprinkled so that it may be manipu· lated more effectively. As in domestic iron· ing. the result is dependent upon the quantity of starch in the fabric and the amount of heat and pressure applied.

Some finishes require only a light calendering, while others are accomplished by passing the cloth between several rollers, both hot and cold. In some instances, steel rollers with a raised surface pattern are used to emboss the cloth slightly, thereby intensifying the refle<'· tion of light. In others, similar fabrics travel in opposite directions as they pass between the rollers, imparting a wavy or "moire·· effect to the surface of the cloth.

Speeial FiniBhes

Through constant research on new and different finishes, cotton today is an even more versatile fabric than ever before. Special fin· ishes which are applied to cotton are indeed numerous and varied. They include such important properties as mildew, flame, abrasion, stain, and perspiration resistance. Other processes make cotton absorbent, antiseptic, light fast, lintless, and lustrous. A few of the most commonly used finishes are discussed here.

24

Napping-The napping process produces the soft, fluffy surfaces which appear on such goods as flannels and blankets. The napping machine consists of long cylindrical rollers which are clothed with closely·set wires in the form of brushes. These fast revolving roller brushes contact the surface of the cloth as it is drawn slowly over a large drum, raising a nap on the fabric. Usually, fabrics which are to be napped are woven from soft-twisted filling yarns.

Beetling-In this process the surface of the cloth is beaten to provide a special finish. Through the raising and dropping of steel or wooden hammers, the fibers are forced closer together and a lustrous or linen effect is given to the cloth.

Compressive Shrinking-The uncertainty as to the amount of shrinkage which might be expected to occur after finishing has created a demand for fabrics that will not shrink. To meet this demand, the compressive shrinkage process has been developed. Compressively shrunk fabrics have been popularized under the trade mark "Sanforized." The owners of this trade mark permit it to be used on fabrics by licensed finishers only if final tests after shrinking show a residual shrinkage of less than I% in either the width or the length.

The process used in producing "Sanforized" fabric is a mechanical one, employing only pure water spray, steam, and heat. Other types of shrinkage control are used, known as preshrunk, mill shrunk, and cold water shrunk.

Permanent Glazed Chintz-Heat and pres· sure are important factors in obtaining the glazed appearance of chintz, but the permanent finish is made possible through the use of special resins. After the resins are applied, the fabric is partially dried, put through a friction calender, and finally treated to render the resins insoluble. Such a finish can be washed repeatedly with but little loss in luster. In addition to giving a durable glaze, the resin finish tends to stabilize the fabric so that it does not shrink excessively when washed. Permanent glazed chinu may be dry cleaned also without harming the finish.

Waterproofing and Water RepellencyWhen a fabric is waterproofed, it is coated with rubber, linseed oil, paraffin, asphalts, natural waxes, or comparable substances. This may be done by spraying, brushing, or bad filling.


Water repellent finishes fall into two gen· eral classes-renewable and durable. The renewable types are generally wax and alumi· num soap emulsions applied to the fabric and dried. This treatment lasts only until the garment made from the fabric is washed or dry cleaned. Durable water repellent fin· ishes consist of resins or plastics which are set by heating or curing the impregnated cloth. Fabrics so treated retain their water repel· Ieney after repeated washings and dry clean· ings. Specially designed machinery is required

for applying durable water repellent finishes, and the process is an exacting one.

Crease Resistant Fmishes-In order to make a fabric crease or wrinkle resistant, a resin is applied to the cloth in a water solution and baked into the fibers, then neutralized and rinsed. The method of application is identi· cal to that used in applying durable water repellent finishes. By the proper treatment of cotton fabrics with these resins, dimensional stability in laundering can be obtained, in addition to crease resistance.

VI Non-Woven Cotton Fabrics

A non-woven fabric is a cloth-like material consisting of fibers compressed into a web or mat and bonded together either with an adhesive agent or through activation of the fiber surfaces to make them adhere.

Relative newcomers in the textile field, nonwoven fabrics are still emerging from the experimental stage. No spinning, weaving, or knitting is involved in . their manufacture. They lie somewhere between paper and cloth in appearance and utility, having some of the advantages of both of these materials. Generally, non-woven fabrics are cheaper than cloth and are stronger, more durable, more absor· bent, drape better, and look better than paper. Many of these fabrics can be laundered or d1·y cleaned.

They are used for disposable baby diapers, disposable napkins and tablecloths, dish towels, bandages, tea bags, sausage casings, gas and chemical filters, casket linings, wallpaper back· ing, polishing cloths, and similar products.

WEB FABRICS Most non-woven fabrics are made of low·

cost, short-staple waste fibers, but they may consist of fibers ranging from Ys-inch up to 1 Y2-inch, long-staple lint cotton. They are made in weights ranging from half an ounce to 16 ounces per square yard.

The fibers are blended in a picker machine and then rolled out in a web or sheet on a card or a garnet machine.

The card arranges the fibers all in one direc· tion, so that they lie nearly parallel. Card web fabrics have strength in only one direction but have a cloth-like texture and are preferred for such uses as draperies and napkins.

The garnet machine produces a random or non-oriented web of fibers lying helter skelter. Garnet webs have balanced strength in all directions and are preferred fabrics for the coat· ing trade and other uses where strength is essential.

1'\ew machines developed especially for the non-woven fabrics industry lay the fibers parallel and at right angles in alternate layers to obtain equal strength in two directions.

BONDING

There are various methods of bonding the fibers together. One is to impregnate the web with a resin or other adhesive agent. Another is to apply an adhesive-such as vinyl acetateto the web in stripes or open patterns which bond the fibers together at regular intervals.

In addition, there are two types of "autogenous" bonding:

(I) Chemically activating the surfaces of the fibers to an adhesive state. A typical method involves passing the fiber batts through a sulfuric acid bath and then compressing, washing, and drying them.

(2) Activating the surface of thermoplastic fibers by applying heat. The thennoplas· tic fibers are blended with cellulosic fibers in a web; the web runs through a hot calender roll, which softens and unifies the fibers so that the thermoplastic fibers become an adhesive binder.

One webbed fiber structure completely free of any binding agent has been developed. The cotton fibers are simply held together by an elaborate entangling process.


VII Knitted Cotton Fabrics

Knuung 1s the construction of a fabric with needk) b)' the intcrlooping of a thread, or )•ll n, in ~cries of connected loops.

Knitting d ifCcrs from weaving in that the fab1 ic is made from a single ya1 n, or somcumc~ a series of parallel yarns, while woven goods a1 c made from two sets of yarns interlae<.d at 1 ight angles.

In J..niuing. the stitch i made by arranging a loop of y:u n on a needle and then pulling ) ;u n tlu ough the loop with the needle to form a se<"ond loop. A this process is repeated, it p1 oduccs a chain of connected loops. Ma ny of thc\e chains of loops arc made side by side from the \amc yarn to produce a fabr ic.

F;t('h chain of loops running lengthwise in the fab1 ic i ~ called a "wale." A wale corre'f>Ond, to the direc tion of the warp in woven f.1b1 i~. Joach chain of loop running across the f.tbt ic, at 1 ight angles to the wales, is called a "cou1sc." '1 his corre J>Onds to the filling, or wdt, in wcwcn goods.

I he comu uction of knitted fabrics is determtnC'd by the number of stitches, or loops, in a ' <Juarc inch. A cloth with 40 loops in one inch of width and 50 loops in one inch of length is said to have 10 wales and 50 courses.

'1 he J..nitting industry, made up of about 3,990 manufaclUring establishments, is the largc~t consumer of cotton sale yarns, accounting for about three quarters of a million bales annually.

Knitted cottons arc widely used for underwear and outerwear. They range from loose, open-loop constructions to closely knitted cloth in which the loops become massed together and take on the appearance of woven goods. T hey arc elastic, form-fitting, absorbent, and do not wrinkle easily.

Cotton yarns used by the knitting industry may be spun with a slack twist for softness or a hard twist for smoothness. Yarns may be carded, combed, and mercerized . Durene is a u a de ":'a1 k for high quality, combed, two-ply, mc1ccr11ed cotton yarn. Lisle is a hard-twisted, two·ply cotton yarn, the single yarns of which have been spun in opposite directions. Both natural and bleached yarns arc used for cotton

26

knits, which may be "ingrain" (knitted from colored yarns) or dip-dyed (knitted in natural color before dyeing).

KNITTING MACBINES

W hen knitting by hand, one must make each loop separately, loop following loop across the width of the fabric. But knitting machines make the whole row of loops across the width of the fabric at one time by having a separate needle for each loop. T he up-and-down and out-and-in motions of the needles are controlled by cams, or odd-shaped steel blocks, which slide undem eath and push particular needles into position.

Knitting machines can make fabric two to five times as fast as looms can produce woven goods. As many as 52 yarns can be fed into a knitting mach ine at one time. A r ibbed underwear machine with 24 yarn feeders and with a diameter of 36 inches can make 1,500,000 stitches a minute.

T here are about 160,000 large knitting mach ines in the United States, in a variety o( types, each designed to do a particular job. There are two basic types, however: flat and circular machines.

The flat knitting machine has needles arranged in a straight line and produces a flat fabric. One type is the full-fashioned knitting frame, which makes a flat strip, automatically dropping or adding the right number of stitches so as to narrow or widen the strip at certain places to conform to the shape of the body; these strips then have to be sewed together to form a garment.

