Directions: Read through the biographical information about YOUR Enlightenment Philosophe and excerpts from their writing, then complete the tasks accompanying the information. Use this information to complete the graphic organizer for YOUR Philosophe. 

 JOHN LOCKE  

John Locke (1632-1704) 

 Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Locke-John-LOC.jpg  

Historical Context John Locke was an English philosopher and writer. He lived 

through the English Civil War and Glorious Revolution in 

England both of which influenced his ideas. Locke was a 

religious man but he believed that blind faith was dangerous. 

Combining his Christian beliefs with reason and the 

examination of evidence that scientists used, he wrote about 

the government, its purpose, and the best way to govern. 

 

His most popular and influential book was Two Treatises of 

Government. A treatise is a written work dealing with a 

specific subject. The book explains Locke’s view on the 

purpose of government and the natural rights of people. It influenced Thomas Jefferson’s writing of the Declaration of 

Independence.  Source: Adapted from “John Locke.” New World Encyclopedia. 

http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/John_Locke  

  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bjIwkvhGsoo 

Location:   England 

Famous Writing: 

Two Treatises of Government , 1690 

Most Well-Known Ideas: 

Government should protect people’s Natural Rights (life , liberty, and property)  

Government should be based on the Consent of the Governed. This means that the people (the governed) should give their permission (consent) to the government, usually through voting.  

 

 

Name: ____________________________________________ Enlightenment Salon Meeting Global History II, Carr Period: _____________

JOHN LOCKE 

 

Two Treatises of Government 

1690 by John Locke

  

Text Sources: NYS Global History and Geography 

Regents Exam;  John Locke. Second 

Treatise of Government. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/7370/7370-h/7370-h

.htm 

Excerpts from Two Treatises of Government  Questions 

If man in the state of nature is free, if he is absolute lord of his own 

person and possessions [things that he owns], why will he give up his 

freedom? Why will he put himself under the control of any person or 

institution [an organization created for a religious, educational, social, 

or political purpose]? The obvious answer is that rights in the state of 

nature are constantly exposed to the attack of others. Since every 

man is equal and since most men do not concern themselves with 

equity and justice, the enjoyment of rights in the state of nature is 

unsafe and insecure. Hence each man joins in society with others to 

preserve his life , liberty, and property.  

1. What do you think Locke means by “state of nature?”   

2. According to John Locke, why would a person “put himself under the control of any person or institution,” like a government? 

3. What does Locke mean when he says, “the enjoyment of rights in the state of nature is unsafe and insecure?” Can you think of an examples of this? 

4. What are the three natural rights that Locke lists at the end of this excerpt?  

...as far as we have any light from history, we have reason to 

conclude, that all peaceful beginnings of government have been laid 

in the consent of the people. 

5. According to Locke, what have “all peaceful beginnings of government” had in common? Why do you think that might lead to a more peaceful government?    

[When] the legislature shall . . . grasp [for] themselves, or put into the hands of any other, an absolute power over their lives, liberties, and estates of the people, . . . they forfeit [give up] the power the people had put into their hands for quite contrary [opposite] ends, and it [passes] to the people, who have a right to resume their original liberty. . . .  

6. According to Locke, when does a legislature, or government, lost its right to rule?    

 

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Name: ____________________________________________ Enlightenment Salon Meeting Global History II, Carr Period: _____________

BARON DE MONTESQUIEU   

Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) 

 Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Montesquieu_2.png  

Historical Context Charles de Secondat was born to a well-to-do noble family 

in France. He inherited the title “Baron de Montesquieu” 

when his uncle died and is now most commonly referred to 

by that name. Montesquieu was a lawyer but later devoted 

his life to political study and writing. He lived during the 

English Civil War and the reign of Louis XIV, both of which 

influenced his writing.  

Montesquieu’s most well known book, De l'Esprit des Lois 

(The Spirit of the Laws) was critical of absolute monarchy. 

The kings and queens of Europe and their supporters 

disagreed with his claims and it was banned by the Catholic 

Church. It was very popular among opponents of monarch 

especially in England and the British colonies in North 

America where it heavily influenced the writing of the United 

States Constitution.  

