2

JOEL MARION

3

WAKE UP, EAT THIS, BURN FAT

While breakfast has commonly been touted as the “most important meal of the day,” the notion has been under scrutiny recently, particularly with the rise in popularity of intermittent and periodic fasting (more on that later). While there is both scientific and anecdotal evidence to suggest that fasting may be beneficial for health and body composition, many researchers posit that “breakfast skipping” is strongly associated with weight gain and the prevalence of obesity.1–3

Generally speaking, correlational studies have found that folks who skip breakfast tend to have poor overall diet quality and make poor food choices (e.g., snacking on nutrient-deficient, high-fat, and/or high-sugar foods and beverages) compared to regular breakfast eaters.4,5 Along those lines, a number of studies have found that consuming breakfast, particularly one high in protein (which we’ll discuss more in a moment), may be a useful strategy to increase satiety, improve appetite control, reduce snacking, improve diet quality, reduce food motivation and reward, and support healthy weight management.6–10

Again, this is not to say that you have to eat breakfast to lose fat. In fact, speaking generally, it’s pretty safe to say that breakfast is “optional,” provided that food choices and portion sizes are held constant and consistent, and several well-conducted studies demonstrate just that.

In one study published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, researchers from Vanderbilt University conducted a unique 12-week study including 52 women who were either regular “breakfast eaters” or habitual “breakfast skippers.” All women were assigned to an identical reduced-calorie diet, and they were equally split up into either “breakfast” or “no-breakfast” conditions. In other words, half of regular breakfast eaters continued to eat breakfast while the other half skipped breakfast; likewise, half of the habitual breakfast skippers continued to skip breakfast while the other half began to eat

4

breakfast. The only difference between the groups was the number of meals consumed (i.e., 3 versus 2) per day.11

At the end of the 12-week trial, all of the women lost a significant amount of weight. Interestingly, however, the regular breakfast eaters assigned to the “no-breakfast” condition lost 20 pounds whereas those who continued to eat breakfast only lost around 14 pounds. Conversely, the habitual breakfast skippers assigned to eat breakfast lost nearly 17 pounds whereas those who continued to skip breakfast lost only about 13 pounds. In other words, the women who made the most significant changes to their eating habits achieved the best results.

In a crossover study published in the journal Nutrition, Brazilian researchers randomly assigned obese women to a very low-calorie diet under three separate conditions:

1. Five meals spread throughout the day;2. All of the meals consumed between 9am and 11am (i.e., no breakfast); and3. All of the meals consumed between 6pm and 8pm (i.e., no breakfast).

The women consumed the same number of calories during each of the conditions, which lasted 18 days apiece and were conducted in a hospital setting. The women lost weight in each of the conditions, and after completion, there were no differences in weight loss, body composition, or resting metabolic rate.12 This provides evidence that, in a highly controlled setting when food choices and portion sizes are consistent, timing of food intake doesn’t matter when it comes to weight loss.

In a crossover study funded by the National Institute on Aging and the United States Department of Agriculture, healthy normal-weight men and women (aged 40 – 50 years old) were randomly assigned to two separate 8-week treatment periods. During one condition, participants consumed their calories (at a “maintenance” level) across 3 meals per day; in the other condition, the folks consumed the same amount of food and number of calories in a single meal. In the second condition, the participants were given a 4-hour timeframe to eat in the evening (i.e., no breakfast). Not only did the men and women not gain weight when they consumed all of their daily calories in the evening (i.e., 1 meal/day), they lost body fat (4.6 pounds). On the other hand, there was no weight or fat loss when they ate 3 meals per day.13

5

In a study published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, a group of obesity researchers from the University of Alabama challenged the notion that skipping breakfast causes weight gain, and conversely, that regularly consuming breakfast leads to weight loss. The culmination of their extensive research was that, despite being a widely held belief, this is simply a presumption, unsupported by the existing body of evidence. In other words, there’s no consistent, conclusive evidence to support the belief that eating breakfast is necessary for weight loss or that skipping breakfast inevitably leads to weight gain.14

All of this simply provides evidence that folks can lose a substantial amount of weight either eating or skipping breakfast, and in the overall scheme of things, food choices, portion sizes, and consistency (i.e., adherence) seem to be more important than meal timing for most people.