The circular knitting machine has needles arranged in a circle, fixed to the rim of a rotating cylinder. The needles work their way from stitch to stitch as the cylinder revolves. The machines produce knitted fabric webbing in the form of a tube. (Knitted webbing is the equ ivalent of piece goods in weaving.)

T he cloth tubes are flattened out on cutting tables and cut up into patterns to be sewed together into garments. Some undershirts are cut directly from tubes knitted in sizes to fit the wearer.


Knitting machines are equipped with either spring beard needles or latch needles. Both types have a hook-eye at one end and a method of rapidly opening and closing the eye. The eye opens to hook a strand of yarn and closes so that it can pull the yarn through another, or "old," loop without catching on the old loop.

The spring beard needle, invented in 1598, has a long, flexible hook ending in a sharp point. An auxiliary device presses the point of the hook into the needle stem to make a closed eye at the top of the needle; when the pressure is removed, the hook springs open again.

The latch needle, invented in 1847, has a half hook which is opened and closed by a small swinging latch attached to the stem of the needle.

WEFr-KNIT FABRICS

There arc two basic types of knitted fabrics: weft-knit, in which the yarns run generally crosswise; and warp-knit, in which the yarns run generally lengthwise.

Most knitted fabrics arc weft-knits, also called filling-knits. The hand method of knitting is weft knitting. The fabric is made from one or more yarns traveling from needle to needle, forming adjacent loops and returning as another series of loops. One continuous yarn forms courses across the fabric.

Weft-knitted fabrics are featured by horizontal stretch, which makes them especially suit· able for snug, form-fitting garments. They can be made on either flat or circular machines.

There are three basic types of weft-knitted fabrics: plain, purled, and ribbed.

The plain knit stitch can be identified by wales on the face and courses on the underside of the fabric. The sides of the loops all lie on the face of the fabric, forming wales; the loop ends all lie on the back, forming courses. The plain stitch produces a smooth-faced finish and is frequently used in making sheer fabrics. Plain stitch is often called jersey stitch or jersey knit. In underwear, plain stitch fabric, although knitted on a circular machine, is known as "flat fabric."

The purl stitch shows courses on both sides, and both sides are similar. A purl machine, also called a "links and links" machine, has special needles which have a hook and latch at each end. Purling is accomplished by reversing consecutive stitches in a course, so that loops

27

which normally would appear on one side of the fabric will appear on the other ~ide. Purl fabrics arc particularly ela~tic lengthwise; they arc often used for scarves and sweater suit~.

The rib stitch is a combination of the pla111 and purl stitches. It show) wales on both sides Two sets of needles, operating in diffcrcm planes, form loops on opposite s•dcs of the fabric, producing emphasited wales, or groups of wales, which because of their ptomincnce arc called ribs. Some of the ribs appear on thl" face of the fabric and some on the back. Rth fabric is pa1ticularly clastic sidcwbc and is often used for items like cuffs and sock tops.

Among the many modifications of thc$C three basic stitches is the tuck st1tch. This b formed by the needle holding one loop while taking on one or more loops and then casung all of them onto another loop. 1. his results in decorative bumps at the stitches tucked.

WARP-KNIT FABRICS \\'arp-knit fabric~. 1n which tht. \.lllh Jllll

generally lengthwise, ate flat knits only. They arc made on a chain loom. Several parallel yarns, each on a separate needle, arc arranged side by side on a beam-somewhat as the warp yarns for a woven fabric. However, instead o£ the fabric being woven by the cros)ing of an other series of yarns, it is knitted from the wa1 p yarns only. l\letal guides move back and fonh between the needles, laying yarn around each needle to be knitted into loops. 1. he parallel series of yarns form wales running lengthwise on the completed fabric.

Warp-knitted fabrics are stronger and more resistant to snag than weft-knits; they do not run or ravel when a single stitch is broken.

Tricot is the most common type of warpknit. (Its name comes from the French verb, "tricoter:' to knit.) More than 5,000 different kinds of fabrics have been made on tricot machines, ranging from Army mosquito netting to closely knitted constructions.

Tricot knit has lengthwise rows of loops on the face and long, looplike "floats" or "laps" in horizontal rows on the back.

The tricot is a high-speed, fine-gauge, flatbed machine using spring beard needles. Most tricot machines use 28 needles per inch and knit a 168-inch-wide fabric. Some operate at up to 500 revolutions per minute. tach rcvo· lution of the cam shaft produces a course, or row of stitches, simultaneously across the width of the machine.


\ g10up of ·ISO com~c:~ is ca lled a "rack." I he .unoum of fabric in a rack is called the

"<ru.tlll' ."" If fine. yarns :uc used, a rack may u ru.tl onh fom inche of fabric- and the fabric would be de cribcd as four-inch qual ity. H coa1'n \;trns arc med, a rack may equal 12 inchc~ of fabric which would be fabric of 12· inch quality.

\ sim jJlc.-.: machine is similar to the plain lllOt m.1chine, e'ccpt that it has a double

needle bar in~tcad of a :.ingle needle bar , and it produce' a fabric who~c back and face are the ~.Jill(

A t la~ cloth is made by a modified form ol u icot knitting from fine cotton yarns; tlu s fabric is given a suede finish for usc in th<' manufacture of g love:. and other apparel.

R asche/ warp knitting is done o n a flat -bed. la tch needle machine. It may have two sets ol needle:. and up to :.ix sets of warps. When the warps a rc in a varie ty of colors, the machine can produce such effects as stripes, checks, and diagonal patterns.

M iltmcse fabrics arc knitted on a machine which has warps o n small beams which travel on an endless conveyor in a series of parallel paths, producing a diagonal effect.

--:~;T...;~u.-.

Cir(ular /wilting machines producing cotton jersey with stripes and patterns for outerwear.

28


VIII Quality Characteristics of Cotton

Consumers usc more than two times as much cotton as all other apparel fibers combined. There is no time in the average person's life when he cannot reach out and touch cotton in some form. It is with him from the cradle to the grave, serving him every moment of every day. It combines more desirable characteristics than any other fiber- natural or man-made.

Cotton fabrics can be warm or cool, waterproof or absorbent, flameproo f or combustible. Under different types of construction and treatment, cotton fabrics have been perfected to meet almost every domestic, industrial, and military demand.

W caring Quality

Both laboratory and field abrasion tests show that cotton has the highest wear resistance of all principal textile fibers. While most other fibers have considerably lower abrasion resistance than cotton when dry, this difference is even more marked under conditions of dampness, and reaches its peak when the fabrics are fully wet.

Among the most extensive service tests on record are those conducted by the Quartermaster Corps. These tests were made by soldiers who subjected garments to abrasion by crawling over logs and bare ground, by passing through brush barricades, and by squeezing along narrow passages between brick walls. The performance of cotton gar· ments in these tests was a major factor in their adoption as the standard field service outer clothing for Army wear.

Laboratory abrasion tests also show cotton to have many times the abrasion resistance of wool, silk, or rayons. This characteristic is particularly important in military uniforms, children's garments, men's shirts, everyday dresses, work clothes, and all outer garments where service is a major consideration.

Launderability

Cotton's washability, always highly regarded by the housewife, has received new proofs of superiority in numerous scientific tests conducted by manufacturers, buyers, and impartial fact-finders.

29

Excellent resistance to alkalies and the property of having greater strength when wet arc the secret of cotton's ability to withstand repeated washings. Cotton sheets have withstood 275-280 use-laundering cycles, a record which cannot be approached by other fibers.

Absorben cy

The "absorbent cotton" available in drug stores is a familiar illustration of the speed and completeness with which cotton absorbs moisture. Cotton fabrics combine an excellent absorptive rate and capacity with quick drying. They also permit ready passage of water vapor even in the most tightly cor•· structed fabrics.

One of the best examples of cotton's absorp· tive and evaporative rate is the Army's jungle camouflage un iform. These garments completely cover the wearer under conditions of equatorial heat and humidity which would be intolerable were it not for a lightweight cotton fabric which quickly absorbs and evaporates perspiration.

Coolness

Science has disclosed that the thickness and porosity of a fabric, together with certain other properties such as absorbency, moisture content, and proper permeability to water vapor, arc the characteristics which determine comfortable coolness.

The thinner and smoother a fabric is, the cooler it will be. The steel-like strength of cotton and its consequent ability to be spun into yarns of web-like fineness permit the construction of fabrics of minimum thickness that will withstand rigorous service. Even the most tightlv woven cotton fabrics permit adequate transpiration of water vapor from the body.

Perspiration must be absorbed and carried away to permit coolness. The high degree of absorbencv and the speed with which the absorbed moisture is released have had much to do with the universal demand for cotton materials where coolness is desired.

Warmth It is onlv in the last few years that science

has questioned the traditional monopoly of


wool for warmth, and in so doing revealed the actual mechanism of protection from cold. Previously accepted ideas of fabric warmth were based largely on a choice of available materials rather than on any inherent quality of the fibers used.

