HEARSAY EVIDENCE IN CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS

The Criminal Justice Act 2003 re-wrote the hearsay evidence rule for the purposeof criminal proceedings, enacting the recommendations of the Law Commissiontogether with some proposals from the Auld Review. Since the new provisionscame into force a body of case-law has interpreted them and, in particular, givenguidance as to how the new inclusionary discretion should be exercised.Following the style of his earlier book about the new law on bad character evid-ence, the central part of Professor Spencers book on hearsay evidence consists ofsection-by-section commentary on the relevant provisions of the Act. The commentary is preceded by chapters on the history of the hearsay rule, and therequirements of Article 6(3)(d) of the European Convention on Human Rights. Itis followed by an appendix containing the text of the statutory provisions and aselection of the leading cases.

Volume 5 in the Criminal Law Library series

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Criminal Law Library

Volume 1: Self-Defence in Criminal LawBoaz Sangero

Volume 2: Evidence of Bad CharacterJR Spencer

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Hearsay Evidence in Criminal Proceedings

JR SPENCER

OXFORD AND PORTLAND, OREGON2008

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PREFACE

In 1994, the Law Commission were kind enough to engage me as a consultant ontheir project on the hearsay rule in criminal proceedings, and a year later I saw myinput reflected in the sections of the resulting Consultation Paper where the rulewas examined, the justifications for it were analysed together with the problemsthat it causes, the Strasbourg case law was analysed, and where readers were shownhow the underlying issues are handled by the courts in France and Germany. Wedid not see eye to eye about the way in which the law ought to be reformed, how-ever, and at that point we parted company. For the rest of the project, which cul-minated in the publication of a Report in 1997, the role of academic consultantwas taken by my friend and respected colleague Professor Di Birch, of the LawFaculty at Nottingham.

The government announced that it accepted the recommendations containedin the Law Commissions hearsay Report, but then failed to implement them. In2000, I was invited by Lord Justice Auld to be one of his consultants on the projectwhich led to his Review of the Criminal Courts the following year. In this capacityI helped him to formulate a number of his proposals, including those for reform-ing the hearsay rule. On this his ideas were much more radical than those of theLaw Commission four years before, favouring the abolition of the existing hearsayrule and its system of exceptions in favour of a broader best evidence approach.

In his Review Auld LJ argued for a revision of the hearsay rule in the context ofa long-term overhaul of the whole law of criminal evidence. The Government,however, opted instead for an instant revision of parts of it: namely evidence ofbad character, and the hearsay rule, major changes to both of which were made byPart 11 of the Criminal Justice Act 2003. The reforms to the hearsay rule were, inessence, the proposals of the Law Commission, but with some adaptations toincorporate some, but not all, of the proposals formulated by Auld LJ: a solutionProfessor Birch, in her commentary in the Criminal Law Review, described asdishing up the Law Commissions very traditional repast with a dollop of Auldsbest evidence on top.

To cope with this new Act, the Judicial Studies Board organised a period ofintense training for the judges, which took place during the first three months of2005. Together with a number of academic colleagues, I was recruited to help withthis. My part was to prepare a commentary on the new rules relating to evidenceof bad character. For the reforms of hearsay evidence, this task was undertaken bytwo academic colleagues, Professor Di Birch and Professor David Ormerod.

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It was on the crest of a wave of enthusiasm generated by this training pro-gramme that I wrote a commentary on the new law on bad character evidence,which Hart Publishing produced in the spring of 2006. It was generally wellreceived, and that encouraged me to write this companion volume on the new lawon hearsay as well. As with the earlier book, much is owed to a group of friends andcolleagues with whom I have discussed this area of the law, and from whosethoughts I have greatly profited. A particular word of thanks is owed to HH JudgeDavid Radford and his brethren at Snaresbrook Crown Court, who invited methere to talk with them, and to HH Judge John Phillips, who was kind enough toread the last chapter in draft and offer many helpful comments.

The book on bad character evidence ended with an Appendix in which the lead-ing cases interpreting the new law were reproduced. Though castigated by one aca-demic reviewer as a waste of paper, reviewers who were practitioners said thisfeature made the book more useful, and so in this new book I have therefore donethe same. As readers will see, the collection begins with the decision in Sellick. Thiswas decided under the earlier law, but the statements of principle that it containsare highly relevant to the new law too, and for this reason (as well as the quality ofthe reasoning) I believe it deserves to stand at the head of the collection.

On the face of it, the new law on hearsay that results from Part 11 of theCriminal Justice Act 2003 is very conservative. Eight years earlier, the CivilEvidence Act 1995 completely abolished the hearsay rule for the purpose of civilproceedings. But the Criminal Justice Act 2003, by contrast, retains the ruleexcluding hearsay, together with its half-brother, the rule against narrative, andto each a list of detailed exceptions is prescribed. The Law Commissions reasonfor adopting this conservative approach rather than the sort of simple and radicalreform later proposed by Auld LJ was, in part, the change of attitude that thisoption would require on the part of practitioners and judges. However, the newscheme includes a general inclusionary discretion, which a court can invoke toadmit any piece of hearsay evidence which falls outside the list of prescribed excep-tions, if it is satisfied that the interests of justice so require. This discretionarypower was envisaged by the Law Commission for use as a last resort: a safety-valve, as they described it. However, the emerging case law suggests that the courtsare only too glad to use it; and in consequence the new law on hearsay is muchmore radical in practice than the narrow drafting of the main provisions mightsuggest. Paradoxically, it looks as if the main effect of the reform has been to pro-duce the change of attitude which, 10 years ago, the Law Commission believed tobe impossible.

JR SpencerCambridge, November 2007

Preface

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CONTENTS

Preface vAbbreviations xiTable of Cases xiiiTable of Legislation xxiiiTable of Treaties xxxiii

1 Introduction 1

Hearsay rule and the rise and fall of the exclusionary rules of evidence 2Scope and evolution of the hearsay rule 5Hearsay rule in criminal law as it stood before the 2003 reform:

justifications for the rule 9Criticisms of the hearsay rule 14Hearsay rule as seen by legal writers 20The directness principle or best evidence approach 22Abolition of the hearsay rule in civil proceedings 24Background to the 2003 reform: Criminal Law Revision Commitee,

Fraud Trials Committee, Law Commission and Auld Review 26Reform: Criminal Justice Act 2003, Part 11, Chapter 2 32Conclusion: provisional assessment of the reform 34Date of entry into force 38

2 Hearsay and the European Convention of Human Rights 39

The confrontation principle 39ECHR, Article 6(3)(d) 41Who is a witness for the purposes of ECHR, Article 6(3)(d)? 43What is meant by a right to examine or have examined witnesses

against him? 45Does a conviction based on evidence from witnesses whom the

defendant was unable to examine invariably infringe his rights underECHR, Article 6(3)(d)? 48

The English case law on ECHR, Article 6(3)(d) 51

3 The Scope of the Reform, the Shape of the New Exclusionary Rule and the New Scheme of Exceptions 61

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Abolition of the common law exclusionary rule: the demise of Kearley 61The new exclusionary rule: CJA 2003, sections 114(1) and 115 63The new definition of hearsay: conclusion 70Scheme of exceptions 73

4 Hearsay Admitted by Agreement 75

5 The Inclusionary Discretion and the General Discretion to Exclude 81

Discretionary inclusion under CJA 2003, section 114(1)(d): safety-valve or alternative tap? 81

What are the interests of justice? 85Particular applications of CJA 2003, section 114(1)(d) 89Discretionary exclusion: CJA 2003, section 126 97