Source: Adapted from “Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu.” New World Encyclopedia. 

http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Charles_de_Secondat,_baron_de_Montesquieu 

Location:   France 

Most Famous Writing: 

The Spirit of Laws, 1748 

Most Well-Known Idea: 

Separation of Powers- there should be three branches of government- one that makes laws, one that enforces laws, and one that interprets laws 

                    

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Name: ____________________________________________ Enlightenment Salon Meeting Global History II, Carr Period: _____________

BARON DE MONTESQUIEU   

 The Spirit of Laws, 1748 by Baron de Montesquieu 

 Source: 

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Montesquieu,_De_l%27Esprit_des_loix_(1st_ed

,_1748,_vol_1,_title_page).jpg  

Excerpts from The Spirit of Laws  Questions 

Political liberty is to be found only in moderate governments; and 

even in these it is not always found. It is there only when there is no 

abuse of power: but constant experience shows us that every man 

invested with power is apt to abuse it, and to carry his authority as 

far as it will go. To prevent this abuse, it is necessary, from the very 

nature of things, that power should be a check to power...In order to 

have this liberty, it is requisite [required] the government be so 

constituted [created] as one man need not be afraid of another. 

When the legislative and executive powers are united in the same 

person, or in the same body of magistrates [government employees], 

there can be no liberty. . . . Again, there is no liberty if the judiciary 

power be not separated from the legislative and executive… 

Source: The Spirit of the Laws (1749) Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu. 

http://www.learner.org/courses/amerhistory/pdf/Enlightenment_LOne.pdf 

1. According to Montesquieu, when is “political liberty” found in a government?    

2. Explain what Montesquieu means when he writes, “every man invested with power is apt to abuse it, and to carry his authority as far as it will go?” Do you agree or disagree? Why?        

3. According to Montesquieu, how can the “abuse” of power be prevented in a government?     

4. What three branches of government does Montesquieu say must be separated to have liberty?      

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Name: ____________________________________________ Enlightenment Salon Meeting Global History II, Carr Period: _____________

JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU   

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) 

 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rousseau_in_later_life.jpg   

Historical Context Jean-Jacques Rousseau was born in Geneva, Switzerland. He spent much of his adult life travelling first as a teacher and the secretary of the French ambassador in Venice, Italy. He spent time in Paris where he met and socialized with other Enlightenment philosophers including Voltaire and Diderot. Rousseau returned to Switzerland when his relationships with other Enlightenment thinkers became strained.   While in Geneva, Switzerland, he wrote his most famous book, The Social Contract. In the book, Rousseau argues that as members of a society we enter an agreement, the social contract, in which we promise to follow the “general will” of the members of the society as expressed by the laws made by the government. In exchange, we receive the liberty to do what we want as long as we do not break those laws.   The Social Contract was banned in France and Switzerland. To avoid arrest for his views, Rousseau moved to England. Eventually he returned to Paris where he lived until his death and continued to write books that were politically controversial.   His writings, which were heavily influenced by John Locke, inspired the leaders of the French Revolution which started shortly after his death.  

Source: Adapted from “Jean-Jacques Rousseau.” New World Encyclopedia. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau   

 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VqOaG24aPSc 

Location:   Switzerland/France 

Most Famous Writing: 

The Social Contract , 1762 

Most Well-Known Idea: 

Social Contract Theory 

                  

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Name: ____________________________________________ Enlightenment Salon Meeting Global History II, Carr Period: _____________

JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU  

The Social Contract, 

1762 by 

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

 

Excerpts from The Social Contract  Questions 

I...regard the establishment of the political body as a real contract 

between the people and the chiefs chosen by them: a contract by 

which both parties bind themselves to observe the laws therein 

expressed, which form the ties of their union.  

1. According to this excerpt from The Social Contract, what do the people and the government agree to as a part of the contract? 

From whatever side we approach our principle, we reach the same 

conclusion, that the social compact [contract] sets up among the 

citizens an equality of such a kind, that they all bind themselves to 

observe the same conditions and should therefore all enjoy the same 

rights. 