' "It is clear that thermal transmission does not depend upon the kind of fiber, but rather on the construction, thickness, and finish of the fabr!c"-such is the summation of exten· sive studies on heat transmission through fabrics. Recognition of these facts by Army research men contributed to the adoption of light-weight, wind-resistant cotton garments for cold weather field service. These tightly constructed cottons, when used over a softer and more resilient undergarment, were shown to pro\•ide more warmth and comfort than heavy overcoats.

hrinknge Reeietance

The dime ns ional changes which fabrics oh en undergo when wet constitute one of the greatest causes of consumer dissatisfaction. Cou on"s outstanding resistance to shrinkage has been proved by a comparison of untreated spun yarn fabrics of cotton, wool, rayon, and linen made in government laboratories. The fabr ics were exposed to 50 washing cycles and showed shr inkage control in the order of cot· ton best, linen close to cotton, spun rayon next, and wool last. The superiority of cotton fabrics becomes even more pronounced after shrink-resistant treatments have been applied . Cottons can be mechanically treated to avoid shrinkage of more than I per cent in either direction.

Colorf netneee

Resistance to fading under conditions of exposure to sunlight, laundering, dry cleaning. ironing, and perspiration determines colorfastness. Since fiber characteristics influence dye selection, it is evident that those fibers which accept the fastest dyes will make the most colorfast fabrics. Cotton takes a more permanent dye finish than any other fiber. It also permits a wide choice of dyes tha t can be used for various fastness or shade requirements.

Cotton's definite superiority in all-around colorfastness has been proved by an elaborate seven-year study of 1,000 wearing apparel fabrics. Cotton fabrics also fade less in laundering and dry cleaning. In resistance to fading caused by acid and alkaline perspiration, cotton exceeds all others by a consid-

so

•

erable margin. In resistance to fading c.aused by light, cotton and wool are better than silk and synthetics.

Strength Cotton's strength is roughly equivalent to

that of structural steel, or about 100,000 pounds per square inch. Though cotton yarns do not always utilize their full fiber strength, they are usually stronger than the same constructions in manufactured cellulose fibers, and decidedly stronger than wool.

Extensive technical studies reveal that cot· ton's strength increases approximately 25 per cent when wet. In contrast, all animal and synthetic fibers lose strength when wet. Fibers do not have to be entirely wet to show a loss of strength. The weakening is progressive as moisture increases. The opposite is true of cotton, which gains strength as moisture in· creases.

Flexibility

Flexibility, or ease of bending, is one of the most characteristic properties of textiles. It is, perhaps, the quality which most strikingly points out the difference between textiles and rigid materials such as wood and steel.

The flexibility of cloth is determined by the fiber and construction. It is difficult to obtain flexible fabrics from stiff fibers, or body crispness from very limp fibers. In this respect, cotton strikes a happy medium, being less stiff than glass, flax, hemp, jute, and saponified acetate, and having more body than nylon, viscose, cuprammonium and acetate rayons, wool, and vinyon.

This balanced position of the cotton fiber, removed from extremes, permits construction to be the determining factor in the flexibility of the cloth. Cotton twills, voiles, flannels, blankets, and diaper cloths are examples of highly flexible fabrics. Denims, whipcords, coverts, and ducks are firmer constructions made with the same fiber.

Cotton's quality of inherent toughness is responsible for extraordinarily high resistance to repeated folding an~ flexing. In carefully conducted tests, cotton fabrics were subjected to as many as 50,000 double folds with no loss of strength.

Permeability Cotton apparel fabrics can be so constructed

as to either permit or prevent the passage of air, while at the same time allowing adequate


transpiration of water vapor from the body, even in the tightest constructions.

I nvestigations have shown that no direct relation exists between air and water per· meability. This fact has led the Army to use as standard winter clothing tightly woven, water-resistant cotten outcrgamtcnts which both resist wind and permit passage of water vapor. In warm weather, loosely woven cot· ton fabrics allow a high degree of air permeability which helps to cool the body through fast evaporation of perspiration.

Cotton is particularly well suited to fabrics of this kind because of its strength and its ability to absorb moisture and pass it on to the a tmosphere without becoming soggy.

Perspiration Resistance

Superior resistance to fading due to either acids or alkalies, plus high wet strength, makes cotton fabrics especially suitable for over· coming problems caused by perspiration.

The effect of perspiration on textiles is similar to the effect of moisture. The fact tha t animal and man-made fibers show a substantial loss in strength when wet is obviously one of the principal reasons why cotton is superior in resisting damage from perspiration.

In addition to causing failures in textile fabrics, perspiration frequently causes fading in dyed cloth. In resistance to color fading caused by perspiration, cotton excels all other apparel fibers.

Stretchability

Both fiber and constraction affect fabric stretch. Cotton ranks first in stretch stability among major fibers and can be produced with very low or high stretch characteristics.

In spinning, higher twist permits greater stretch. Cotton yarns can be so spun as to afford a recoverable stretch of more than 100 per cent in the finished fabric. Such fabrics are used for slip covers, gloves, bandages, wearing apparel, and certain military products.

There are well established methods of spinning and tensioning cotton yarns which give minimum stretch, taking advantage of this basic fiber character istic of cotton. Such consu-uctions provide fabrics of unusual stretch stability, a factor often highly important to consumer satisfaction.

Water RepeUeaey

Where service requirements involve protection from water, cotton fabrics have the

~ I

double advantage of incrc:uing in strength when wet and swelling in a manner which h elps seal the fabric without eliminating passage of water vapor. In these qualities natural cellulose fibers cannot be equaled.

Cotton's characteristic of swelling has been used in specially designed fabrics for protec· tive outer garments which have been adopted by the Army for standard field service. These are made from tightly constructed cottons which have a soft-twisted filling for quick swelling on contact with water.

There arc many types of water repellent finishes that arc used commercially on cotton goods. A number of these finishes retain their effectiveness after several launderings or dry cleanings. Other treatments of a less perman ent nature can be renewed by regular com· mercial laundries.

I n addition to usc in wearing apparel. water-repellent cotton fabrics find extensive application in awnings, tents, truck and boat covers, and many other items.

Heat Resistance

Cotton has excellent resistance to heat en· countered in general service. Cotton fabrics are usually washed at 180 to 200 degrees F., dried at temperatures ranging from 200 to 250 degrees, and pressed with a 100-dq.~J c:L iron. The boiling of cotton garments and household fabrics is still a routine weekly practice with thousands of families. Cotton garments can be ironed with the assurance that they will hold their shape, since cotton does not melt, shrink, or stretch when ironed

Versatility

Cotton is the world's most versatile fiber. It plays an important role in wearing apparel, household items, industrial fabrics, and mihtary supplies. I t contributes essential products to all kinds of manufacturing industries which demand myriad combinations of fiber qualities. No single classification can be sat· isfied by one or two fiber characteristics. In some cases, the absence of any one of a doLen q ualities will prohibit its use altogether.

The outstanding difference between cotton and man-made fibers is that all of cotton's many inherent qualities may be present in each cotton product, whereas in each manmade fi ber many valuable characteristics must be sacrificed in order to obtain adequacy in a few.


IX Peacetime and Military Uses of Cotton Fiber

And Seed Cotton is so deeply rooted in our American

way of life that there has been a general tendency to take Cor granted the thousands of essential needs met by this miracle fiber. World War II, however, raised cotton to a military position alongside steel and oil and served to dramatize its versatility and almost limitless applications.

Cotton's contributions to the world are countless, and its record of service has never been equaled. Virtually all of the world's population uses cotton in one form or an· other.

Its many quality characteristics have won for it the name, "White Gold". It provides food, clothing. shelter, comforts, and conven· ienccs, as well as protection in time of war.

A thread of cotton is stronger than a thread of structural steel of the same circumference, yet it can be dissolved into a liquid. It will absorb 14 times its weight of water, but can be woven so closely that it is wind-proof. It can be spun so fine that a pound of thread will extend more than 150 miles, or so coarse that a cord of it will reach only a few yards. It can produce textiles that are strong and tough. and others that are so delicate as to be called "woven wind."

Our nation in peace or war needs food, feed, and fiber. Only cotton can produce all three. Cotton supplies medical science with bandages and other materials for relief of pain and suffering. Paradoxically enough, in time of war, it is a raw material for death-dealing explosives. In peace, it is essential in mining, road building, and agriculture.

Cotton enters into the production o( motion picture film, plastics, and scores o( other items which contribute to the everyday comforts and pleasures of man. Cottonseed provides oils for salads and soaps, feed (or cattle and poultry, and fertilizer (or the soil.

PEACETIME USES Cotton in the Home

Cotton is essential in every home. We sleep aurrounded by cotton-we use cotton towels

and wash cloths-we have cotton drapes and shades at the windows-cotton upholstered furniture with removable cotton slip coverscotton rugs and carpets in every room. We wear cotton, process it, sell it, buy it, or use it in some form or other.

Statistically, about 33 per cent of the cotton consumed by the nation's mills is used in the production of household items. In 1952, sheets accounted Cor the largest home use of cotton, consuming more than 520,000 bales.

Xext in order among household items that year were: drapery and upholstery fabrics, ·125.000 bales; towels and wash cloths, 299,000; rugs and carpets, 248,000; retail piece goods, 238,000; bedspreads, 171 ,000; blankets, 129,· 000; pillow cases, 92,000; curtains, 92,000; bed ticking, 81,000.

Cotton serves the home in a thousand other ways, from slipcovers to vacuum cleaners. New fashions, designs, and color tones have opened up still greater possibilities o£ beauty, harmony, and service and they continue to make cotton the fiber most vital to the American family.