6 Statements of Witnesses who are Unavailable (CJA 2003, Section 116) 99

History: earlier provisions 99The new provision: CJA 2003, section 116 101

7 Documentary Hearsay (CJA 2003, Section 117) 117

History 117Underlying issue: records of different types 118CJA 2003, section 117 119Extra conditions for the admissibility of police records 124Discretion to exclude 125Documentary evidence and real evidence 126CJA 2003, section 117: conclusion 127

8 Other Statutory Exceptions 129

9 Preserved Common Law Exceptions (CJA 2003, Section 118) 135

Public information, etc 136Reputation as to character 137Reputation or family tradition 138Res gestae 140Confessions, etc 143Admissions by agents, etc 144Common enterprise 146Expert evidence 148

10 Confessions (and Other Extra-Judicial Statements by Defendants) 151

Introduction 151Defendants extra-judicial confession as evidence for the prosecution 153

Contents

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Defendants extra-judicial non-confession as evidence for the defence:mixed statements, etc 162

Extra-judicial statement of one co-defendant as evidence against another 164Extra-judicial statements of one co-defendant as evidence for another 168Defendants extra-judicial statements: conclusion 172

11 Multiple Hearsay 173

12 The Rule Against Narrative 181

Introduction 181Rule against narrative is retained 185Rules about refreshment of memory are relaxed 186Other common law exceptions to the rule are reformed and put into

statutory form 189Where the previous statement of a witness is admissible, it is

now evidence of any matter stated in it 193A practical point: a previous statement, if in documentary form, must

not normally be given to the jury when they retire 197

13 Videotaped Evidence-in-Chief 199

Introduction 199Background 199

14 Other Matters: Experts (CJA 2003, Section 127) and Proof of Documents(Section 133) 207

Expert evidence: preparatory work 207Documents: evidential status of a copy 209

15 Practical Issues 213

Taking, recording and preservation of statements and the rules on access to them 213

Evidence on commission 218Requirement to give notice of hearsay evidence: Criminal Procedure

Rules 219Deciding applications to admit hearsay evidence and applications for

hearsay to be excluded 221Time and place for deciding on the application 223Giving reasons for the decision 224Enhanced status of a witnesss previous statements 225Stopping the case where the evidence is unconvincing 226Directing juries 228

Contents

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Appendix I Criminal Justice Act 2003, Sections 114141 229

Appendix II Criminal Procedure Rules, Part 34 247

Appendix III Judicial Studies Board Specimen Directions 253

Appendix IV Leading Cases 257

Index 331

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ABBREVIATIONS

ACPO Association of Chief Police OfficersCEA 1968 Civil Evidence Act 1968CEA 1995 Civil Evidence Act 1995CJA 1988 Criminal Justice Act 1988CJA 2003 Criminal Justice Act 2003CLRC Criminal Law Revision CommitteeCPIA 1996 Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act 1996ECHR Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental

Freedoms (or European Convention on Human Rights)PACE 1984 Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984PCMH Plea and case management hearingPNC Police National ComputerStPO Strafprozeordunung (German Criminal Procedure Code)YJCEA 1999 Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act 1999

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TABLE OF CASES

References in bold are to the page numbers of the Appendices. Otherwise referencesare to paragraph numbers in the commentary.

A v Secretary of State for the Home Department (No 2) [2005] UKHL 71, [2006] 2 AC 221.....................................................................6.11, 7.11

AA [2007] EWCA Crim 1779.............................................................................15.41Abadom (1983) 76 Cr App R 48, [1983] 1 WLR 126........................9.40, 14.414.5Absolom (1988) 88 Cr App R 332......................................................................10.23Adams [2007] EWCA Crim 3025................................................................2.39, 6.21AGs Reference (No 1 of 2003) [2003] EWCA Crim 1286, [2003]

2 Cr App R 29 (453)..........................................................................................9.25AGs Reference (No 3 of 1979) 69 Cr App R 411..............................................12.14AGs Reference (No 3 of 1999) [2001] 2 AC 91 .....................................10.20, 10.22Al-Khawaja [2005] EWCA Crim 2697, [2006] 1 WLR 1078......................2.41, 320Ali [2006] EWCA Crim 3084 ............................................10.42, 10.4410.45, 12.40Allan [2004] EWCA Crim 2236, [2005] Crim LR 716........................................10.9Allan v United Kingdom (2002) 36 EHRR 143...................................................10.9AM v Italy [1999-IX] RJD 45 .................................................................................2.8Andrews [1987] 1 AC 281, HL .............................................................................9.19Archer [2007] EWCA Crim 930..................................................................2.49, 6.17Arnold [2004] EWCA Crim 1293 ................................................................2.42, 274Artner v Austria (1992) Series A/242a .................................................2.8, 2.15, 2.31Asch v Austria (1993) 15 EHRR 597...........................................2.8, 2.12, 2.25, 2.31Aveson v Kinnair (1805) 6 East 188.....................................................................9.22Aziz [1996] AC 41...............................................................................................10.30B [2006] EWCA Crim 1978..................................................................................6.29Bailey (1993) 97 Cr App R 365...........................................................................10.22Barbera, Messegue and Jabardo v Spain (1989) 11 EHRR 360 ..........2.8, 2.23, 2.32Beattie (1990) 89 Cr App R 303 ...........................................................................12.2Beckford and Daley [1991] Crim LR 833.....................................................311312Bedingfield (1879) 14 Cox CC 341 ......................................................................9.19Beneddeto v R; Labrador v R [2003] UKPC 27, [2003] 1 WLR 1545 ................10.9Benguit [2005] EWCA Crim 1953 ........................................................................300Benjamin (1913) 8 Cr App R 146.......................................................................12.25Berkelely Peerage Case (1811) 4 Camp 401.........................................................9.14

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Berry v R [1992] 2 AC 364..................................................................................15.13Birutis and others v Lithuania, Applications nos 47698/99 and 48115/99,

7 November 2000..............................................................................................2.36Blake (1844) 6 QB 126, 115 ER 49 .......................................................................9.34Blastland [1986] AC 41..............................................................1.42, 10.46, 315316Boal [1965] 1 QB 402..................................................................................10.48, 312Boulton [2007] EWCA Crim 942.....................................................2.47, 6.27, 15.29Bradley [2005] EWCA Crim 20, [2005] 1 Cr App R 24 (397).....................300, 312Bricmont v Belgium (1990) 12 EHRR 217 ...................................................2.8, 2.32Britton (1987) 85 Cr App R 14...........................................................................12.18Bryant and Dickson (1946) 31 Cr App R 146 ...................................................12.29Bryce (1992) 95 Cr App R 320 ...........................................................................10.21Buckley (1873) 13 Cox CC 293 ............................................................................9.24C and K [2006] EWCA Crim 197, [2006] Crim LR 637............................6.186.19Callender [1998] Crim LR 337.............................................................................9.24Camelleri [1922] 2 KB 122 .................................................................................12.30Camilleri v Malta, Application no 51760/99, 16 March 2000 ............................2.29Campbell [2005] EWCA Crim 2078....................................................................2.46Campbell and Williams [1993] Crim LR 448.......................................................312Canale (1990) 91 Cr App R 1 .............................................................................10.21Castillo [1996] 1 Cr App R 437 ............................................................................6.16Chalkley and Jeffries [1998] 2 Cr App R 79.......................................................10.20Chandler [1976] 1 WLR 585 ..............................................................................10.29Christie [1914] AC 545 ...................................................................10.25, 12.4, 12.28Christou [1992] QB 979 .....................................................................................10.21Coates [2007] EWCA Crim 1471, [2007] Crim LR 887 ...................................12.38Cole [1990] 1 WLR 866 .........................................................................................267Cole [2007] EWCA Crim 1924, [2007] 1