With that in mind, if you’re not a breakfast person, function just fine without it, and are accomplishing your health and body composition goals without it, then keep doing what you’re doing. However, if you’re a breakfast eater or a breakfast skipper who’s having difficulty controlling your appetite and achieving your health and body composition goals, then choosing the “right” foods at breakfast may make a tremendous difference, and the following general guidelines are a good starting point.

1. Build your breakfast around protein-rich foods.When it comes to improving body composition, appetite control, and satiety, there is arguably not a single more effective, well-established dietary factor than optimizing one’s protein intake. While the Institute of Medicine (IOM) has established a recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of protein intake at 0.8 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight per day (or, about 0.36 grams of protein per pound of body weight), research illustrates quite clearly and convincingly that an increase in dietary protein intake to at least TWICE (i.e., ≥ 1.6g/kg or 0.72 g/lb) that of the IOM recommendations may be “metabolically advantageous,” particularly for individuals looking to improve body composition (e.g., lose fat) as well as physically active folks (e.g., athletes, military personnel, recreational exercisers).15

Research has shown that consuming diets higher in protein are not only safe forotherwise healthy individuals, they may provide a host of benefits. Higher protein diets may:

6

• Accelerate fat loss and spare lean body mass while following a reduced-calorie diet.16,17 In fact, in a meta-analysis of 24 weight-loss studies publishedin the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, researchers from the University ofSouth Australia found that high-protein diets led to significantly greater losses inbody fat and spared losses in lean body mass that are common with standard-protein, reduced-calorie diets.18

• Attenuate weight regain and contribute to long-term weight maintenance.That’s right, not only have high-protein diets been shown to lead to greater fatloss and improvements in body composition during dieting trials, researchershave also found that high-protein diets increase compliance and long-term weightmanagement.19 In a study published in the New England Journal of Medicine,researchers found that after dropping over 20 pounds during an 8-week weightloss trial, folks consuming a higher protein diet regained less body weight over thenext 12 months when compared to individuals consuming a standard-protein diet.20

• Optimize 24-hour muscle protein synthesis and facilitate the maintenanceor building of muscle mass.21,22 In other words, higher protein diets can helpbuild lean body mass, and they may be particularly beneficial to help offsetlosses in muscle mass associated with aging.23 Age-related losses in musclemass (i.e., sarcopenia) present tremendous concerns in terms of health andfunction in aging populations.

• Boost metabolic rate. Studies consistently show that protein-rich foods increase“diet-induced thermogenesis” (DIT), which refers to the energy expended (i.e.,calories burned) in order to process food for storage and utilization, to a greaterextent than carbohydrate- and fat-dense foods. This increase in DIT resultsin a subsequent increase in metabolic rate (i.e., daily energy expenditure).24,25

Speaking of metabolic rate…• Preserve metabolic rate after weight loss.26 A common concern and

consequence of standard-protein, reduced-calorie diets is a significant declinein metabolic rate, which frequently leads to weight regain. However, studieshave shown that high-protein diets may conserve metabolic rate and thereforeprevent weight regain. In one study published in the Journal of the AmericanMedical Association, researchers found that metabolic rate was conserved to asignificantly greater extent in folks who consumed a higher protein diet (30% oftotal calories) compared to individuals who consumed a lower protein diet (20%of total calories).27

7

• Increase satiety and improve appetite control. High-protein meals boostsatiety, which means that protein-dense foods are much more likely to make youfeel full and satisfied.28 What’s more, diets rich in high-quality proteins improveappetite control, as well as reduce daily food intake.29 In a recent study publishedin the Nutrition Journal, researchers from the University of Missouri found thatconsuming higher protein, dairy-based snacks (e.g., yogurt) improved satiety,appetite control, and limited subsequent food intake when compared to higher fatand higher carbohydrate-based snacks.30 Researchers have also found similarimprovements in appetite control and satiety when folks consume a higherprotein compared with lower protein breakfast.6,7 What’s more, over the course of12 weeks, researchers found that consuming a high-protein breakfast (including35 grams of protein) prevented fat gain, decreased hunger, and reduced dailycalorie intake.8