Apparel Cottone

Approximate!)· 40 per cent of the total mill consumption of cotton in 1952 went into the production of clothing. Aside (rom mili· tary uses, the most significant development in cotton consumption is the swift growth of con· sumer appreciation for cotton's many quality characteristics now combined to make cotton the leading all-around fashion fabric.

The growth of women's apparel to a 735,000-bale peacetime market in 1952 is a modern miracle of sales promotion. Today cot· ton has overcome old prejudices and has achieved style, color, and beauty. The shapeless calico \\Tapper of the past has given way to high-style cotton dresses. Fashionable cotton street and evening dresses now account for S5 per cent of the total cotton dress market. Con· sumers know that cotton aeations for every hour of the day are worn by the best dressed women in the world.

I


Increasing preference for cotton in all lines of women's dresses made thi~ a 240,000-balc market in 1952. Cotton consumption in this market jumped ·12 per cent from 1948, innea~ing by 71,000 bales.

Cotton fabrics are also used extensively in coats and jackets, blouses, shirts, aprons, bath· ing suits, foundation garments, gloves, hosiery, and many other women's apparel items. Preshrunk, air-conditioned, crease-resistant, waterrepellent, and perma-starch finishes make cotton a foremost fabric chosen by leading design· ers throughout the world.

Men's apparel items consumed more than 1,858,000 bales during 1952, in such articles as shirts, trousers, and underwear. Well dressed men today find smartness and comfort combined in seersuckers, cord, and other cotton summer wash suits and slacks which have gained national popularity.

An increasingly substantial market for cotton has been won in the children's and infants' apparel field. Mothers have found that cotton offers unequaled comforts and conveniences in infants' and children's wear.

Underwear and sportswear are the two largest users of cotton in children's apparel, accounting for 8·1,000 bales each in 1952. Children's and infants' dresses, coats and jackets, overalls, hosiery, and nightwear also ha\'e continued to enjoy a siLable market.

Industrial Uses American industry normally absorbs ap

proximately 27 per cent of the cotton consumed in the United States.

The automobile industry alone takes :tbour 6 per cent of the total mill production and account~ for 22 per cent of all industrial cotton. In 1952, approximately 460,000 bales of cotton were consumed in the production ''' tire cord, upholstery fabrics, webbing, wire and cable insulations, fan belts, and other items. Laminated cotton is replacing metals in gear~ and other mechanical parts where special dura· bility and lightness are desired.

The assembly of every million cars is estimated to require the production of about 180,000 acres of cotton. In a single tire, the cord fabric is the equivalent of more than two miles of cotton cord yarn. About 51 pounds of cotton go into the production of the average passenger car.

In an important measure, cotton serves other great manufacturing industries. though its

identity may be obscured. The production of electrical equipment and appliances, shoes, furniture, rubber and pyroxylin-coated fabrics requires large amounts of cotton. Cotton textiles also play a vital role in the operation of dairies, fisheries, and packing houses-the sources of principal elements in our daily diets.

Leading indu,uial cotton coahunwa, in 1952 W<"lc: tin~ wad, j35,000 baln; haR'· :1 1!1.· 000; ~hO<"\, 157,000; mdmu ial thH·.td 112.000; clecu ical imulauon, 120,000; mtdical supplies, 109,000; laundq \ll(>plic\, 99,000. wrda~t· and twine, 98,000; tarpaulim, 8!1,000; ma< hint'! y belts, 86,000.

Cotton is the principal material used a~ a base for the coated fabric industry, which consumes more than 375,000 bales annually in the production of over 500,000,000 linear yards o£ coated cloth. Treated with pyroxylin, oil, rubber, starch, and resin, coated cotton fabrics find application in a multitude of uses as a component part of the final product. In luggage, brief cases, shoes, book covers, baby carriages, upholstery, and a host of other products, these fabrics are utilized for decorative or functional purposes. In other cases, coated cotton fabrics constitute a major part of the finished article, as in shower curtains, hospital sheeting. babies' pants and bibs, aprons, oilcloth, and airplane engine covers.

1\IILIT ARY USES

"Were cotton suddenly stripped from our possession, not a single one of our fighting men could continue in action." This statement, made by Quartermaster General E. B. Gregory during World War II, dramatizes the vital role that cotton plays in our military preparedness. In actual performance, cotton has proved that it is the nation's number one war crop, second only to steel in military importance. Thousands of cotton items are bought by the Quartermaster Corps alone.

Cotton textiles are essential to the fighting power, speed, comfort, and health of all United States fighting forces. Cotton rolls with our tanks, trucks, and mobile guns. It llies with our airmen. It cruises with our cargo and war ships. It goes down to the _sea in our ,ubmarine\. It pwtuh out ,oJdtu' agaimt the "imh of the \rcuc and ket J>' them cool in the tropics. It is part of the paa achutes that safeguard the lives of flyers and is the basic material used in life rafts. It produces explosives used in bombs and ammunition.


Modern armies move on cotton. Vehicles require tires, insulation, upholstery, curtains, tops, cushions, and other textile products. Cotton tents are the barracks of an army on the move. Mobile field kitchens and hospitals are housed in cotton canvas treated to shed rain and resist mildew.

From the time a recruit is inducted into service, cotton is indispensable to his effi' 'ency, safety, and general welfare. Even before he arrives at training camp, clothing, bedding, barracks bags, and many other essentia l items made from cotton await him.

While he is training for active warfare, cotton serves the American soldier in numerous ways. In actual combat, he leans even more heavily on this dependable fiber and its products. In the course of a year, the average soldier uses over 250 pounds of cotton! I times as much as the average civilian. For clothing purposes alone, he needs 124 yards of cotton fabric each year.

The modern steel battleship actually requires more cotton than did the famous old frigate with its flowing canvas sails. Ships must have cotton for batting and wadding and calking, duck for boat covers, fenders, hatch and mast covers, sea drags, hammocks, tarpaulins, life rafts, and hundreds of other necessary items.

In times of national emergency, cotton has always met the challenge of increased pro· duction. In 1942, more than 11,000,000 bales of cotton were consumed, compared to a peacetime level of 8,000,000. Throughout that year, cotton raced from the looms at the tre· mendous rate of 19,560 miles of fabric each day. Enough cotton fabric was produced to wind a 36-inch bandage around the world 189 times, or to reach the moon 19 times!

COTTONSEED USES Cotton is actually two crops. Aside from

the many household, apparel, industrial, and military products supplied by the fiber, cottonseed furn ishes oil for American tables; meal and hulls for livestock and chickens which in turn produce meat, milk, and eggs; and linters for the production of chemicals, plastics, and explosives.

Oil

Cottonseed is America's largest supplier of vegetable oil. Among all fats and oils, both animal and vegetable, cottonseed is the sec-

ond chief source of cooking fat and second only to butter as a table fat.

More than 98 per cent of the 1,279,000,000 pounds of cottonseed oil consumed in 1952 \\'as med in basic food products such as shortening. margarine. and salad oils. The remain· ing 2 J><'r cent was used in the production of products such as soap. paint, a nd lubricants. The 1952 crop supplied enough oil to furnish every ma n. woman. and child in the United States with about II pounds of food fa t. Seed fron\ one bale alone produces 140 pounds of high grade vegetable oil.

Cottonseed oil is used almost entirely as an energy-providing food. As a cooking oil it has many superior qualities. It is favored for frying because of its resistance to smoking. It retains its natural flavor and is noted for its stability.

In addition to shortening and margarinethe two greatest uses-salad oil, salad dressing. and mayonnaise consume large quantities of oil. Improvements that have taken place in the manufacture of these products have, to a considerable extent, helped increase the popularity of salads in the American diet.

Cake or Meal

Cottonseed is also an important source of livestock feed. Cake or meal, produced from the seed after the oil has been removed, is the second most valuable ·product of cottonseed. It is used principally as a protein feed for fattening livestock. Seed from one bale alone yields 400 pounds of protein meal or cake.

In some instances, cottonseed meal is used directly as a fertilizer. It is rich in nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and small amounts of minor plant food elements. Meal is especially suited for fertilizing tobacco, truck, orchard and nursery crops, and lawns.

While cottonseed cake or meal is used principally as an animal or plant food, the kernel of the cottonseed has also demonstrated its value as a human food. Prepared from a specially processed cake, cottonseed flour is now being produced that is rich in protein and vitamin B, and is practically free of starch. This flour is used especially by commercial firms in the production of bread, cakes, cookies, and candies.

Bulls Like cake or meal, cottonseed hulls are also

used primarily as a feed for livestock. Hulls


differ from meal, however, in that they are a roughage rather than a protein concentrate. In feeding value, they are comparable to good quality grass hay. Hulls are also an excel· lent mixer for cottonseed meal and grain. •

Among the industrial uses for hulls is a chemical known as furfural, a selective solvent important in time of war in the production of synthetic rubber. It is also utilized in the refining of lubricating oils, the purifying of resin from pine stumps, and the production of certain types of plastics.

Linters

Linters, the cellulose fiber ends which adhere to the seed, are the fourth product of cottonseed and have a wider variety of uses than any of the other products. The highest grades of linters are spun for use in coarse products such as twine, wicks, carpets, and gauze.

A considerably greater quantity of linters is used in the bedding, furniture, and automotive industries. There, linters serve as a filler for mattresses and comforts, and for furniture and automobile upholstery.

