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©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2010
CHAPTER 8
Thinking, Language, & Intelligence
PowerPoint Lecture Notes Presentation
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©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2010
Lecture Overview
Thinking
Language
Intelligence
The Intelligence Controversy
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©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2010
Thinking
Thinking, language, & intelligence are often studied under the larger topic of cognition (mental activities involved in acquiring, storing, retrieving, & using knowledge).
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©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2010
Thinking
Cognitive building blocks
Thinking processes are distributed throughout the brain, especially the frontal lobe.
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Thinking—Three Components(1. Mental Image)
1. Mental Image: Mental representation of a previously stored sensory experience, including visual, auditory, etc.
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©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2010
Pause & Reflect:
Critical Thinking
Can you explain how the two forms in (a) are the same, & how the two in (b) are different?
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©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2010
Pause & Reflect: Critical Thinking(Solution)
To solve the problem rotate one of the objects in (b). Now compare the rotated image with the other object to see whether they match or not.
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2. Concept: Mental representation of a group or category that shares similar characteristics (e.g., the concept of a river groups together the Nile, Amazon, & Mississippi)
Thinking—Three Components(2. Concepts)
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Thinking—Three Components(2. Concepts)
How do we learn concepts? Three ways:– Artificial concepts--formed by logical,
specific rules– Natural concepts/prototypes--formed by
everyday life experiences– Hierarchies--group concepts into
subcategories within broader categories
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Thinking—Three Components An Example of Hierarchies
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How is this child learning the concept of “footsteps”? Is it an artificial concept, a natural concept, or a hierarchy?
Pause & Reflect:
Assessment
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3. Language: Form of communication using sounds & symbols combined according to specified rules
Thinking—Three Components (3. Language covered later in chapter)
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Thinking—Problem Solving (Three Steps to the Goal)
• Step 1: Preparation (identifying, separating, & defining the ultimate goal)
• Step 2: Production (generating possible solutions, called hypotheses, by using algorithms &/or heuristics
• Step 3: Evaluation (judging hypotheses in Step 2 against the criteria in Step 1)
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Thinking—Problem Solving (Three Steps to the Goal) Step 2: Production (Heuristics)
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Thinking—Five Key Barriers to Problem Solving
1. Mental Set: Persistence in using strategies that have worked in the past
Using no more than four lines, can you connect all nine dots without lifting your pencil from the paper?
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Thinking—Five Key Barriers to Problem Solving (Mental Sets Solution)
To overcome a
mental set you must literally “think outside the box”!
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Thinking—Five Key Barriers to Problem Solving
2. Functional Fixedness: Thinking of an object as only functioning in its usual way
Can you use these supplies to mount the candle on the wall so that it can be lit in a normal way without toppling over?
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Thinking—Five Key Barriers to Problem Solving (Functional Fixedness Solution)
To overcome functional fixedness, think of the matchbox, tacks, & candle all functioning in new ways.
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©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2010
3. Confirmation Bias: Preferring information that confirms preexisting positions or beliefs, while ignoring contradictory evidence
4. Availability Heuristic: Judging the likelihood of an event based on how readily available other instances are in memory
Thinking—Five Key Barriers to Problem Solving
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©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2010
Thinking—Five Key Barriers to Problem Solving
5. Representativeness Heuristic: Estimating the probability of something based on how well the circumstances match (or represent) a previous prototype (e.g., expecting to buy a hamburger when you go to a McDonald’s or similar fast food restaurant)
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©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2010
Pause & Reflect:
Assessment
Overestimating the dangers of flying after 9/11 is an example of the _____ heuristic.
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Thinking—Creativity
Creativity: Ability to produce valued outcomes in a novel way
Three elements of creativity: • Originality• Fluency• Flexibility
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©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2010
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Thinking—Creativity
• Divergent Thinking: Producing many alternatives or ideas from a single starting point; linked to creativity (e.g., reordering the letters “grevenidt” to form many new words)
• Convergent Thinking: Attempting to find one correct answer; linked to conventional, non-creative thinking (e.g., 2 + 2 + 6 = ?)
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©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2010
Pause & Reflect: Psychology at
Work
Psychology offers fun, do-it-yourself tests. Would you like to test your creativity? Arrange 10 coins in this same configuration. By only moving two coins, can you create two rows of 6 coins?
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Thinking—Creativity
How did you do? Did you think of this creative solution to the 10 coin problem?
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©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2010
Language: Three Building Blocks
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Language Development
Prelinguistic Stage: Crying, cooing, & babbling
Linguistic Stage: Single-utterances, telegraphic speech, & learning the rules of grammar
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Theories of Language Development
Nature Perspective: Language is an inborn capacity that develops primarily by maturation
– Chomsky’s language acquisition device (LAD)
– Nurture Perspective: Language develops from a complex system of rewards, punishments, & imitation
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Animals & Language
Some of the most successful nonhuman animal language studies have used American Sign Language (ASL).
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Pause & Reflect:
Assessment
1. Label the three building blocks of language.
2. Chomsky believes we possess a _____, which is an inborn ability to learn language.
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Intelligence
Intelligence: Global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, & deal effectively with the environment
Intelligence is a hypothetical, abstract construct.
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What Is Intelligence?
Historical views of intelligence:
1. Single ability or general factor called “g” (Spearman)
2. Multiple abilities (Thurstone & Guilford)
3. Single ability with two types of g, fluid & crystallized intelligence (Cattell)
4. Multiple abilities (Gardner & Sternberg)
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Intelligence Models
Gardner Sternberg
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How Do We Measure Intelligence?
Stanford-Binet & Wechsler most widely used individual intelligence tests. Both tests compute an intelligence quotient (IQ), which compares the deviation of a person’s test score to norms for that person’s age group.
–Original version of Stanford-Binet (IQ = MA/CA x 100)
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Measuring Intelligence— The Normal Distribution of IQ Scores
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Measuring Intelligence— Sample Wechsler Tests
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Measuring Intelligence:Three Scientific Standards
1. Standardization: Establishes norms & uniform procedures for giving & scoring tests
2. Reliability: Measure of the consistency & stability of test scores over time
3. Validity: Ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure
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Pause & Reflect:
Assessment
1. Why is it important to recognize that intelligence is a hypothetical, abstract concept?
2. Briefly explain how reliability differs from validity.
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The Intelligence Controversy—Extremes in Intelligence
Mental Retardation: IQs of 70 & below
Mental Giftedness: IQs of 135 & above
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The Intelligence Controversy: Explaining Differences
• Is it in the brain? All mental activity (including intelligence) results from neural activity in the brain.
• Is it genetic or environmental influences? Heredity & environment are important, inseparable factors in intellectual development.
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An Example of a Brain Test for Intelligence
Which “leg” of the drawing is longer (a) or (b)? The amount of time individuals require to make a correct choice between quickly flashed items like the ones on this screen may reveal something about their intelligence.
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Genetic Vs. Environmental Influences on Intelligence
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The Intelligence Controversy: Are IQ Tests Culturally Biased?
• Some ethnic groups score differently on IQ tests, but there are numerous contributing factors, including stereotype threat.
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Pause & Reflect:
Critical Thinking
Given the controversy over IQ tests, do you believe they should be abolished in public schools? Why or why not?
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End of CHAPTER 8
Thinking, Language, & Intelligence
PowerPoint Lecture Notes Presentation