• Improve carbohydrate metabolism and glycemic regulation. A number ofstudies have shown that high-protein diets lead to significant improvements incarbohydrate management and insulin efficiency in as little as 5 weeks.31–34

• Increase calcium absorption. Despite pervasive myths about potential negativeeffects on bone health, high-protein diets may lead to long-term improvements inbone health when calcium intake is adequate.35,36

2. Choose low-energy-dense foods.

It’s no secret that feeling full and satisfied (i.e., satiety) is a major reason that people stop eating. With that in mind, rather than the calorie content of food, the volume of food that is consumed at a meal appears to be an important factor that makes people feel full and stop eating.37

In fact, research strongly suggests that how much you eat daily is regulated by the weight of the food consumed rather than by a certain number of calories. Researchers from Penn State have posited that “energy density is a key determinant of energy intake in that cognitive, behavioral, and sensory cues related to the volume or weight of food consumed can interact with or override physiological cues associated with food intake.”38

Energy density is defined as the relationship of calories to the weight of food (i.e., calories per gram). Foods like oils, bacon, butter, cookies, crackers, junk food, fast food, etc., are generally considered “high-energy-dense” foods (i.e., 4 – 9 calories per gram

8

by weight); on the contrary, nearly all fresh vegetables (and many fruits) are considered “low-energy-dense” foods (i.e., 0.0 – 1.5 calories per gram, by weight), as they tend to have a high water content and be a very good source of fiber, two important factors reducing energy density.

Along those lines, researchers have found that when folks consume low-energy-dense foods (LEDF), they feel satisfied earlier and those feelings of fullness persist for relatively longer periods of time—despite reductions in calorie intake. In other words, diets rich in low-energy-dense foods like vegetables and moderate amounts of fruit allow folks to eat more total food, leading to greater feelings of satiety, all while reducing calorie intake.39 By definition, that’s eating more (overall food) and less (calories). Bingo!

A number of other studies have demonstrated that diets rich in LEDF like vegetables promote satiety (i.e., feelings of fullness and satisfaction), reduce hunger, and decrease overall calorie intake.38–42 What’s more, long-term studies have shown that low-energy-dense diets also promote weight loss. In fact, studies lasting longer than 6 months show that folks who eat more LEDF experience THREE TIMES greater weight loss than people who simply opt to reduce calories.43

Nearly all fresh vegetables and many fruits are considered LEDF, and we’ll provide several examples below. Even more, some dairy products fit into this category as well, and as you’ll see, they are also excellent sources of protein, making them a highly beneficial option for many folks.

3. Focus on “smart carbs,” especially those high infiber.Generally speaking, carbohydrate tolerance is at its peak early in the day,with decreasing levels of insulin sensitivity occurring into the evening.44,45 Better said, carbohydrate tolerance seems to be at its highest at the first meal of the day (i.e., after a fast) and after intense physical activity (i.e., exercise).46,47 Thus, breakfast is a prime time to include some carbohydrates; however, many of the common choices are a far cry from what would be a considered “smart carbs.”

The acronym representing the Standard American Diet (SAD) is quite fitting, as it is indeed sad how typical Americans (and individuals in the vast majority of developed nations) eat today. According to the USDA, over 63% of the calories consumed by the

9

average American come from processed foods, including added sugars, refined grains, and added fats and oils.48

Common breakfast foods (e.g., ready-to-eat cereals, pre-packaged oatmeal, bagels, fruit juices, granola bars, pastries, donuts, etc.) are prime culprits that contribute to many of the following sad facts about the Standard American Diet:

• Folks in America and other developed nations are consuming upwards of150 pounds of sugar per year.49

• Consumption of soda, fruit juice, and other sweetened beverages has increasedover 135% over the last several decades, and researchers have found thatthis is associated with weight gain and obesity. In fact, researchers from theHarvard School of Public Health state that “sufficient evidence exists for publichealth strategies to discourage consumption of sugary drinks as part of a healthylifestyle.”50,51

• As mentioned above, processed foods make up approximately 70% of whatmost folks eat, including many of the predominant, commonly eaten breakfast“foods.”52

• Although estimates vary, calorie intake has increased upwards of 400 caloriesper day over the last several decades.53 Based on the information above, it’sunlikely that this increase in caloric intake is the result of eating more vegetables,fruits, and lean meats; more likely, it can be explained by consumption ofprocessed foods, including all of those pre-packaged breakfast items and sugar-sweetened beverages, including fruit juice.