 

Source: Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract & Discourses. Published by J.M. Dent & Sons, 1920. 

http://www.gutenberg.org/files/46333/46333-h/46333-h.htm 

2. According Rousseau, what is one advantage of the social contract? 

 

           

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Name: ____________________________________________ Enlightenment Salon Meeting Global History II, Carr Period: _____________

VOLTAIRE  

Voltaire (1694-1778) 

 Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Voltaire_dictionary.jpg  

Historical Context: Born in 1694, in Paris, France, Voltaire established himself as one of the leading writers of the Enlightenment. His famed works include the tragic play Zaïre , the historical study The Age of Louis XIV and the satirical novella Candide . Often at odds with French authorities over his politically charged works, he was twice imprisoned and spent many years in exile. He died shortly after returning to Paris in 1778. 

Location:   France   

Most Famous Writing: 

Candide, 1759 

 

Voltaire often used satire against his opponents. He made frequent targets of the clergy, the aristocracy, and the government. His sharp tongue made him enemies at the French court, and twice he was sent to prison. After his second jail term, Voltaire was exiled to England for more than two years. Although he made powerful enemies, Voltaire never stopped fighting for tolerance, reason, freedom of religious belief, and freedom of speech. He used his quill pen as if it were a deadly weapon in a thinker’s war against humanity’s worst enemies—intolerance, prejudice, and superstition. He summed up his staunch defense of liberty in one of his most famous quotes: “I do not agree with a word you say but will defend to the death your right to say it.”  Satire is the use of irony, sarcasm, or wit to attack folly, vice, or stupidity.   

1. How did Voltaire use satire to argue his position on the government?          2. What was Voltaire’s most well-known idea?  

Most Well-Known Ideas: 

Freedom of Expression   

Famous Quotes: 

“I do not agree with what you have to say, but I'll defend to the death your right to say it.” 

 

      

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Name: ____________________________________________ Enlightenment Salon Meeting Global History II, Carr Period: _____________

THOMAS HOBBES  

THOMAS HOBBES 

   

Historical Context Thomas Hobbes, born in Westport, England, on April 5, 1588, was known for his views on how humans could thrive in harmony while avoiding the perils and fear of societal conflict. His experience during a time of upheaval in England influenced his thoughts, which he captured in The Elements of Law (1640); De Cive [On the Citizen] (1642) and his most famous work, Leviathan (1651). Hobbes died in 1679.  In 1608 Hobbes entered circles where the activities of the king, members of Parliament, and other wealthy landowners were discussed, and his intellectual abilities brought him close to power (although he never became a powerful figure himself). Through these channels, he began to observe the influence and structures of power and government.  In Leviathan, written during the English Civil Wars (1642-1651), Hobbes argues for the necessity and natural evolution of the social contract, a social construct in which individuals mutually unite into political societies, agreeing to abide by common rules and accept resultant duties to protect themselves and one another from whatever might come otherwise. He also advocates rule by an absolute sovereign, saying that chaos could be averted only by a strong central government , one with the power of the biblical Leviathan (a sea creature), which would protect people from their own selfishness.  As Hobbes lays out his thoughts on the foundation of states and legitimate government, he does it methodically: The state is created by humans, so he first describes human nature. He says that in each of us can be found a representation of general humanity and that all acts are ultimately self-serving--that in a state of nature, humans would behave completely selfishly. He concludes that humanity's natural condition is a state of perpetual war, fear and amorality, and that only government can hold a society together. 

Source: Adapted fro m “Thomas Hobbes” Biography.com. https://www.biography.com/people/thomas-hobbes-9340461 

 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VqOaG24aPSc 

Location:   Enlgand  

Most Famous Writing: 

The Leviathan, 1651 

Most Well-Known Idea: 

the only true and correct form of government was the absolute monarchy 

        

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Name: ____________________________________________ Enlightenment Salon Meeting Global History II, Carr Period: _____________

  

The Leviathan 

Thomas Hobbes  

 

Excerpts from The Leviathan  Questions 

Human Equality: Nature has made men so equal, in the faculties of the body 

and mind; as that though there be found one man sometimes manifestly 

stronger in body, or of quicker mind than another, yet when all is reckoned 

together, the difference between man and man, is not so considerable. . . For 

such is the nature of men, that howsoever they may acknowledge many 

others to be more witty, or more eloquent, or more learned; yet they will 

hardly believe there be many so wise as themselves. . . . 