WLR 2716..........................................................................2.44, 2.48, 11.13, 11.16, 15.21, 325330. see also Cole and Keet

Cole and Keet [2007] EWCA Crim 1924, [2007] 1 WLR 2716..........6.23, 315330Conde (1868) 10 Cox CC 547 ..............................................................................9.22Conti (1973) 58 Cr App R 387 ...................................................................10.48, 312Cook [1987] QB 417 .........................................................................3.23, 12.4, 12.28Cooper [1969] 1 QB 267.......................................................................................1.43Coughlan, CACD 2 March 1999, (1999) 5 Archbold News 2 ...................6.206.21Coy v Iowa 108 S Ct 2798 (1988)...........................................................................2.4CPS v CE [2006] EWCA Crim 1410 ....................................................................6.33Crampton (1991) 92 Cr App R 372 ...................................................................10.12Crawford v Washington 124 S Ct 1354 (2004) ...................................................2.14Croft [2007] EWCA Crim 30 .............................................................................15.33Crown Prosecution Service (Durham) v E [2006] EWCA Crim 1410 ..............2.47

Table of Cases

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D [2002] EWCA Crim 990, [2002] 2 Cr App R 36 ....................................2.41, 5.26Da Silva (1990) 90 Cr App R 233 .......................................................................12.14Da Silva [2002] EWCA Crim 2673, 2003 2 Cr App R 5 (74)............................10.24Daniel v Pitt (1806) 1 Camp 369..........................................................................9.31Davies [2006] EWCA Crim 2643, [2007] 2 All ER 1070...................6.24, 6.29, 6.32Davis, Ellis and others [2006] EWCA Crim 1155, [2006] 1 WLR 3130....2.35, 2.50Dawson [1960] 1 WLR 163 ..................................................................................9.36Delaney (1989) 88 Cr App R 338 ............................................................10.21, 10.23Delta v France (1993) 16 EHRR 574 ....................................................2.8, 2.15, 2.25Department of the Environment etc v Atkinson [2002] EWHC

2023 (Admin)....................................................................................................7.11Derodra [2000] 1 Cr App R 41......................................................................7.8, 7.20Devon [2006] EWCA Crim 388 ...........................................................................7.19Dodson and Williams [1984] 1 WLR 971 ...........................................................3.17Doe d v Gord v Needs (1836) 2 M and W 129, 150 ER 698 ...............................9.17Doherty [2006] EWCA Crim 2716 ....................................................6.286.29, 6.33Donat (1985) 82 Cr App R 173 ............................................................................9.37Doorson v The Netherlands (1996) 22 EHRR

330 ....................................................................2.8, 2.28, 2.33, 2.35, 270, 272, 320Downer (1880) 43 LT 445 ....................................................................................9.30DPP v Blake [1989] 1 WLR 432 .........................................................................10.13DPP v R [2007] EWHC 1842 (Admin).........................................................5.6, 5.26Dragic [1996] 2 Cr App R 232......................................................................2.60, 274Edwards (1872) 12 Cox CC 230...........................................................................9.23Edwards [1992] Crim LR 576...............................................................................9.19Ely [2005] EWCA Crim 3248.............................................................................1.110Emmerson (1991) 92 Cr App R 284 ..................................................................10.11Eskelinen v Finland (2007) 45 EHRR 1 ........................................................2.8, 2.18Everett [1988] Crim LR 826 ...............................................................................10.12F v Chief Constable of Kent [1982] Crim LR 682 .............................................15.28Ferrantelli and Santangelo v Italy (1997) 23 EHRR 288..............................2.8, 2.31Finch [2007] EWCA Crim 36, [2007] 1 Cr App R 33, [2007]

1 WLR 1645...................................................5.6, 5.17, 5.285.29, 10.48, 308315Foxley [1995] 2 Cr App R 523..............................................................................7.11Fulling [1987] QB 426 ........................................................................................10.11Galbraith [1981] 1 WLR 1039....................................................................15.34, 281Gilfoyle [1996] 1 Cr App R 302............................................................................9.22GJ [2006] EWCA Crim 1939.........................................................................4.9, 5.36Gokal [1997] 2 Cr App R 266...............................................................................2.40Gokal [1999] EWCA Crim 669 ............................................................................2.40Goldenberg (1988) 88 Cr App R 285 .................................................................10.12Goodright v Moss (1777) 2 Cowp 591.................................................................9.14

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Gott (1922) 16 Cr App R 87 .................................................................................9.22Grant v The Queen [2007] 1 AC 1................................................................320321Grant v The State [2006] 2 WLR 835....................................................................256Gray, Liggins and others [1995] 2 Cr App R 100 .......................................9.33, 9.36Gunes v Turkey (2006) 43 EHRR 15 ............................................................2.8, 2.32Gunewardene (1951) 35 Cr App R 80 ...............................................................10.35Gyima [2007] EWCA Crim 429..................................................................5.435.44H [2005] EWCA Crim 2083, [2006] 1 Cr App R 4 (50) ..............................300, 312H, W and M [2001] Crim LR 815 ........................................................................6.32Halawa v. Federation Against Copyright Theft [1995] 1 Cr App R 21............15.28Halpin [1975] QB 907 ............................................................................................9.8Hare [2006] EWCA Crim 2512..........................................................................10.46Harrison v Vallance (1822) 1 Bing 45..................................................................9.31Hasan [2007] EWCA Crim 219, [2008] 1 CrAppR 11 (155)............................10.50Hayter [2005] UKHL 605, [2005] 1 WLR 605 ..................................................10.36Hemmings (1939) 27 Cr App R 46 ......................................................................9.14Henry [2003] EWCA Crim 1296 ................................................................6.216.22Hogan [1997] Crim LR 349..................................................................................7.19Hollington v Hewthorn [1943] KB 587......................................................8.158.16Hovell [1986] 1 NZLR 500, [1987] 1 NZLR 610...............................................11.12Howard v Malkin (1878) 40 LT 196 ....................................................................9.21Howglen Ltd, Re [2001] 1 All ER 376, [2001] 2 BCLC 695..................................8.9Hulme [2006] EWCA Crim 2899, [2007] 1 Cr App R 26 (334)............12.4312.44Humphris [2005] EWCA Crim 2030, (2005) 169 JP 441 ..........................5.39, 7.17Isgro v Italy (1990) Series A/194 ...................................................................2.8, 2.26Isichei [2006] EWCA Crim 1815, 170 JP 753, [2007]

Crim LR 484 ........................................................................3.37, 4.9, 5.6, 5.8, 5.38Jackson [1996] 2 Cr App R 420............................................................................14.5Jelen (1989) 90 Cr App R 456.............................................................................10.25Jenkins [2003] Crim LR 107.................................................................................9.37Jones, Williams and Barham [1997] 2 Cr App R 119 .........................................9.35Joyce and Joyce [2005] EWCA Crim 1785 .......11.17, 12.37, 15.33, 15.38, 278283Kajala v Noble (1982) 75 Cr App R 149 ..............................................................14.7Kavallieratos [2006] EWCA Crim 2819........................................................5.6, 5.39Kearley [1992] 2 AC 228..................................................1.151.17, 1.411.42, 1.74,