Linters are composed principally of cellulose and this fact has made them one of the most important raw materials used in the chemical industry. Over 66 per cent of the linters are purified into pulp which is used to manufacture rayon, plastics, lacquers, smokeless powder, photographic and X-ray film, shatter-proof glass, liquid cement, writing paper, surgical dressmgs, and a number of related products essential to our country in peace or war.

While the market for linters in explosives is much smaller in peace than in war, blasting powder made from linters plays an important

part in construction and demolition projects. The farmer also uses it to remove stumps, build irrigation ditches, and check erosion. Linters are also an important ingredient of rayon.

Another field in which linters arc an impor· tant raw material is that of plastics. The uses of cellulose plastics are practically limitless. Automotive and airplane instrument panels, lighting fixtures, phonograph records, radio cases, and outdoor furniture, as well as combs, fountain pens, cigarette cases, and shoe heels are some of the products molded from cellu· lose plastics. Other products are constantly being developed.

Closely allied to the plastics arc the cellulose lacquers. These products, characterized by their toughness and quick-drying properties, are used in a wide variety of industries to produce finishes that could not be obtained with paint or varnish.

Linters in War

Cotton linters are classified by the Army as strategic materials of war. They are the purest source of alpha cellulose-the chemical base of many war products-and are the only accept· able raw material that can be utilized in the production of several essential chemicals.

Most important of all war uses for cotton linters is smokeless powder which protects infantrymen and artillery positions by leaving no tell-talc target of smoke. One bale of linters will provide enough smokeless powder to fire 21,000 machine gun bullets, 2,737 naval pom-poms, 10,000 rifles, or 85 heavy tank guns. From the sharpshooter's r ifle to the battleship's biggest gun, cotton linters pro· vide accuracy and dependability.


X Cotton Fabrics (Descriptions)

APPAREL FABRICS

Balloon Cloth Balloon cloth is a lightweight, plain-woven

m.Ho i.tl made hom the finest of combed yarns. Jt i' e'ccptionall) '>trong in proportion to its weight. :\o ga-; can c .. cape when it i coated and u,<•d for balloon,. It i., often made with two or more plied '<II n~ in a variation of the basl..<·t wca,c. Principally u ed in balloons, life r;tft,, and t' J>ewriter 1 ibbons, it also goes into dH·.,.,t,, sh ill~. blouse'>, and raincoat ' ,

Broadcloth

Broadcloth has a fine rib effect obtained tlnough u e of a medium-si1e warp and a finer filling \ar n. rhing a preponderant number of warp thr cad~ a!> compared with filling threads.

Combed bmaddoth i., usually made of fine<Ombcd vmrl\ in high thread counts. Some broadcloth<; an: wo,·cn of combined carded and combtd v:urh. I he fint~t broadcloths have 1 wo pi) "'"" in both the warp and the filling.

Chambrays and Ginghams

Chambr a'. gingham, and madras arc all in the a me fabric gtoup. They are usually plain w<·a,·e. with about the same number and weight of"" n,, Chambray has a dyed warp and a natural or white filling. In gingham, however, colored and white, or colored and colored, yarns form the plaids and checks. Both plaids and checks are woven on a box loom, generally with the same number and variation of colored and white or colored and colored yarns in the warp and filling. Madras, which is often referred to as chambray, is made in striped, corded, dobby, or J acquard weaves. It is usually all white, but very often is done with either a patterned warp or filling, through the use of white and colored warp or colored and colored warp and white filling, or vice versa. Often the stripe i~ woven in solid colors. T here are endless variations of these three fabrics. A gingham woven right through in one solid color is called a novelty gingham. All three fabrics come in numerous weights and thread counts, e~thcr combed or carded. Tissue and zephyr grnghams, made with lightweight yarns, are

variations. The~e related fabrics arc chieflv used for wearing apparel of various kinds. ·

Corduroy Corduroy is a ribbed, high-luster pile fabric

made of all-cotton yarns, with extra filling threads used to form the wale. One warp thread passes over several filling threads, the ex tra filling threads being then cut and brushed. Corduroy comes in various weights and weaves (wide, narrow, and irregular wales) and also in many novelty effects. The fabric may have either a soft finish or a sti££ finish, and is either piece dyed or printed, depending upon the purpose for which it is intended. Many corduroys are given water-repellent finishes. In addition to being a clothing fabric. corduroy is also used for spreads, slip covers, and o ther interior decoration items.

Crinoline

Crinoline is ~i1cd tobacco cloth .. \ special !>i1ing solution giv~ a very stiff finish to the fabric .. \ recent dc\•clopment in the building field is the usc of crinoline as a facing material for pl)wood, for either interior or exterior walls. The plywood thus treated presents a rough surface with a stippled effect suitable for painting. Other common uses for crinoline include interlinings and stiffenings for all kinds of wearing apparel, a base for machinemade embroidery, bookbindings, and hat shapes.

Denim

Denim, a twilled fabric made of hardtwisted yarns, is usually associated with work clothing because of its strength and washability. Modified constructions are used for sportswear of all kinds. The warp yarn is usually indigo-dyed before weaving, although other dyes are used often when the fabric is for sportswear. Denims come in various weights and widths. A soft finish is usually given denims for sportswear or children's clothes. In certain widths and finishes, denim is also used for draperies, slip covers, and upholstery.


Diaper Cloth

Birdseye diaper cloth (birdseye cloth) is woven on a dobby loom of single or ply warp and filling yarns in the 'hccting range. When dyed or printed, it may be used for pajamas.

Gauze diaper cloth i' a double woven gau1c material in which two cheese cloths arc woven one above the other and joined together at regular intervals. The material is cut into diapers after weaving.

Dotted Swiss

Dotted swiss is usually a lawn or voile construnion woven on a box loom. Some swisses arc woven on a swivel loom. When made of certain lawns, it is called imitation swiss. Swisses arc usually given a crisp finish which is quite often permanent. Roving is used to form the dots. The roving comes to the face of the cloth to make the dotted pattern, floating at the back until the repeat. The threads arc then cut at the back. However, dots may be formed by extra grouped warp ends which are afterwards cut off. Voile or lawn constructions with composition dots, pigment dots, and many other types of dots, also are known as dotted swisses.

Dr ills, Twills, and Jeans

Drills, twills, and jeans are strong, twillweave fabrics. They come with many variations in weave. The warp and filling interlace every third or fourth thread, the filling yarns being moved one pick higher on the next warp thread, forming a diagonal line. The twill line can be made to run from left to right (a righthand twill) or from right to left (a left-hand twill), or it can be woven in straight, broken, slanting, double, or reversible versions. The reversible construction-known as herringbone and shadow stripe twill- is woven with reverse twist yarns or different yarns, such as plain and highly·mercerizcd mixtures. Differ· ences in weave also depend upon the size of the warp and filling threads used.

A drill is a three-harness warp-faced cloth with the twill line woven with heavy yarns. A jean is also a three-harness warp-faced twill, but it is made from lighter yarns than those used for drills. The weave is the same as in drills, but has a higher construction (more threads per inch). The yarns are similar to those used in lightweight sheetings. Four-leaf twills have about the same range of weight as drills, but are usually woven with a higher thread count in the warp. Other similar weaves

57

and variations of twilled fabrics are chevio t. coutil, covert, gabardine moleskin (which has a napped surface and a plain back), galatea , khaki cloth, serge, and whipcord. T willed fab· rics are used, according to varying constructions, as follows:

A pparel-strcet and work clothing, sport:.wear, foundation garments, pocketin~. and shoe linings; household ztems-draperies, upholstery, curtains, and awnings; indus· trial purposes-tarpaulins, book binding~. painters' dropcloths, machine aprons (con· veyors) , roofings. linings for tire~. auto· mobile tops (impregnated and enameled), motor gears, cotton insertion hose, straining and filtering cloths, insulation, and bases for friction tapes, imitation leathers, rubberized fabrics, and oilcloths; as well as hammocks. tents, and sails.

Flannel Flannels may be plain weave or twill, woven

of coarse and medium·soft yarns, and napped on one or both sides. T he Yarious construe· tions are known as canton flannel. domet cloth, flannelcn c. imcdining. and outing. They can be bleached . yarn dyed. piece <h t:tl. or printed. L'ses depe nd upon "·cigln. thread count, and whether the fabric~ are unbleached. bleached, dyed. or pr inted. They include ~him. dresses. robes, infants' "·car, bed co,·ering:o, baby blankets. work gloYes. soch. aprons. pockets. and linings; vamps. tongue lining~. sock lining~. and interlinings for :.hoe>: li n ing~ for leggings. gun cases, and in~uumem cases: and surgical dressings.

Gabardine

Gabardine has a veq prominent twill line. This is produced b) the me o[ elc' en harnc~>C' in weaving. Due to high thread count and combed varn\, this fabric i~ e\.ceptionalh ~turd). and i\ used where long wear· i' an im· ponant requirement. as in slad..s. riding bz·ecchc'>. uniforms. spo t tswear. ski su its. wom· en's shoes. and bases lor rubbcri1ed Labrie\ and imitation leather.

Hickory Stripe

Hickory stripe is a strong left·hand twill weave with indigo-dved and natural yarns. It has a slightly softer fini;h than ticking. c~ualh about twice as man} blue \itrm as "·hite arc used in the warp. while the filling i~ all natural. There are many variations in the con· struction. Express stripe is somewhat similar,


c·,«·pt th;H tlw ,.n th an: t'H'n : that i,, the ,,,nH ntnnht•t of hlu<.'} .nth;,., natUJ al arc med 111 the ''·" p. with .t il nauu .tl yarn., in the filling. l \('\ .11 t untfOtllh, cap\, liOU~t·r,, pht) < I()IIH '· .tnd ,, p• om.