1. According to this excerpt from The Leviathan , what does Hobbes argue about human equailty?  

The State of Nature: From this equality of ability, arises equality of hope in 

the attaining of our ends. And therefore if any two men desire the same thing, 

which nevertheless they cannot both enjoy, they become enemies. . . . Hereby it is manifest, that during the time men live without a common power 

to keep them all in awe, they are in that condition which is called war; and 

such a war, as is of every man, against every man. For war consists not in 

battle only, or the act of fighting, but in a tract of time, wherein the will to 

contend by battle is sufficiently known. In such condition there is no place for 

industry [meaning productive labor, not industry in modern sense of 

factories], because the fruit thereof is uncertain, and consequently no culture 

of the earth; no navigation, nor use of the commodities that may be imported 

by sea; no commodious building . . . no knowledge of the face of the earth; 

no account of time; no arts; no letters; no society; and, which is worst of all, 

continual fear and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, 

nasty, brutish, and short.  

2. According Hobbes, what is the true nature of man? 

 

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Name: ____________________________________________ Enlightenment Salon Meeting Global History II, Carr Period: _____________

Mary Wollstonecraft  

Mary Wollstonecraft  

  

Historical Context: Throughout most of history, women were treated as inferior to men and those actions were supported by ideas in culture, religion, and law. In 18th century Europe, women were not as educated as men, and they were restricted by laws and customs that made women look to marriage as a means of stability and made them dependent on men. Due to their favored position in society, men were able to excel in public life, that is, science, philosophy, religion and politics, while women were expected to marry, have children, and take care of the home.   

Using Enlightenment ideas, some women, including Mary Wollstonecraft, argued for more equal rights for men and women. Mary Wollstonecraft (April 27, 1759 – September 10, 1797) was a British intellectual, writer, philosopher, and early feminist. She wrote several novels, essays, and children's books, but is best known for her book, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792).  

Wollstonecraft argued that all men and women had equal natural rights , and that an ideal society could not be realized until everyone was free to exercise those rights. She spoke out against the situation of women in the eighteenth century, declaring that they were educated to be submissive to men and to value physical attractiveness over character and intelligence. 

Location:   France  Ideas from A Vindication of the Rights of Woman 

Most Famous Writing: 

A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, 1792 

 

Most Famous Idea: Wollstonecraft called for education reform that would give girls and boys free (and equal) education. She argued that: 

● Women should be able to enter the world of medicine and politics. 

● Women's interest in dressing up and looking pretty is primarily a case of nurture, rather than nature . 

● If women are shamed for having sex before marriage, then maybe men should be as well. 

● Women should speak their minds without worrying about being perceived as "masculine" or other undesirable traits. 

She says from the get-go that humanity's greatest gift is its ability to reason. And since men and women are born with the same ability to reason, women should enjoy just as much education, power, and influence in society as men do. 

1. What is Wollstonecraft's main argument in A Vindication of the Rights of Woman? 

Most Well-Known Ideas: 

Equal natural rights for women   

   

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Name: ____________________________________________ Enlightenment Salon Meeting Global History II, Carr Period: _____________

 

Enlightenment Thinker 

Mnemonic a helpful way to 

remember  

What is the ideal form of Government? 

What should the Social Contract be between the government and the 

people? 

Can the people be trusted to 

govern? 

John Locke (1632-1704) 

 

Locke: Life, Liberty, and 

Land (Property) 

           

   

Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) 

 

Mont- es- quieu 

Three Syllables! Three Branches of 

Government! 

            

   

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) 

 

Rou sseau His name has two 

s’s in it. His big idea starts with an S: Social Contract. 

            

   

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Name: ____________________________________________ Enlightenment Salon Meeting Global History II, Carr Period: _____________

Enlightenment Thinker 

Mnemonic a helpful way to 

remember  

What is the ideal form of Government? 

What should the Social Contract be between the government and the 

people? 

Can the people be trusted to 

govern? 