1.91, 3.1, 3.53.8, 300301Keet [2007] EWCA Crim 1924, [2007] 1 WLR

2798 .............................................................2.48, 321325. see also Cole and KeetKhan [1997] AC 558 ................................................................................10.20, 10.22Khan v United Kingdom (2001) 31 EHRR 45.....................................................2.10Kirk and Kirk [2008] EWCA Crim 434 .............................................................12.25Kordasinski [2006] EWCA Crim 2984, [2007] 1 Cr App R 17 (238) .......6.39, 8.16

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Kostovski v The Netherlands (1990) 12 EHRR 434...............................................................2;268, 2.8, 2.15, 2.24, 271272

Lam Chi-Ming v R [1991] 2 AC 212..................................................................10.28Lamb [2006] EWCA Crim 3347....................................................................5.6, 5.29Lawal [1994] Crim LR 746 .....................................................................................3.8Lawrie v Muir 1950 JC 19...................................................................................10.22Lilley [2003] EWCA Crim 1789 ...........................................................................3.34Lilley v Pettit [1946] KB 401 ..................................................................................9.8Lister v Quaife [1983] 1 WLR 56 ...........................................................................4.6Loveridge [2007] EWCA Crim 1041.........................................................6.14, 15.27Luc v Italy (2003) 36 EHRR 46.........................................2.8, 2.15, 2.25, 5.30, 258,

272273, 274, 318319Ludi v Switzerland (1993) 15 EHRR 173..............................................2.8, 2.25, 269Lydon (1987) 85 Cr App R 221 ............................................................................3.29Lynch [2007] EWCA Crim 3035..........................................................................5.32M [1996] 2 Cr App R 56 .....................................................................................13.10M (K) [2003] EWCA Crim 357, [2003] 2 Cr App R 21 (322)....2.43, 257, 274, 319Macdaniel (1756) 1 Leach 44 .................................................................................1.5McEwan v DPP [2007] EWCA 740 (Admin), (2007)

171 JP 308........................................................................2.39, 5.6, 5.20, 5.23, 5.25McGovern (1991) 92 Cr App R 228.............................................10.12, 10.1410.15MacKenzie (1992) 96 Cr App R 98 .........................................................10.17, 15.36McLean and others [2007] EWCA Crim 219, [2008] 1 CrAppR

11 (155) ......................................................................................................5.6, 5.18Magnusson v Sweden, Application no 53972/90, [2004] Crim LR 847.............2.20Maher v DPP [2006] EWHC 1271 (Admin), (2006) 170

JP 441..................................5.65.7, 5.31, 7.16, 7.26, 11.2, 11.13, 11.15, 302308Mallory (1884) 13 QBD 33...................................................................................9.31Malone [1994] Crim LR 525 .......................................................................6.166.17Martin [1996] Crim LR 589 .................................................................................6.26Mason [1988] 1 WLR 139, 86 Cr App R 349.....................................................10.21Mattey and Queely [1995] 2 Cr App R 409 .........................................................6.34Meade [2007] EWCA Crim 1116..................................................................5.6, 5.37Mercer v Denne [1905] 2 Ch 538.........................................................................9.16Millett [2000] EWCA Crim 50.............................................................................6.14Mitchell (1872) 17 Cox 503................................................................................10.29Moghal (1977) 65 Cr App R 56............................................................................9.24Muir (1983) 79 Cr App R 153 ..............................................................................3.28Murray, Morgan and Sheridan [1997] 2 Cr App R 136......................................9.36Musone [2007] EWCA Crim 1237, [2007] 1

WLR 2467.....................................5.6, 5.18, 5.24, 6.13, 11.13, 11.15, 15.21, 15.30Myers [1965] AC 1001..............................1.15, 1.181.19, 1.21, 1.41, 1.70, 7.3, 312

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Myers [1998] AC 124..................................................................................10.47, 311N [2006] EWCA Crim 3309, 171 JP 158 .............................................................3.30Nazeer [1998] Crim LR 750 ...............................................................................14.12Neill v North Antrim Magistrates Court [1992] 1 WLR 1220 .........6.31, 9.22, 266Nembhard v The Queen [1981] 1 WLR 1515 .....................................................1.47Nicholas (1846) 2 Car & Kir 246, 175 ER 102.....................................................9.23Nye and Loan (1977) 66 Cr App R 252 ......................................................9.20, 9.26O [2006] EWCA Crim 556, [2006] 2 Cr App R 27 ...........................................12.31OHare [2006] EWCA Crim 2512........................................................5.6, 5.215.22Okafor (1993) 99 Cr App R 97...........................................................................10.23Osborne and Virtue [1973] QB 678...................................................................12.28Osbourne [1905] 1 KB 551.................................................................................12.30Owen [2001] EWCA Crim 1018 ........................................................2.16, 2.38, 9.33Oyesiku (1971) 56 Cr App R 240 ..............................................................12.4, 12.25Papageorgiou v Greece (2003) 38 EHRR 30.................................................2.8, 2.17Paris (1993) 97 Cr App R 99......................................................................10.11, 15.1Parker (1783) 3 Douglas KB 242, 99 ER 634 .......................................................12.5Parkes [1976] 1 WLR 1271.................................................................................10.29Parkinson [2004] EWCA Crim 3195 ...................................................................6.26Pashmfouroush [2007] EWCA Crim 2330........................................................12.19Patel (1981) 73 Cr App R 117 ..............................................................................3.28Pattinson (1973) 58 Cr App R 417.....................................................................10.23Pearce (1979) 69 Cr App R 365..........................................................................10.31Persaud v Trinidad and Tobago [2007] UKPC 51, [2007] 1 WLR 2379 .........10.37Platten [2006] EWCA Crim 140, [2006] Crim LR 920..............................9.349.35PS v Germany (2003) 36 EHRR 61 ...............................................................2.8, 2.21R (Bullard) v Coventry Justices (1992) 95 Cr App R 175 ...................................3.18R (Cochrane) v South Ribble Justices [1996] 2 Cr App R 544 .........................12.14R (CPS) v Uxbridge Magistrates Court [2007] EWHC 205

(Admin), 171 JP 279 ............................................................2.39, 6.14, 6.23, 15.22R (D) v Camberwell Green Youth Court [2005] UKHL 4, [2005]

1 WLR 393...........................................................................................................2.6R (Gilligan) v Belmarsh Magistrates [1998] 1 Cr App R 14 ...............................6.32R v Gokal [1997] 2 Cr App R ................................................................................267R v Greenwood [2004] EWCA Crim 1388, [2005] 1 Cr App R 7 (99) ..............1.47R (McGowan) v Brent Justices [2001] EWHC Admin 814, (2002)

166 JP 29, [2002] Crim LR 413 ......................................................................1.107R (McMullen) v Acton Justices (1990) 92 Cr App R 98 .....................................6.34R (Meredith) v Harwich Justices [2006] EWHC 3336 (Admin), 171 JP 249 ....6.14R (Osman) v Governor of Pentonville Prison [1990] 1 WLR 277 .....................14.7R (R) v Liverpool Juvenile Court [1988] QB 1..................................................15.28R (Roberts) v Liverpool Crown Court [1986] Crim LR 622 ............................15.13

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R (Robinson) v Sutton Coldfield Justices [2006] EWHC Crim 307, [2006] 2 Cr App R 13........................................................................................2.47