1\..nil Gootlt>

klltiiUI <OltOII f.thtl(' :uc 11\l'd for both u n· cki\H.II and outet we;u :tpparcl. A Jacq uard d<.·' •<<' 111.1' be ;tttaclu:d to a kniu ing machine w conu ol tlw ne<.·dlt.~ ~cparately or in pairs 'o ,.., to pt<><lucc '>JX:tial pattcms. T he Jaccpw d. a cat d "·ith hole~ punched in a panicu-1;11 pattt'J n. ,eJects the individual needles "hich at e to knit in each couNc.

I he inu.·tlock mach ine ll\t'l> alternate unit of lonA and ,hot t nc<.·dlc' to produce a variety of wlot'> and pattct n~. It makes a closely knit f.thl ic with .. onH·what lcs~ cia ticity tha n the tl\u,tl 1 ih ,tilCh. lnt<•rlock outerwear fabric i:. '' ickh u,c·cl f()t play ~uits. polo ~hirts and '"'<'•H<'J '· hlome and pon hirt .

Rd> knit f.thl ic, Me typical underwear matc·Jt.tJ, knitttd on circular machines. ;\lo t large • ihhc·" p10clucc• one-and-one rib ~titch fabric. \lucui1ing the knitting yarn produce a hl\tiCHI\ doth.

The Simplex machine is one of several type~ of warp knitting machines. These produce clo ely knitted fabrics used for fine lingerie ;uHI. '' ill1 'Pt'< ial fini,hc . for item like gloves .111<1 h.andbag-,.

Lawns

I ·"' n~> att .,hct·t. plain-woven fabrics of lightwc.·ight v:um. I hey may be bleached, <htd, ot pt intcd. I lwy come combed and c.ndtd. and arc known under a large variety of n;mtt\. dq>t·nding upon the n umber of '<lith . the.· fini,hc.·'· <·tc. ,\ nain.,ook finish, for c·,ampk. J;iH·' a ,oft. light lu ter. In special lini,ht, and tha·ad count\, lawn i known as h;ltt\1('. whidt <otn h<: combed or card ed and is usually mcrceti1cd. It is sometimes given a Ju,t<.·t on both sides, and is often embroidered. ~fuslin is usually a lawn with a firm, crisp fin· ~,h, ~t<uched and calendered. (Muslin sheet· mg~ muall\' have a lower thread count and are slightly si1cd.)

Longcloth ':' inc pl_.tin .. tl-.o calkd langeloth. i~ a light·

'"' tght. lugh <oum comb<:d yarn comu union. 1-tn<. plaim .II<.' of 'lightly higher thread count th.m lcmgdoth. I he pt n~ usually arc in bet wtt·n the wunh for pt int cloth and lawn. Fuw plain i' m t d where a fine, trong fabric

i"> required, a'> in drc ... -. gOO<ls and shirtings. Fine plain <.on .. tmoio n\ with lower thread < ounh arc m t•d for many induMrial purposes.

Organdy O rgandy (organdie) is a plain-weave, trans·

parent lawn of lightweight yarns. Usually the filling yarns are fewer in number and some· what finer than the warp yarns. Organdy come in a variety of finishes and weaves. ;\lo~t famil iar is a plain-weave organdy wit h a fX:l mancnt cri '>p finish. Another weave is matela~c ot·gandy, which has a permanent crisp, cri nkle finish. O ther organdies have clipped spo ts, yarn dyed d esigns, embroidered de igns, etc. ~fany of them arc given a durable stiff finish that will stand repeated washings withou t starching. Ho wever, a number are still made with a starch finish which requires re· ncwing after washing. Organdies are used for women's and children 's wear a nd for home decoration.

Oxford Shirting

Oxford is a l>trong, pla in-woven fabr ic made with fine warp and slightly heavier filling yam~. Often the doth is made with two fine, light yarn~ t hat arc woven (no t plied) as o ne warp thread over and under o ne heavy filling t hread. Generally, the cloth has twice as many warp threads as fi ll ing threads. Its chief uses arc hirt'>, dre~<.">. work clothes, doctors· a nd other prof~ional uniforms, a nd sportswear. " ' hen dyed or printed. oxford is a lso used for draperies. prcads, and slip covers.

Pique Pique is a r ibbed or corded fabric. It il> mad e

of card ed yam s in the print cloth silc, and is s~metime~ mcrccrit_cd, dyed, or printed . Many p•q ues arc made with combed yarns. The ri bs arc formed by grou ps of warp ends. Domestic pi_ques U~>ually have the ribs runn ing filling· wt e, bu t the)' may be made to ru n in either d irectio n. A somewhat similar. heavier fabric. having warp conh and known as bed ford cloth. is used mostly for men\ wear. Piq ue comes a lso in many novelty versio n!>, with wide wales. lcno effect,, o r embroidery. W aCCie cloth. although often rderrcd to as pique, is woven on a dobby loom.

PJisse

Pli!)'IC can be a print clo th, a lawn, or a lig htwcigl~t sheeting. The fabric is bleached, d yed , or prmtcd, then covered with gum in the de· sired pattern, vit., stripe, check, floral, etc.,


and passed through a caustic soda bath. causing the untreated portion to shrink. The wda and gum arc then washed off, lca\'ing the crinkle in the desired pattern. Plisscs arc ai'>O known as blister sheers, crinkle cloths, and caustic soda crepes.

PopUn

Poplin, together with grosgrain and the lighter-weight reps, is a fabric of similar con· strurtion to broadcloth with lower thread count and heavier yarns. The heavier reps have stiffer, coarser yarns. Poplin may be bleached, dyed, or printed.

Print Cloth

Variations among typical print cloth fabrics depend on the finish. Print cloth can be con· vcrtcd into calico, cambric, chintt, cretonne, nainsook, and percale through the usc of spe· dal finishes or designs. Print cloths may be used for many purpo~cs. Some of the more important uses arc:

Wearing apparel-shirts, dresses, shorts, pa· jamas, blouses, smocks, aprons, play clothes, sportswear, and handkerchiefs, as well as robes, coats, and suits when the fabric is quilted; household items-spreads, draper· ies, and slip covers; industrial uses-flour bags, box coverings, bookbindings, automobile seat covers, insulation coverings, wiping cloths, writing cloths, tags, and labels, as well as bases for oilcloths, holland shade cloths, plastic-coated cloths, gummed cloths, rubber· ized cloths, imitation leathers, and wall coverings; and linings or interlinings for hats, mattresses, luggage, and caskets.

Warp Sateen

Warp sateen is a soft-finished fabric of basic satin weave. It comes in various finishes and weights, and is usually mercerized and bleached or dyed. The soft, flat appearance of the surface of the finished fabric is achieved by warp yarns skipping O\'Cr several filling yarns in the weaving process. The degree of luster of sateens is controlled by the site yarn used and by mercerizing either the yarn or the finished piece of fabric. One \'ariation is a filling sateen. in which the filling yarns skip over warp yarns. Warp sateens arc usually stronger than filling sateens and arc more widely used. An extremely fine yarn sateen, called venetian. is used for linings of men's clothing. Depending upon their weight ;md (·onstruction, warp and filling sateens arc used as follows:

59

Sheer u.oeights- Iingcrie: medium u.•et[.!ltl5-apparcl, uniforms, draperies, apparel bags. mattress and pillow CO\'Ch , umbrellas, com· fortcrs, bindings, trimmings, su rgical sup· plies, shoe lining~ and uppers, and as ba\C~ for imitation leathers, rubbct izcd fabric~. and plastic-coated fab ri cs: medium a11d heavy wetghts-Curniturc and automobile upholstering, luggage a nd other l in ing\, and box spring pockets.

Seersucker

Sccrsuckct ha~ a wo, cn n inl.. le mack IJ, alternating slac 1.. and t<.. nsion in tht warp 'arm. This fabt ic i ~ not to be confused with pi isw. Seersuckers come in woH·n ~~~ ipe~. chec l..~. and plaids, a nd arc sometimes pt inttd in dc~igns, such as flora Is en gtomcuics. I hn 111<1\ h;t\ L

carded or combed ym ns, and the~ (OIIH.: in vat ious weights. 'I wo variatiom. wOH'II with fine or medium weight v:um. :uc bli;t~·• ,~·u ·

sucket and blistt t sheer.

Clothing Twill

Clo thing twill fabr ics are usually classified with print cloth yarn fabrics, as the bulk of the constructions arc wo,·en from yarns in the medium range from 23s to l2s bv print cloth mil ls. H en ingbonc t" ill is a t~ ptt.tl doth in!-\ twill comtlu( tion. \ ' hadow stt ipe ma~ hc WO\Cn wi th te\·erSC twi~t Vil t ns, hut it 111,1\ ;d,o be fotmcd b) the: usc of high-lmtcr ~arm.

Velveteen

Vch·ctecn i; an alhotton fabt il with .1 ,hott high-luster pile, a nd can bc tithe• p lain or twill weave. This fabt ic is w<l\en with s i n~IL

<>r ply yarns, usuall) carded. wi th extra fill ing tht cads. These extra threads arc cut. Conning the pile c[[cc t. 'l he uses to whith ' chctccrh can be put include dresses. ~uih. roah. nrillirHt'. pocl..etbool..s, shoe~ . dt a pet it~. uphohtcn. hu.l· spreads with matching cano pies and d t apu its. and linings fot drawus a nd instr ument. 'ihuware and show rases.