According to Harvard researcher and professor of Nutrition and Epidemiology Dr. Frank Hu, “Refined carbohydrates are likely to cause even greater metabolic damage than saturated fat,” and “the time has come to shift the focus of the diet-heart paradigm away from restricted fat intake and toward reduced consumption of refined carbohydrates.”54

Along those lines, in a 2004 epidemiological study, researchers analyzed nearly 90 years worth of data, and they found that “increasing intakes of refined carbohydrate concomitant with decreasing intakes of fiber paralleled the upward trend in the prevalence of type 2 diabetes observed in the United States during the 20th century.”55

10

It’s becoming increasingly apparent that consumption of refined carbohydrates (e.g., refined flours and the “foods” that are made with them like breads, breakfast cereals, bagels, baked goods, etc.; refined sugars like table sugar and high fructose corn syrup) is closely related to obesity and various forms of chronic illness, including cardiovascular disease and diabetes. In fact, numerous studies have linked consumption of these highly processed carbohydrates to obesity.56,57

With all of that in mind, when it comes to carbohydrate intake, the emphasis should be placed on whole, minimally-processed foods that are slow-digesting and high in fiber. Speaking of which, fiber is a nutrition all-star. Dietary fiber promotes a healthy digestive tract, regularity, improves carbohydrate management (e.g., slowed gastric emptying), promotes satiety, reduces calorie intake, and enhances weight loss.58,59

Unfortunately, most people don’t consume nearly enough dietary fiber. According to American Dietetic Association, the average American consumes a paltry 15 grams of dietary fiber per day, only about HALF of the recommended daily intake.60 As you might have imagined, researchers have linked low fiber intakes to increased risk for diabetes and obesity.61,62

In a review of the body of research, scientists at the Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging at Tufts University found that simply increasing fiber intake by 14 grams per day for at least two days can result in an 18% decrease in calorie intake, and over the course of 4 months, that simple dietary intervention was associated with an average weight loss of more than 5 pounds.58

You can add 14 grams of fiber to your daily diet by including one cup of beans or lentils. What’s more, each of the “smart carbs” shared in this report are all considered “good” sources of fiber (> 2.5 grams of fiber per serving), and when combined with other high-fiber, “smart carbs” throughout the day, you should have no trouble meeting, at the bare minimum, the recommended daily amount of fiber (25 – 30 grams per day).60

4. Add some “healthy fats.”Healthy fats—like those found in avocados, nuts, certain oils, and fatty fish—are also good additions to breakfast. On one hand, fats can help slow the rate of gastric emptying, and when combined with carbohydrates, fat may help to reduce the glycemic response of the meal (i.e., how quickly carbohydrates appear in the bloodstream).63,64

11

In general, healthy fats can also help increase feelings of fullness and satisfaction, as they appear to regulate appetite through a number of mechanisms, including the release of appetite hormones.65 What’s more, combining fat with fiber (e.g., LEDF) has been shown to further increase the satiating potential of fat.66 The satiating power of fats is often one explanation offered to describe why some weight loss trials have shown that low-carbohydrate (and higher-fat) diets tend to lead to greater weight loss than low-fat diets.67

In addition, many of the important micronutrients (e.g., vitamins A, D, E, and K) and powerful antioxidant phytochemicals found in vegetables and fruits are fat-soluble nutrients. In other words, dietary fat is necessary to ensure absorption of these health-promoting, fat-fighting, age-defying nutrients.