R (Wellington) v DPP [2007] EWHC 1061 (Admin)................................7.17, 7.21Rachdad v France, Application no 71846/01, 13 November 2003 .....2.8, 2.34, 2.44Radak [1999] 1 Cr App R 187 ..............................................................................2.39Raghip, The Times, 9 December 1991 ...............................................................10.12Raleigh, Howells State Trials, vol II, col 1 ............................................................2.3Ratten v The Queen [1972] AC 378.....................................................................9.19Rawlings and Broadbent [1995] 1 WLR 178 .....................................................13.10Razzaq v General Medical Council [2006] EWHC 1300 (Admin) ......................7.9Read [2005] EWCA Crim 3292.........................................10.42, 10.4410.45, 12.40Recica [2007] EWCA Crim 2471 ................................................................5.19, 5.44Rice [1963] 1 QB 857............................................................................................3.29Richards [2007] EWCA Crim 709........................................................5.6, 5.17, 5.21Rowton (1865) Le & Ca 520, 169 ER 1497 ..........................................................9.12Rochester [2008] EWCA Crim 678....................................................................13.12Rudd (1948) 32 Cr App R 80 .............................................................................10.35Rutherford [1998] Crim LR 490 ..........................................................................6.31S [2004] EWCA Crim 1320, [2004] 1 WLR 2940 .............................................12.30S [2006] EWCA Crim 2272 ................................................................5.6, 5.33, 10.34S [2007] EWCA Crim 335, [2007] All ER (D) 119..............................5.6, 5.19, 5.39Saidi v France (1994) 17 EHRR 251 .............................................2.8, 2.25, 269270Sajjad and Iqbal [2007] EWCA Crim 1059 ..................................................5.6, 5.21Sak v Crown Prosecution Service [2007] EWHC 2886 (Admin).......................2.39Saleem [2007] EWCA Crim 1923 ......................................................................11.13Samuel (1987) 87 Cr App R 232 ........................................................................10.23Sat-Bhambra (1988) 88 Cr App R 55........................................................10.6, 10.26Sed [2004] EWCA Crim 1294, [2004] 1 WLR 3218...................................2.41, 5.26Sekhon (1987) 85 Cr App R 19 ..........................................................................12.18Sellick and Sellick [2005] EWCA Crim 651, [2005]

1 WLR 3257......................................................................2.45, 2.50, 257277, 319Senior [2003] 2 Cr App R 215, [2004] 2 Cr App R 215 ....................................10.23Setz-Dempsey (1994) 98 Cr App R 23 .................................................................6.14Sharp [1988] 1 WLR 7 ........................................................................................10.30Shone (1983) 76 Cr App R 72 ..............................................................................3.28Singh [2006] EWCA Crim 660, [2006] 1 WLR

1564 ..........................................................1.109, 3.7, 3.24, 3.35, 5.6, 5.9, 298302Smart and Beard [2002] EWCA Crim 772, [2002] Crim LR 684..............9.35, 9.37Smellie (1919) 14 Cr App R 128.............................................................................2.6Smurthwaite (1994) 98 Cr App R 437 ...............................................................10.22SN v Sweden (2004) 39 EHRR 13 ...............................................2.8, 2.20, 2.22, 2.25Sparks v R [1964] AC 964.....................................................................................1.42

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Spinks (1982) 74 Cr App R 263..........................................................................10.35Springsteen v Masquerade Music Ltd [2001] EWCA Civ 563 .........................14.11Statute of Liberty, The [1968] 1 WLR 739...........................................................3.17Sturla v Freccia (1880) 5 App Cas 623 ...................................................................9.8Subramanian v Public Prosecutor [1956] 1 WLR 956........................................3.14Tahery [2006] EWCA Crim 529 .................................................................2.43, 2.46Talbot de Malahide (Lord) v Cussack (1864) 17 ICLR 313..............................12.29Taylor [2006] EWCA Crim 260, [2006]

2 CrAppR 14 ......................................5.6, 5.11, 5.15, 5.34, 11.13, 11.15, 292298Taylor v Chief Constable of Cheshire [1986] 1 WLR 1479 ................................3.17Teper v R [1952] AC 480 .............................................................................3.36, 6.11Thomson [1912] 3 KB 19 .....................................................................................9.24Tobi v Nicholas (1988) 86 Cr App R 323 ............................................................9.20Tripodi (1961) CLR 1 ...........................................................................................9.33Trivedi v United Kingdom, Application no 31700/96.................................2.8, 2.31Turnbull [1977] QB 224.....................................................................15.35, 280281Turnbull (1984) 80 Cr App R 104........................................................................9.19Turner (1975) 61 Cr App R 67.............................................................................9.30Unterpertinger v Austria (1986) Series A/110, (1991)

13 EHRR 175....................................................................2.8, 2.12, 2.302.31, 268Valentine [1996] 2 Cr App R 213.......................................................................12.30Van Mechelen v The Netherlands (1998) 25 EHRR 647 .....................2.8, 2.25, 272Vel v Chief Constable of North Wales (1987) 151 JP 510 ................................15.28Verdam v The Netherlands, Application no 35253/97 .......................................2.26Vidal v Belgium, Application no 12351/86, 22 April 1992,

(1992) Series A/235b.........................................................................................2.16Vincent (1840) 9 C & P 275 .................................................................................9.22Wainwright (1875) 13 Cox CC 171 .....................................................................9.24Walker [1998] Crim LR 211...............................................................................10.12Walker [2007] EWCA Crim 1698 ......................................................5.6, 5.35, 11.13Wallace and Short (1978) 67 Cr App R 291 ........................................................1.43Walsh (1989) 91 Cr App R 161 ..........................................................................10.21Ward (1993) 96 Cr App R 1 ....................................................................10.12, 15.13Warner and Jones (1993) 96 Cr App R 324...........................................................3.8Watson v DPP [2006] EWHC 3429.......................................................................7.5Weerdesteyn [1995] 1 Cr App R 405 .................................................................10.23Williams [2007] EWCA Crim 211 ................................................................5.6, 5.25Williams v Innes (1808) 1 Camp 364 ..................................................................9.31Williams v Williams [1988] QB 161 ......................................................................8.9Windisch v Austria (1990) 13 EHRR 281 ...........................2.8, 2.15, 2.25, 2.30, 269Woodward, Kenway v Kidd , Re [1913] 1 Ch 392 ................................................9.8Wright v Tatham (1834-38) 5 Cl and Fin 670, 7 ER 559....................................3.24

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X v Federal Republic of Germany, Application no 8414/78, 4 July 1979 ..........2.29X v The Netherlands (1985) Series A/91, (1985) 8 EHRR 235...........................1.49X, Y and Z (1990) 91 Cr App R 36.........................................................................2.6Xhabri [2005] EWCA Crim 3135, [2006] 1 Cr App R 26

(413) .......................................2.38, 5.6, 5.95.10, 5.32, 11.10, 283292, 297, 317Y [2008] EWCA Crim 10...........................................................................5.30, 10.45Yu and Yu [2006] EWCA Crim 349, [2006] Crim LR 643...............6.16, 6.186.19Z (alias Hasan) [2003] EWCA Crim 191, [2003] 1 WLR 1489,

[2005] UKHL 22, [2005] 2 AC 467.........................................................10.610.7

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TABLE OF LEGISLATION

References in bold are to the page numbers of the Appendices. Otherwise referencesare to paragraph numbers in the commentary. Legislation is subdivided by country(in alphabetical order). For international legal instruments, please see the separateTable of Treaties.