Voile

\'oilc is usually a plain, low coun t, sheer, lightweight, softly-draping fabric. It is sometimes made of hard-twisted , two-ply combed prns of light weight, with gassed warp. However, voiles come in a varietv of constructions and yat n silt~. Voiks may be blcadtcd. dYnl. or printcd. and olt<.·n ate dmabh shtunl.. .tnd gin·n nt'a'>C·t-c~istant finishes. I hey ma\ be won·n with a dippt'd dot, in which case thc·y


:11c· l.:nmm ·" c lippt·d dot voile~. or given a \t iH lir"'h (''"h ,1 woven dot). when they are l.:nown ,,, dcHtt·d ~wi"c~. Other vcr~ions arc eft·"' nwml... unbroide~t·d. etc.

Whipcord

\\'lupcord. a twill weave, is made of dyed ra'' \tock and natural or colored yarns. Many COihtlllet ions of whipcord are woven with di£kltrll d1.rgon;tl twill dfcct\. Whipcord i' m.ulc w11h plitd <Oion:d and natural yarn~ in 1111' '' .11 p 01 filling and blaC'k filling or "·arp. II 1' c hidh U\td for unifo11m. riding breeches. c ft1lch u1\ pl;l\' cloth<.•,, trousers. and automo· hi I< \(',11 ( 0\t'rS.

HOUSEHOLD FABRICS

Blanket Cloth

Bl.ml..ct cloth i' double woven with colored. c ·" ckcl '·""'· and napped on both sides. It is '' pl.ein w<':t'e with h:ud-twbtcd warp and ~oh. highh ·n:rppc:d filling. Jt is yarn dyed. and :w.eil.thlc 111 a v:triety of geometric or other dt,lgn,, Doubk weaves arc usually two fab· Ill' "ith an extra filling or warp yarn inter· l.ec "'~the· two (abr iC"i together.

Drapery and Upholstery FabriC8

Cretonne, a plain·wcavc fabric similar to ungla~cd chintt, is used Cor draperies, slip covers, :111cl uphoht<.'l\ . It is u~ually printed.

.\l:my varied weaves, weightS, patterns, and finishes arc used for cotton drapery and up· holstcry fabrics. Some of these more important fabrics are drapery sateen, monks cloth, Jacqu:ud weave uphols t e ry, cretonne, dobby weave upholstery, and J acquard weave tapcsu y.

Dr.tp<'" \:lltc·n i, a fine satin·wcavc fabric th.tt '' \':It ch<.'<l and mcn·cr i1cd. It ill used for eft ·'IX'tl<,. 'P' <:a<h. slip covers, and comforters.

.\fonl..s cloth, made in a variation of the plain ,,·eave, is often referred to as basket weave and h ian cloth. It comes in either one, two, foUJ, or. eight thread countS in both the warp and filling. and may be used in the natural color, bleached, or dyed. Sometimes it is woven with mixed \arns, such as white and natural, which gi,·e it an oatmeal effect. It is used chie{l~ for draperies.

I ,tcqu.trd upholstery is woven on a Jacquard loom from carded yarns. It may be either yarn dH:d 01 pll.<l dHd. Dt:pcnding upon the con·

40

~rruction, it i" U!lcd for uphol!ttery. slip CO\'Crs, and draperies.

Jacquard tapestry is a heavy, ornamented fabric woven in a Jacquard design, yarn dyed on a box loom. Usually the pattern is formed by bringing warp threads to the surface in long floatS against a sateen, rep, or other backgrou nd. The double fabric is made with light warp and filling in the top cloth and light warp and heavy filling in the back cloth. When the heavy filling is interwoven with the finer top yarns, the re~ult i:. a quilted look, and the fabric i' known :rs matelasse.

Bedepread FabriC8

Jacquard bcclspreadl> arc usually woven from 5•1 inches to 90 inches on a J acquard loom. This material may also be used for matching dra· pcrics and dressing table skirts, and often is cut into housecoats or beachrobcs.

Tufted bedspreads have a sheeting base with carded yarns stitched on by machine. The fabric is dip dyed in fast dye. It is usually used un· ironed, and has a somewhat crinkled eHect that adds to the fancy appearance of the spread. The yarns are often tufted into designs (cut after being either woven or sewn on). Tufted fabrics arc used also for robes, dressing table skir tS, and draperies.

Other kinds of bedspread fabrics include broadcloths, dimities, organdies, and sateens (used plain or woven into designs, such as plaids, stripes, etc.). Dimity spreads are made from crinkled fabrics (woven crinkle), and arc not quite considered seersuckers. However, they are made with special alternate slack and tension warp threads to give the crinkled appearance.

T able Damask

Table damask is woven on a Jacquard loom. It may come in a bleached finish or pastel colors. Having a stif£ finish, usually with a high luster, it is used mainly for tablecloths and napkins. With other finishes, it may be used for spreads, draperies, towels, table scarves, and sport~wcar.

Marquisette Marquisette is a light, strong, sheer, Jow

count fabric, usually known as curtain goods. The ~pot or dot i!l formed by the insertion of a heavy roving in the filling which is cut after the fabric i" woven. Plain marquisette is wovcm on a plain loom with lcno attachment.


\Vith a close wca\'c and high-luster fini!>h. marquisette is used also for dre~~e~ as w<'ll a~ for nartains and other home decoration item~.

PluBh

Plush has a warp pile, or so-called velvet weave. The fabric is woven double, face to {ace, and warp threads forming the pile are cut while the fabric is still on the loom. This is u ue, too, of velveteens and corduroys. It is generally a plain weave, but comes twilled or in novelty versions. It is used mostly for upholstery and drapery purposes. However, light· weight plushes are used for clothing. In softer finishes, it is made into powder puffs and toys.

Wide Bed Sheeting

Wide bed sheetings have medium thread counts and medium-sized yarns. They arc noted for their durability and soft, smooth feel. Tufted spreads are made from unbleached or dyed sheeting. Pillowcases are woven in tubular form, requiring no side seam.

T icking Ticking is a heavy twill fabric made with a

colored yarn warp stripe. It also is woven in a herringbone, sateen, or madras version. The fabric is often featherproofcd. Depending upon its weight and finish, ticking is used as follows: mattress, pillow, scat, and cushion covers; upholstery; pockets for box springs; awnings: work clothes; tool kits; wiping pads; base for rubbcri£cd fabr ics; various plumbing and electrical items; and, with special finishes, women's suits and spor tswear.

CraBb Toweling

Crash toweling is usually a plain-woven fab· ric which has a yarn dyed striped edge. It can also be a granite weave or a heavy, soft twill weave. Coarse, uneven yarns are used to get the desired absorbency. Some crash toweling:. are given special absorbent finishes, or woven with a small percentage of linen or asbestos to make them absorb more rapidly. They are used for towels, kitchen sets, and kitchen curtain!>.

Huck Toweling

Huck toweling is a durable fabr ic made on a dobby loom. Huck is used mostly foa· imtitu· tional work, although the better qualities often are used in the home. The huck design, when made in light weights and bleached. dyed, or printed, often is used for sportswear.

41

Terry Towelin~

Tua ~ towding. m tt·aa) doth " m.1dt "ith a numhca of e'u a-heavy warp thn·ad., woven into loot"· which m;" bt· ,jn~k. douhll-. <)I triple. t·itht•t on cult \ ick m hoth. Thi, c.111 IH· foanwd into dt\lgm on J.I«(U.nd 01 dohhy loom,, Ct:ltain dc,igm oil(; I ck•• nl to a' mit< h· dine,, whidt aae double \\O\l'll with a plain <'dge. mualh with a Jacquaad 10\lllJ.; ot It'll~

de\ign won·n in th(' plain doublt td~-;t· Jut' ma) be bleached, dyed, or printed. Fscs include towels, washcloLhs, robe'>, bath mat,, bathing su iL'>, lining., for bathing suib and c.oat\, da .1

peri<·~. spread,, and potholdcr.,.

NARROW FABRICS

Narrow fabrics are d istinguished as fabrics woven with fast edges (selvages) and not exceeding 12 inches in widLh. :\lany kinds of narrow fabrics, such as ribbons and labels, arc woven at the same time on a "gang" machine, or multiple-shuttle loom. Other narrow fab· rics are produced on braiding, knitting. or lace machines. Narrow fabrics are roughly divided into elastic and non-elastic fabrics.

Non-elastics include such woven items as tapes, webbings, ribbons, labels, and dobby or Jacqua rd wca,·e Lrimmings. Tapes arc u~cd for slide fa!>ten<'l\, imulation'>. 'enetian hit mk vulcani,ing, and tics. \\'ebbing arc thed foa straps. furniture upholstca ing. apparel belt,, conveyor belLs. and other indu.,u ial it<'lll'> Some non-elastin arc produced on baaiding machines, which intcalacc the threads in tubu Jar form. Braided products include !>hoe laces. insulaLion slccvings. tapes, and a wide range of trimmings for the apparel, millinery. daa pcry. and upholstery trades.

Elastics (containing rubber threads) arc either woven or braided for usc in Lhc undcawear and suspender Lradc.,.