Voltaire (1694-1778) 

 

Voltaire His name starts with 

a “V” just like the word VOICE and 

Voltaire supported the freedom of 

expression.  

          

   

Thomas Hobbes  

 

 

           

   

Mary Wollstonecraft 

 

 

           

   

  

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Name: ____________________________________________ Enlightenment Salon Meeting Global History II, Carr Period: _____________

Directions: Read the excerpts about the Enlightenment below and answer the questions that follow. Then, continue to supporting documents on the next pages.   

In Europe, in the mid-1600s to late 1700s scholars inspired by the scientific revolution started to ask questions like, “What is the best way for a government to rule its people? ”, “Are people born with certain rights? Should they be protected? ”, and “What is the purpose of government? ”. The philosophers writing about these questions were part of the Enlightenment.   The Enlightenment: a period of time (mid-1600s to the late 1700s) in Western Europe when philosophers and writers applied the scientific idea of reason to answer political questions. The Enlightenment is sometimes known as the Age of Reason.   The writers who took part in the Enlightenment are called Enlightenment Thinkers, sometimes known as philosophes, the French word for philosophers. Just as scientists challenged the claims of the Catholic Church, Enlightenment Thinkers often challenged the claims of absolute monarchs. We study them because of the actions that their ideas inspired later in history. 

 The Enlightenment  The Age of Enlightenment began in Europe in the late 17th century. It would bring 

about fundamental changes in the way the world was understood and how societies 

were organized. Until then, the church had dictated [told people] what to think and 

how to live. Dissent [disagreeing with those in power] was punished even by death. 

But with the Enlightenment, people began to embrace new ideas about freedom of 

expression and new rational methods to investigate the world. In England, Newton 

made the foundations of science as we know it by showing that the universe was 

governed by physical laws that could be discovered using observation and reason. In 

philosophy, Enlightenment thinkers like Voltaire and Diderot argued that man, not 

God, was at the center of the world. Ideas were beginning to change, but in the 18th 

century most of Europe was still [ruled by] absolute monarchs. Empowered by 

enlightenment thinking in both Europe and America people began to demand real 

change. 

1. Based on the transcript, what organization had the most influence on how people in Europe lived and what they thought? 

     

 2. What changes came about as a result of the Enlightenment? 

       

 

What caused the Enlightenment? Why did it take place from the mid-1600s to the late 1700s?   

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Name: ____________________________________________ Enlightenment Salon Meeting Global History II, Carr Period: _____________

1. Protestant Reformation and Scientific Revolution Influence 

2. Increased Book Production and Literacy 

3. Urbanization, Salons, and Coffee Houses 

 

 The picture shows a gathering of Enlightenment thinkers in the salon of French hostess Marie-Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin (1699-1777) for a reading of one of Voltaire’s writings. Voltaire was in exile in England so he is represented by the statue in the center-left of the painting. 

Source: Anicet-Charles-Gabriel Lemonnier, 1812. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Salon_de_Madame_Geoffrin.jpg  

Martin Luther’s actions in the Protestant Reformation challenged the Catholic Church’s hold on power by translating the Bible into common languages and encouraging people to read it for themselves instead of having priests translate it for them.   Isaac Newton and other scientists used observation and reason to explain the true nature of the world which often proved the Catholic Church’s claims wrong.  

Johannes Gutenberg invented his printing press around 1440. That invention made it easier and less expensive to produce books. It was very important in spreading Martin Luther’s ideas during the Protestant Reformation.   During the Enlightenment, book production increased even more and literacy rates, the percentage of people who were able to read, also increased.   

During the 1700s, the process of urbanization (people moving to cities and the growth of those cities) increased in Europe. As more people moved to cities they found places to socialize and discuss ideas.   

Coffee was a newly popular drink in Europe and intellectuals from the upper and middle classes like the philosophes came to coffee houses to drink it and discuss politics and religion.  

Upper class intellectuals also exchanged ideas in salons, gatherings, usually at someone’s home where the guests came to listen to readings and discuss a specific topic.  

Based on the information above, summarize what the mid-1600s to late 1700s were like in Western Europe and explain why this time period was ripe for the Enlightenment.     

 

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