Germany

Primary LegislationCriminal Procedure Code (Strafprozeordunung) ............................................1.58

Art 244(2) ..........................................................................................................1.60Art 250 ......................................................................................................1.591.60

Italy

Primary LegislationCriminal Procedure Code

Art 392 ...............................................................................................................2.52

Jamaica

Constitutions 13..............................................................................................................320321s 20(6)(d)............................................................................................................320

Primary LegislationEvidence Act

s 31D...................................................................................................................320

New Zealand

Primary LegislationEvidence Act 2006.................................................................................................1.99

s 18(2) ................................................................................................................1.99

United Kingdom

Primary LegislationBankers Books Evidence Act 1879 ......................................................................1.14

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s 3 ................................................................................................................8.7, 8.10s 5 .....................................................................................................................14.12s 9 ..................................................................................................................8.88.9

Births and Deaths Registration Act 1953s 34 .....................................................................................................................8.12

Children and Young Persons Act 1933ss 42 and 43 .......................................................................................................2.53

Children (Children and Young Persons Act 1933ss 42 and 43 .....................................................................................................15.15

Civil Aviation Act 1982s 95 ..........................................................................................................2.53, 15.15

Civil Evidence Act 1968 ...............................................................1.64, 7.3, 8.15, 9.32s 8(2)(b).............................................................................................................1.63s 9 .........................................................................................................................9.4

Civil Evidence Act 1995 ........................................................................1.2, 1.66, 11.3s 2 .......................................................................................................................1.67s 2(4) ..................................................................................................................1.67s 3 .......................................................................................................................1.67s 6 .......................................................................................................................12.7s 7 .........................................................................................................................9.4

Civil Evidence (Scotland) Act 1988......................................................1.2, 1.65, 11.3Companies Act 2006

s 15 .....................................................................................................................8.14Courts Act 1971 ......................................................................................................6.4Crime and Disorder Act 1998

s 51 ......................................................................................................................248Sch 3, para 1 .......................................................................................................248

Crime (International Co-operation) Act 2003Ch 2......................................................................................................................15.15

s 7 .........................................................................................................................7.7Criminal Evidence Act 1898

s 1 ........................................................................................................................312Criminal Evidence Act 1965...................................................................1.19, 7.3, 7.6

s 2 .......................................................................................................................1.36Criminal Evidence Act 1968...............................................................................12.36Criminal Justice Act 1925................................................................................4.14.9

s 13 .......................................................................................................2.53, 6.56.6s 13(3) ...........................................................................................................6.4, 6.7

Criminal Justice Act 1948s 41(1) ..................................................................................................................8.4

Criminal Justice Act 1967.....................................................................................1.14s 2(7) ....................................................................................................................6.5

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s 9 ..................................................................................4.34.7, 4.9, 8.3, 14.2, 14.6s 10 .......................................................................................................................4.3s 89 .......................................................................................................................4.5

Criminal Justice Act 1987s 4 ........................................................................................................................248

Criminal Justice Act 1988 ...................................................................1.14, 1.45, 7.23s 23 .........................................................1.37, 1.63, 1.74, 5.26, 6.6, 6.86.10, 6.20,

6.24, 6.31, 6.41, 10.38, 257277, 319320, 322ss 23-28 ..............................................................................................................1.71s 24 .................................................................................1.19, 1.74, 7.8, 7.11, 12.29s 24(4)(iii)........................................................................................................12.29s 25 ..............................................................................................................1.70, 7.3s 26......................................................................................................257277, 319s 27 ...............................................................................................14.714.10, 14.12s 27(b)................................................................................................................14.9s 28 ..............................................................................................................264, 266s 30 .....................................................................................................8.4, 14.2, 14.5s 32 ...................................................................................................................15.17s 32A ..................................................................................................................13.3Sch 2 ...................................................................................................264, 275, 277

Criminal Justice Act 1991s 53 ......................................................................................................................248s 54 .....................................................................................................................13.2

Criminal Justice Act 2003 ..............................1.3, 1.10, 1.44, 1.57, 1.981.99, 1.101, 1.1081.109, 2.37, 3.13.45, 4.11, 5.39, 10.310.4, 10.51, 15.7, 15.27, 15.39, 229246, 299300, 312

Pt 11 ...........................................1.2, 1.72, 1.861.94, 12.10, 14.1, 15.23, 280, 310s 32 ...................................................................................................................15.13s 34 ...................................................................................................................15.14s 35 ...................................................................................................................15.14s 41, Sch 3 ..........................................................................................................2.54ss 5156............................................................................................................15.16s 110 .................................................................................................................15.29s 112............................................................................................................311312s 112(1) ...............................................................................................................300s 114.........................................................5.15.2, 11.5, 12.13, 229230, 280, 285,

289, 290294, 300304, 309, 313, 324, 328ss 114118 ..................................................................................................255256ss 114131..........................................................................................................1.93s 114(1) ............1.2, 1.88, 3.5, 3.93.30, 3.423.43, 9.2, 12.11, 229, 293, 303, 310s 114(1)(a) .......................................................................8.1, 10.3, 15.25, 229, 280s 114(1)(c) ...........................................................................4.1, 4.8, 11.7, 229, 308

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s 114(1)(d)..................................1.101, 2.39, 4.104.11, 5.15.39, 6.38, 7.26, 9.3, 9.26, 10.34, 10.3910.41, 10.4510.46, 10.4810.50, 11.4, 11.1411.15, 15.2515.26, 229, 247, 293, 303,

308, 310, 312, 313317s 114(2) ..........................................5.5, 5.11, 5.145.17, 5.19, 10.41, 11.1411.16,

15.26, 229230, 293, 297, 303, 307, 314, 316, 321s 114(2)(d)..........................................................................................................302s 114(2)(e) .................................................................................................5.18, 229s 114(2)(f)..................................................................................................5.18, 229s 115..............................................1.2, 3.5, 3.93.30, 230, 247, 300302, 303, 309s 115(2) .............................................................................................3.16, 3.22, 230s 115(3).............................................................................................3.253.26, 230s 115(3)(b)........................................................................................3.20, 3.26, 230s 116 ...................................................1.101, 3.19, 3.44, 5.225.30, 5.36, 6.16.41,

7.8, 7.26, 9.3, 9.26, 10.38, 10.4510.46, 11.411.5, 11.16,15.2515.26, 15.29, 230231, 247, 315317, 323324, 328

s 116(1).....................................................................................................6.106.11s 116(1)(a) .................................................................................................6.11, 230s 116(2) .....................................................................6.12, 7.7, 7.20, 9.26, 230231s 116(2)(a) .................................................................................................6.13, 230s 116(2)(a)(d).................................................................................6.23, 6.25, 230s 116(2)(b).................................................................................................6.14, 230s 116(2)(c) ...............................................................................6.156.19, 6.39, 230s 116(2)(d).............................................................5.425.43, 6.206.22, 6.39, 230s 116(2)(e)................................................................................6.246.32, 230231s 116(3) ..............................................................................................6.26, 231, 267s 116(4) .....................................................5.425.43, 6.25, 6.39, 10.41, 15.26, 231s 116(5) ......................................................................................................6.35, 231s 117 ...................................1.19, 1.70, 3.19, 3.26, 3.33, 3.44, 4.9, 5.31, 5.39, 6.11,

7.17.26, 8.138.14, 9.3, 11.8, 15.25, 231232, 247, 304308s 117(1)......................................................................................7.11, 231, 304305s 117(2) ...............................................................................................................305s 117(2)(b).................................................................................7.20, 232, 305306s 117(2)(c) ..........................................................................................304, 305306s 117(4) ...................................................................................7.19, 15.15, 232, 255s 117(4)(b).................................................................................................7.22, 232s 117(5)......................................................................................7.20, 232, 255, 305s 117(5)(b).....................................................................7.207.21, 12.29, 232, 305s 117(6) .......................................................................................7.8, 7.23, 232, 306s 117(7) ..............................................................................5.42, 7.8, 7.23, 232, 306s 118 .........................................................3.23.3, 3.19, 3.44, 6.31, 9.19.41, 11.8,