Laces, which include edgings, galloons. and insertions, are made on a lace machine. The~· come either narrow or wide.

INDUSTRIAL FABRICS Auto Head Lining

Head lining is a sofL-filled, wide indu~u i<tl sheeting of a ~uedc-like appearance napped on one 'ide. It i' u\<'d for the lining of automobiles.

Awning Duck

Awning duck is usually woven with plied yarns in both the warp and the filling. The


f.tb1 ic m;w be fini~hcd to make it water, weatht·l. a;l<l mildew rcsbtant. Awning ducks :11 c giH•n many additional finishes, such as fi1q)Joofing. and may come with painted or '·" n d\(:d. wov<·n ~t riJ>Cl>. These fabrics arc u,t•d fo1 :"' ning). hammock , beach umbrellas, outdoo1 hu nituH', yacht uphobtel')'. and other 'J>OI ,, it('lll'.

Book Cloth

Uook cloths can be made from a very wide variety of standard cotton fabrics, but print cloths arc the most important base fabrics. The fabrics arc processed in many different wavs. and the surfaces are often embossed to sim'ul:Hc various leathers. They can be finished to make them waterproof, mildewproof, and vcrm in p1 oof.

Cottonet Mesh Bagging

Cottonct is a dyed lcno weave mesh bag· ging. It i~ pecially woven with two five-inch white p1 inting band~. and has red and black double drawcorcls. ~fe h bagging is used for packaging ft uih and "cgctablcs and for Christ· mas stockin~.

Duck ~Jan) and important are the uses for duck

comtt uctiOih. Durable, plain-weave fabr ics, dud. :u e do,t·h· woven, and generally are made with ply ) am~ of various sizes, weights, and thl(':td counh. Certain types arc made with ,ingle ,a11l\ combined with ply yarns. Various othe1 grade~ and wea"c in duck constructions arc known :" t·namcling duck. hose duck, and munbt·r or ounce duck. The" mav be bleached, dyed. 01 printed. J ndu~tt ial 'uses 'arc usually in the grc' ~t:l tc or with ~p<:cia l treatmentS. The p1 incipal me~. which range from sportS cloth· ing to the heavic~t of fabrics fot· industrial maC"him·1 y. arc:

A pparel-worl:. clothes, sportSwear, uniforms for tropical climates, and uppers for spor tS shoes; household items-awnings, canopies, window shades, shower curtains, upholstery, w a II coverings, partition curtains, ham· mocks, and outdoor furniture; indust rial purposes-sacks and bags of all kinds, tar· paulins, molded V beltS for machinery, con· veyor beltS, railway cab curtains and tops, airplane propeller blades (compressed), pa· per d1 yer felts, chutes, straining and filter· ing fabrics, wind breaks, fire hose, press cloths in cottonseed oil mills, collapsible buckets, automobile tops, solid fabric tires for wheels on hand trucks and furniture

42

(these tires are made of diagonal fabric strips sewn together in blocks and subjected to hydraulic pressure), bases for rubberized

· fabrics and emery and other aba;asive cloths, linings for refrigerator cars, irrigation ditches, and ventilation and air ducts in mines (brauicc cloth), and packings against steam, air, water, and chemical fluids in pumps and machinery and against water in oil wells; other items-canoe coverings, tents, sails, army cots, theatrical scenery, and swim· ming tanks.

Filter Cloth

T here arc many types of filtering cloths of standard construction, such as print cloths, sheetings, or lawns, with various weights and thread countS. Cotton filter cloths arc widely used in the candy, food. paint, chemical, petro· leum, milk, and many other industries.

Haircloth

Cotton haircloth is a chemically treated fabric charactcri1.cd by resiliency in one d irection and softness in the other direction. An inter· lining material, it is used for coat fronts in men's sui ts, for shoulder pads, and similar pur· poses. T he material is placed in a coat front with the sti££ncss running vertical so as to pre· vent a droopy appearance in the garment.

Leather Cloths

Many differently-constructed cotton fabrics are processed in various ways to make imitation leathers. Leather cloth is a vinyl resin-coated cotton fabric. In addition to its leather-like appearance, it is waterproof, and can be cleaned with soap and water. It is durable, !lexible, and will not harden or crack. It will resist edge-wear, scuffing, abrasion, and wrin· kling. Perspiration will not affect it, nor will salt water, alcohol, gasoline, oils, greases, a nd most acids and alkalies. This fabric was us~d

during the war with a fire-proofed finish for fighter and bomber scatS, and is now used for t1 a nsporta tion upholstery, furniture uphol· stcry, luggage of certain kinds, and footwear.

Another kind of leather cloth is a rubber· coated, dyed dr ill, finished with a fine grain. It is waterproof, and resists rain, sun, and temperature Uuctuations. It has good flexing re· si~tancc, which is important for its usc as baby carriage covers, hoods, and body linings and as outer coverings for many articles.


Oilcloth

Oilcloth is a cotton fabric, often a print cloth sheeting, coated with oils and pigments in a smooth, pebbled, or dull finish, and having either a napped or a plain back. It is principally used as table and she!£ coverings, bu t is also used for wall coverings, sweat bands for hats, belts, book covers, bibs, floor coverings, linings, and surgical supplies.

Osnaburg

Osnaburg is a strong, plain-woven fabr ic of coarse yarns and low thread count. T he yarns are usually clean, low-grade short staple cotton, and often arc part waste. T he fabric comes pla in, striped, checked , or with novelty effects. It is sometimes finished as crash, cretonne, desert cloth, hopsacking, or suiting. Osnaburgs arc used main ly for all kinds of bags, but, in vario us weights and thread counts, are used also for work clothes, sportswear, towels, curtains, draperies, u pholstery, box spring covers, awnings, tarpaulins, lin ings for shoes, protective cover ings for pipes and transmission lines (when impregnated with tar), and bases for wall coverings, linoleums, imitation leathers, and waterproof fabrics.

Sheetings

There is a wide d iversity in weaves and uses of narrow sheetings (woven in widths under 42 inches) . Sheetings are p lain-woven, usually with carded yarns, in light, medium, and heavy weights. T he yarns used range from lOs to 28s, giving a wide variety of weights. Sheetinas may

I . !:>

a so come m combed yarns for various pur-poses. With particular finishes, sheetings may become back-filled muslin, cambric, cotton leather, cretonne, £Iannelette (napped on one or both sides) , french sheeting, imitation chambray, muslin, napped sheeting, and wigan. Below are sqme typical uses, which depend upon the thread count and the yarns:

A pparel-dresses, wash suits, uniforms, dress shields, facings, linings, and, when finished as lineen, shirts, shor ts, and pajamas; household items-bedsheets, mattress covers, awnings, upholstery interlinings, curtains, draperies, and wall coverings and wi ndo w shades when sized ; industrial uses-bags, tar-

paulins, filtering and straining cloths, bookbindings, aprons for laundry machinery, belting buffer discs, and as bases for oilcloths, friction tapes, enameled cloths, imi· tation leathers, adhesive tapes, and other waterproof fabrics; as well as bandages, shoe linings, embroidery and other an needlework foundations, and sized backing for maps.

Wide Sheeting

Wide industrial sheeting (grc~ good~) i~ similar in construction to, and i~ u~cd formam of the same purposes as, narrow sheeting. Wide shcctings start at 42 inches and range to about 90 inches. Some constructions at c made on special order as wide as I 50 to 200 i nchc~. Yarns from lOs to 30s arc used. One special construction is head lining, a two-ply filling, napped wide sheeting used for automobile bod) linings. Principal uses of wide shccti ngs arc as bases for coatings with pyroxylin. oil. pla~tics, pigments, and rubber for cotton leathers, oilcloths, and rubbcri1cd fabrics.

Tobacco Cloth T obacco cloth is the generic tctm lor a plain.

loosely-woven fabric made of print cloth yarns. In the grey goods state, it is used for shading tobacco and other plan ts. Bleached whi te, it i commonly known a~ gau1e, and i~ used for bandages. In slightly higher thread counts and narrower widths, it is known as chee~ecloth. and is used for tcabags and bookbindings. Depending upon the finish. tobacco cloth mav abo be converted into back-filled game. buckram. crinoli ne, flag buming. and wigan. Other uses of this fabric arc curtains. label and sign cloth~.

cheese and butter wrappings. hat linings. sanitary napkins. dust cloths. and theatrical gau1e (special finish) .

Washable Wall Covering

' Vashablc wall covering has for ib basic fabric a carded sheeting that has been processed by applying a special paint over the sheeting and baking it on. then gran tre printed with fadeproof, washable lacquers. \\"a hable wall covering ma} be pasted on just as i ~ wallpaper. It will last for years.

Ar1 expanded version of this booklet , with vamished semi-stin fourcolor cover, spiral plastic binding, and 121 actual swatches of cotton fabrics keyed to descriptions in Chapter X, is available from the National Cotton Council at preparation cost, $3.25.


N A T IONAL C O TT O N C O UNC IL 16~ .\tadu.o11 -ftc.

\lonphH 1. Tenn. lfJ u ''''" ''·

.\, l orA: li. \ l


J.oreworJ - Samford Universitylibrary.samford.edu/digitallibrary/pamphlets/cod-000915.pdf ·...

Documents

Transcript of J.oreworJ - Samford Universitylibrary.samford.edu/digitallibrary/pamphlets/cod-000915.pdf ·...