In a study published in the Journal of Nutrition, Ohio State researchers found that when avocado or avocado oil, both rich in monounsaturated fats, was added to salsa, the absorption of fat-soluble carotenoids (i.e., phytochemicals) was up to four times higher than when the salsa was avocado-free. If that’s not enough, when avocado was added to salads, the researchers found that absorption of carotenoids was up to 15 times higher compared to when the salads were consumed avocado-free (i.e., fat-free).68

Before getting to some of the top foods for breakfast, it’s important to remind you that, in the grand scheme of things, your health, fitness, performance, and body composition are contingent on your entire body of “nutrition work”—not an individual food or single meal. In other words, there’s no one “magical” food. Instead of viewing foods in isolation as “good” or “bad,” think about weight management and “deep health” as the product of practicing healthy eating habits, creating a positive food environment, and choosing high-quality, nutritious foods in appropriate amounts relative to your goals and activity levels regularly and consistently over time. Good nutrition takes practice, and just like getting better and mastering anything in life, it’s about progress—not perfection.

With that being said, here are some of our favorite foods for breakfast.

12

1. Greek Yogurt and Cottage CheeseProtein-rich; low-energy-dense foods

While the health and body composition benefits of a high-protein diet have already been detailed above, it’s important to point out that the preservation of lean body mass and the reduction of body fat associated with high-protein, reduced-calorie diets may be further enhanced when dairy is a major component of the diet.

In one study published in the Journal of Nutrition, researchers from McMaster University found that folks who consumed a dairy-rich (15% of total energy intake), high-protein (30% total energy intake) diet, they lost more body fat, visceral fat, and trunk fat over the course of 16 weeks when compared to individuals consuming a standard protein intake and either moderate (7.5%) or low (2%) levels of dairy. What’s more, the high-dairy, high-protein group also gained lean body mass while losing body fat (and net body weight).69

In addition to being protein-rich foods, Greek yogurt and cottage cheese are also considered LEDF, fortifying their position as solid breakfast choices.

Greek yogurt contains more than double the protein compared to regular yogurt and only about one-third the amount of sugar. Even more, authentic strained Greek yogurt is rich in multiple sources of probiotics. Research indicates that the gut flora (i.e., the bacterial ecosystem) of obese folks differs significantly from that of thin people.70 Along these lines, recent research published in the British Journal of Nutrition suggests that certain probiotics from the Lactobacillus family of bacteria, which are prominent in Greek yogurt, may help you lose weight and keep it off.71

When choosing a Greek yogurt, it’s best to opt for plain versions, as fruit-flavored varieties have over three times as much sugar. Instead, add some low-energy-dense fresh fruits (e.g., berries), which will provide a nutrient-dense source of fiber, vitamins, and antioxidant phytochemicals.

Cottage cheese goes hand-in-hand with Greek yogurt. Cottage cheese packs a whopping 28 grams of protein per single cup, and it is also a good source of

13

calcium, riboflavin, vitamin B12, selenium, and phosphorus. Cottage cheese is rich in casein protein, which is known as a slow-digesting protein. In fact, studies show that levels of amino acids remain elevated upwards of 5 hours after ingestion of casein protein.72

One cup of cottage cheese also packs a healthy punch of branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs), including over 2 ½ grams of leucine, which is essential to muscle health. BCAAs are crucial to exercise performance, muscle recovery, and supporting carbohydrate metabolism, and the amino acid leucine is considered to be the “anabolic trigger” for muscle recovery and growth following exercise.73

We recommend that you choose organic sources of Greek yogurt, cottage cheese, and other forms of dairy whenever possible. Organic dairy has a significantly different fatty acid profile when compared to conventional dairy. Specifically, studies comparing organic to conventional dairy have reported that organic contains:74

• 25% fewer omega-6 fatty acids, which are pro-inflammatory;• 62% more omega-3 fatty acids, which are anti-inflammatory;• 2.5 times lower omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acid ratio, which is much closer to

what is commonly considered optimal;• 32% more EPA and 19% more DHA, which are two omega-3 fatty acids crucial

for nervous system function, cardiovascular health, a healthy inflammatory response, hormonal regulation, body composition, feelings of well-being, and more; and

• 18% more conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), which has been shown to reduce body fat, increase lean body mass, and improve body composition.75

While dairy seems to have gained a negative reputation in certain circles, a number of studies have demonstrated that dairy consumption may contribute to increases in lean body mass along with losses in body fat (i.e., improved body composition).69,76–79

Some folks do take issue with dairy, and in many cases, mild GI discomfort can be alleviated by gradually increasing consumption and/or through use of digestive enzyme

14

supplementation. While most digestive enzyme supplements in this category tend to only supply the lactase enzyme—which is necessary for the proper breakdown of the sugar lactose found in milk—it’s a better idea to consider a full-spectrum option that also includes proteolytic enzymes to help with the digestion of the proteins (e.g., whey, casein) found in milk, as they may also contribute to digestive discomfort.