12.13, 12.41, 14.4, 15.25, 232234, 285, 301302

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s 118(1) ............3.20, 9.1, 9.4, 9.29, 9.32, 9.39, 10.29, 10.43, 10.45, 232234, 302s 118(2) ........................................................................3.3, 3.7, 9.19.2, 10.45, 234s 119 ..............................2.27, 6.11, 10.42, 10.50, 11.9, 12.10, 12.12, 12.3612.38,

12.40, 12.42, 15.31, 234, 253254, 256, 278, 280, 304, 314s 119(1) ...............................................................................................................280s 120 ...............................................3.23, 5.9, 6.11, 9.26, 11.9, 12.10, 12.1212.13,

12.2112.22, 12.42, 15.25, 15.31, 234235, 256, 285286, 289, 304s 120(2)....................................................................................12.25, 234, 254255s 120(3)...................................................12.16, 12.1912.20, 12.26, 234, 254255s 120(4)..............................................12.2712.30, 15.32, 234235, 254255, 291s 120(5)....................................................................12.28, 235, 254255, 289290s 120(6)......................................................12.20, 12.29, 15.32, 235, 255, 289290s 120(7).................................................................12.3012.31, 235, 255, 289290s 120(7)(d)...............................................................................................12.31, 235s 120(8) ....................................................................................................12.30, 235s 121 ........................................................1.101, 5.19, 11.3, 11.511.6, 11.8, 11.18,

15.26, 235, 247, 253254, 286, 289, 294, 303304, 317s 121(1)(a) ......................................................................11.811.10, 235, 289, 291s 121(1)(b).................................................................................................11.7, 235s 121(1)(c).........................................11.11, 11.1311.15, 235, 289291, 306307s 122 ......................................................................................12.42, 15.33, 236, 254s 122(1)(a) ...............................................................................................12.43, 236s 123 ..........................................................................................5.26, 6.11, 236, 253s 123(2) ......................................................................................................7.14, 236s 123(3) ......................................................................................................7.14, 236s 124(2)(c) ...............................................................................................12.36, 237s 125.........................................1.48, 1.98, 12.37, 15.3615.38, 237238, 280281s 125(1).......................................................................................................280281s 125(1)(b)..........................................................................................................281s 126 .....................................................1.101, 5.405.45, 6.9, 6.23, 7.8, 7.23, 7.26,

9.25, 15.2615.27, 238, 286287, 289, 291292s 126(2) ...............................................................................................................317s 127......................................................................9.41, 14.114.6, 15.25, 238239s 128............................................................................................7.18, 8.2, 239240s 128(1).................................................................................10.47, 12.41, 239240s 128(2) ........................................................10.16, 10.4310.45, 10.49, 12.41, 240s 129 .........................................................................................3.183.19, 7.25, 241s 129(2) .............................................................................................6.9, 10.38, 241s 132........................................................................................1.93, 15.18, 241242s 132(4) ...........................................................................................4.11, 15.19, 242s 132(5)(7).............................................................................................15.20, 242s 133 .......................................................................................7.24, 14.714.12, 242

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ss 133136..........................................................................................................1.93s 134............................................................................................................311312s 134(1) ..............................................................................................7.11, 243, 247s 137 .......................................................................1.90, 1.93, 5.15, 8.6, 13.1, 13.3,

13.613.12, 15.8, 15.25, 244245s 137(1)(d).................................................................................................13.8, 244s 138 ........................1.90, 1.93, 5.15, 8.6, 13.1, 13.3, 13.613.12, 15.8, 15.25, 245s 139................................................................12.10, 12.1512.17, 15.31, 245246ss 139141..........................................................................................................1.93s 139(1) ....................................................................................................12.16, 245s 140............................................................................................................311312s 141.........................................................................1.109, 246, 300, 310, 311312s 332, Sch 37, Pt 6................................................................................................6.8Sch 3, Pt 2, para 66(8).........................................................................................6.7

Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994ss 3439..............................................................................................................1.70

Criminal Procedure Act 1865ss 35 ....................................................................................................12.3512.36ss 4 and 5 ...........................................................................................................12.2

Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act 1996s 3 .............................................................................................................15.13, 248s 6C ..................................................................................................................15.14s 6D ..................................................................................................................15.14s 20(3) ................................................................................................................14.6ss 2126..............................................................................................................15.9s 47, Sch 1 .................................................................................................2.532.54s 68 .....................................................................................................................1.71Sch 2, para 1 ........................................................................................................6.7

Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1995s 259(2)(d) and (e)............................................................................................6.36s 259(2)(e) .........................................................................................................5.25s 260 ...................................................................................................................12.8s 272 ........................................................................................................2.52, 15.16

Dentists Act 1984s 14(6) ................................................................................................................8.12

Evidence Act 1854s 13 .....................................................................................................................8.15

Evidence Act 1938........................................................................1.631.64, 1.79, 7.3Human Rights Act 1998 see Table of Treaties, European Convention on

Human Rights and Fundamental FreedomsMagistrates Courts Act 1980

s 102(7) ................................................................................................................6.5

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s 105 ...................................................................................................................2.53Medical Act 1983

s 34(4) ................................................................................................................8.12Merchant Shipping Act 1995

s 286 ........................................................................................................2.53, 15.15s 287 ...................................................................................................................8.11

Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1968 ................................................................7.3Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984....................................1.13, 9.27, 13.5, 15.1

Pt VIII ................................................................................................................10.3s 68 ............................................................................................................1.19, 1.70s 69 .....................................................................................................................1.70ss 7375..............................................................................................................1.70s 74 .................................................................................................8.158.16, 10.36s 75 ............................................................................................................8.158.16s 76 .....................................................6.41, 7.18, 8.2, 9.29, 10.3, 10.5, 10.8, 10.16,

10.20, 10.29, 10.38, 10.4310.44, 12.41, 15.25, 240s 76(1) ..............................................................................................................10.44s 76(2) .........................................................10.7, 10.10, 10.1410.15, 10.28, 10.44s 76(2)(a) ...................................................................................10.11, 10.1610.17s 76(2)(b)........................................................................10.1310.14, 10.1610.17s 76(3) ..............................................................................................................10.10s 76(4) to (6)....................................................................................................10.27s 76(8) ..............................................................................................................10.11s 76A ............................................................8.2, 10.16, 10.4310.44, 10.4710.50,

15.25, 240, 308309, 310, 311313, 315s 77 ...................................................................................................8.2, 9.29, 10.17s 77(3) ..............................................................................................................10.17s 78 .....................................1.101, 5.43, 5.45, 6.9, 6.23, 6.396.40, 7.8, 7.23, 7.26,

9.25, 10.710.8, 10.13, 10.1810.23, 10.2510.26, 10.28, 12.38, 15.2615.27, 293294, 317, 323, 327328

s 78(1) ...................................................................................................10.18, 15.27s 81 .....................................................................................................................14.6s 82..............................................................................................................311312s 82(1) .....................................................................................................10.5, 10.50s 82(3) ..............................................................................................................10.26Sch 3, para 13 ....................................................................................................7.23

Police and Justice Act 2006s 47 .....................................................................................................................13.8

Postal Services Act 2000s 108 ...................................................................................................................8.14

Prisoners Counsel Act 1836...................................................................................1.7Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000......................................................1.10

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Road Traffic Offenders Act 1988s 11 .......................................................................................................................4.7s 16 .......................................................................................................................4.7

Solicitors Act 1974s 18 .....................................................................................................................8.12

Theft Act 1968s 27(4) ..................................................................................................................4.7

Video Recordings Act 1984s 19 .....................................................................................................................8.12

Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act 1999 .........................................1.70, 13.4Pt II .............................................................................................................2.6, 2.58ss 16(1) and 17(1) .............................................................................................13.8s 18(2) ..............................................................................................................13.12s 19 .......................................................................................................................6.8s 24 ...................................................................................................................15.17s 27 .............................................................5.15, 8.6, 13.1, 13.3, 13.813.12, 15.25s 28 ............................................................................................................2.58, 13.3s 33 .....................................................................................................................13.8

Statutory InstrumentsCivil Evidence (Northern Ireland) Order 1997, SI 1997/2983 ...........1.2, 1.66, 11.3Civil Procedure Rules, SI 1998/3132....................................................................1.68

Rule 32.1 ............................................................................................................1.68Rule 33.2 ............................................................................................................1.67Rule 33.4 ............................................................................................................1.67

Courts Act 2003 (Consequential Amendments) Order 2004, SI 2004/2035para 47 ...............................................................................................................14.6

Crime (International Co-operation) Act 2003 (Designation of Prosecuting Authorities) Order 2004, SI 2004/1032 .....................................................15.15

Crime (International Co-operation) Act 2003 (Designation of ProsecutingAuthorities) (Amendment) Order 2004, SI 2004/1747 ............................15.15

Criminal Justice Act 2003 (Commencement No .3 and Transitional and Saving Provisions) Order 2004, SI 2004/829...............................................1.93

Criminal Justice Act 2003 (Commencement No .8 and Transitional and Saving Provisions) Order 2005, SI 2005/950...............................................1.93

Criminal Justice Act 2003 (Commencement No. 2 and Saving Provisions) Order 2004, SI 2004/81 ................................................................................1.93

Criminal Justice Act 2003 (Commencement No. 19 and Transitional Provisions) Order 2007 SI 2007/3451 .......................................................15.17

Criminal Justice (Evidence etc) (Northern Ireland) Order 1988, SI 1988/1847

art 3(3)(b)..........................................................................................................6.31

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Criminal Justice (Evidence) (Northern Ireland) Order 2004, SI 2004/1501.....1.94art 15...................................................................................................................230art 18...........................................................................................................229230art 19...................................................................................................................230art 20...........................................................................................................230231art 21...........................................................................................................231232art 22...........................................................................................................232234art 23...................................................................................................................234art 24...........................................................................................................234235art 25...................................................................................................................235art 26...................................................................................................................236art 27...................................................................................................................236art 28...................................................................................................................237art 29...........................................................................................................237238art 30...................................................................................................................238art 31...........................................................................................................238239art 32...........................................................................................................239240art 33...................................................................................................................241art 35...........................................................................................................241242art 36...................................................................................................................242art 37...................................................................................................................243art 39...........................................................................................................244245art 40...................................................................................................................245art 41...........................................................................................................245246art 43...................................................................................................................246

Criminal Justice (Evidence) (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (Commencement No 2) Order 2005, SI 2004/242 .....................................1.94

Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act 1996 (Code of Practice) Order 2005, SI 2005/985

paras 5.4 and 5.5................................................................................................15.9paras 5.7 to 5.10 ..............................................................................................15.10

Criminal Procedure Rules 2005, SI 2005/384...........................................5.12, 15.19Pt 34.......................................................................4.11, 5.13, 15.18, 247252, 326Rule 1.1 ............................................................................................................1.107Rule 21.............................................................................................................15.13Rule 34.7 ..........................................................................................................15.20Rule 34.8 ..........................................................................................................15.20

Magistrates Courts (Northern Ireland) Order 1981, SI 1981/1675 ................15.15art 41..................................................................................................................2.53

Police and Criminal Evidence (Northern Ireland) Order 1989, SI 1989/1341s 74A ...................................................................................................................240

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United States

ConstitutionSixth Amendment ..........................................................................................2.4, 2.14

Secondary LegislationFederal Rules of Evidence

Rule 804(5)........................................................................................................1.38Rule 804(a)(1) ...................................................................................................6.36Rule 807.............................................................................................................1.37

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TABLE OF TREATIES

References in bold are to the page numbers of the Appendices. Otherwise referencesare to paragraph numbers in the commentary.

European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms .............................................................................1.39, 1.96, 1.98, 289

Art 6 .....................................................................................................................2.6Art 6(1)..........................1.49, 2.18, 2.24, 2.30, 2.45, 258, 268, 270, 273, 317321Art 6(3)(d)..................................1.29, 1.49, 2.72.61, 3.40, 5.10, 5.13, 5.20, 5.32,

6.23, 6.30, 9.38, 257258, 267277, 291292, 317321, 323324Art 8 ...................................................................................................................2.34Art 8(1) ..............................................................................................................1.49

International Covenant on Civil and Political RightsArt 14(3) ............................................................................................................1.29

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1INTRODUCTION

1.1 The rule against hearsay is, traditionally, a prominent feature of the law ofevidence as it has developed in the English-speaking world. In essence, it providesthat a fact may not be established by calling A, who did not see or hear it, to tell thecourt that he heard B, who did, describe it; either B must be called to describe it tothe court, or the incident must be proved by some other means. The classic defin-ition comes from Sir Rupert Cross: an assertion other than one made by a personwhile giving oral evidence in the proceedings is inadmissible as evidence of any factasserted.1

1.2 This book is about the rule as it currently applies in criminal proceedings inEngland and Wales, and in Northern Ireland. At one time, the rule also applied incivil proceedings but, as is explained below, in civil proceedings it has now been abol-ished.2 The move to abolish the rule in civil proceedings ran in parallel with a move-ment also to abolish it in criminal proceedings. But after a prolonged public debate,and a Report from the Law Commission in 1997, the decision was taken to retain itin criminal proceedings, albeit with some changesin particular, a wider range ofexceptions. The hearsay rule in its new form, together with the exceptions to it, areset out in Chapter 2 of Part 11 of Criminal Justice Act (CJA) 2003, on which most ofthe remaining chapters of this book are a commentary. In these new provisions, thehearsay rule has acquired a statutory definition.3 Although less crisp than Crosss def-inition quoted in the previous paragraph, its meaning is essentially the same.

1.3 This introductory chapter will describe the evolution of the hearsay rule, thepurposes that it was meant to serve, the difficulties that it caused, the movementto abolish or reform it, the steps that led up to the CJA 2003, and the broad linesof the new law that has emerged from it.

1 Rupert Cross, Evidence (1st edn, London, Butterworths, 1958) 3; approved by Lord Havers LC inSharp [1988] 1 WLR 7, 11.

2 Civil Evidence Act 1995; for Northern Ireland, see the Civil Evidence (Northern Ireland) Order1997, SI 1997/2983. The hearsay rule has also been abolished in civil proceedings in Scotland: CivilEvidence (Scotland) Act 1988.

3 CJA 2003, ss 114(1) and 115; see Chapter 3 below.

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Hearsay rule and the rise and fall of the exclusionary rules of evidence

1.4 The hearsay rule was (and still is) an exclusionary rule. In other words, it is arule that does not merely require a certain form of evidence to be treated with offi-cial caution, but actually requires the tribunal of fact to be kept in ignorance of it.

1.5