Bonus Recommendation: Consider using a milk-based protein supplement that includes whey protein, micellar casein, and/or milk protein concentrate.

2. Beef and Other Animal ProteinsProtein-rich; healthy fats

How does a traditional breakfast of steak and eggs sound? Well, when researchers from the University of Missouri fed women 35 grams of protein from beef and egg sources for breakfast, they found that the high-protein breakfast acutely increased satiety, improved appetite control, and reduced post-meal cravings and snacking behaviors.6,7 What’s more, over the course of 12 weeks, the researchers found that consuming the same high-protein breakfast of beef and eggs prevented fat gain, decreased hunger, and reduced daily calorie intake.8

Lean beef is an excellent addition to a fat-burning breakfast, as it is loaded with protein as well as the following essential nutrients:

• Vitamin B12• Selenium• Zinc• Niacin• Vitamin B6• Phosphorus• Choline• Iron• Riboflavin

Despite a bad rap in certain circles, beef is a nutrient-dense, fat-fighting all-star. However, not all beef is created equally, and grass-fed beef may be a superior option

15

over standard grain-fed options. Interestingly, regardless of whether your beef is grain-fed or grass-fed, its fatty acid profile will be about 40-50% saturated fat, about 40-50% monounsaturated fat, and somewhere near 10% polyunsaturated fat. However, the diet of the cow can significantly influence the types of each fat present.

Depending on the breed of cow, grass-fed beef contains up to 5 times more omega-3 fatty acids than grain-fed beef.80 The average ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids in grass-fed beef is 1.5:1, which is essentially ideal. On the contrary, in grain-fed beef, this ratio jumps all the way up to nearly 8:1.

In addition to a much healthier omega-3 fatty acid profile, grass-fed beef is one of the best dietary sources of CLA, as it contains an average of 2 to 3 times more CLA than grain-fed beef. CLA possesses antioxidant activity, and research has shown it to reduce body fat, increase lean body mass, and improve body composition.75

Additional options in this category include wild game (e.g., deer, elk), poultry (e.g., chicken, turkey), and wild-caught, cold-water fatty fish (e.g., salmon), which are excellent sources of both protein and omega-3 fatty acids. In addition to their brain and cardiovascular health benefits, omega-3 fatty acids have been shown to have beneficial effects on metabolism and body composition.

Researchers from Gettysburg College found that supplementation with fish oils, which supply the same types of omega-3 fatty acids found in fatty fish like salmon, for 6 weeks significantly increased fat free mass and decreased fat mass.81 What’s more, the participants also experienced increased metabolic rate and significantly decreased levels of cortisol, a stress hormone associated with increased abdominal fat storage.82

Researchers from Australia recently found similar impressive results as they combined omega-3 fatty acid supplementation with a weight loss diet. They found that study participants with higher omega-3 fatty acid intakes lost significantly more fat than the folks who did not supplement with the fish oils, despite the fact that both groups followed the same diet protocol.83

16

3. EggsProtein-rich; low-energy-dense food; healthy fats

Eggs are synonymous with breakfast, and as mentioned above, studies show that a high-protein breakfast including eggs may have beneficial effects on appetite and body composition. Eggs provide one of the highest quality proteins of any whole food available; in fact, researchers frequently use the eggs as the standard in measuring the quality of protein from other foods. In addition to packing 7 grams of protein, a single egg is also loaded with several critical nutrients, including:

• Choline, which supports brain health and nervous system function;• Lutein and zeaxanthin, which are potent antioxidants that fight free radicals and

help prevent macular degeneration;• Vitamin A;• Vitamin D;• Selenium;• Phosphorus; • Potassium;• And more.

That being said, just like there are nutritional differences between beef from grass-fed and grain-fed animals, not all eggs are created equally either. Specifically, research from Mother Earth News suggests that eggs from pasture-raised hens provide a significantly improved nutrition profile compared to standard store-bought eggs.84 For example, compared to typical supermarket eggs, the eggs from pasture-raised hens may contain:

• 1/3 less cholesterol• 1/4 less saturated fat• 2/3 more vitamin A• 2 times more omega-3 fatty acids• 3 times more vitamin E• 6 times more vitamin D• 7 times more beta-carotene

17

Because the lines are somewhat blurry on the definitions of cage-free and pasture-raised, it may be beneficial to do some additional research on the eggs available to you. Better yet, you may consider going to a local farmer’s market and purchase certified organic eggs from pasture-raised hens.

4. BananasLow-energy-dense food; smart carbs

Typically you’ll see bananas on a list of foods not to eat when it comes to fat loss. However, if you banish this fruit, you may be missing out on some very important fat-burning nutrients. In addition to being a rich source of potassium, bananas are also a very good source of the following essential nutrients:

• Vitamin B6• Vitamin C• Fiber• Manganese• Biotin• Copper

Of particular note, bananas are one of the best dietary sources of resistant starch, which is a special type of carbohydrate that is not digested by the human body.85 Resistant starch is not technically classified as a fiber, although many researchers now believe that it should be. Thus, with nearly 5 grams of resistant starch per banana, the net (i.e., usable) carbohydrate content is actually considerably lower than one may think.

Multiple studies have shown that naturally-occurring resistant starch intake increases satiety and reduces food intake both acutely and in the long-term.86,87 Research has also shown that consumption of resistant starch increases fat burning, decreases fat storage, and improves insulin sensitivity.88,89

That’s not all; researchers speculate that resistant starch may also increase the thermic effect of feeding, which means that it boosts the metabolism, as well as promote weight

18

loss and preserve calorie-burning muscle.90

In addition to resistant starch, bananas also contain a special type of fiber called prebiotics.91 A prebiotic is defined as “a selectively fermented ingredient that allows specific changes, both in the composition and/or activity in the gastrointestinal microflora, that confer benefits.”92 In other words, prebiotics preferentially stimulate the growth of beneficial bacteria in the digestive tract. That’s right, just like humans need nutrients to thrive, so too do the beneficial microbes that inhabit the gut.

This is important for a wide variety of reasons because gut bacteria—and more importantly, an optimal balance of healthy gut bacteria—play a tremendous role in digestive system health and function, overall health, immune system function, well-being, metabolism, the respiratory (i.e., lungs) and integumentary (i.e., skin) systems, and more.

With regard to fat loss, the evidence that gut bacteria contribute to energy balance (or, weight management) is so strong that Dr. Patrice Cani and her colleagues at the Metabolism and Nutrition Research Group in Belgium have coined the term “MicrObesity” to describe the relationship between gut “dysbiosis” and obesity.93

Amongst the many fascinating discoveries that researchers have found connecting gut bacteria to weight management include:

• A research team led by Dr. Jeffrey Gordon at the Washington University School of Medicine showed that obese and lean human twins have clear differences in their gut microbial communities. Most notably, the gut flora in obese twins contains less diverse bacterial species.94

• Not only that, Dr. Gordon and his research team demonstrated that when fecal material (rich in gut bacteria) from an obese human is transplanted into the gut of a healthy lab rat, the animal will gain a significant amount of weight despite the fact that its diet remains unchanged.94

• In a study performed at the Obesity, Metabolism & Nutritional Institute at Massachusetts General Hospital, researchers found that changes in the gut flora are partially responsible for the weight loss and reduced body fat observed in mice following gastric bypass surgery.95

19

With that in mind, taking steps to improve the balance of healthy gut bacteria—which includes providing important support nutrients like the prebiotic fiber found in bananas—has serious implications for reducing body fat and optimizing weight management.

So, let’s see…burn more fat and store less; partition more carbs to your muscles for energy and store fewer as body fat; increase satiety and better manage your appetite; boost your metabolism and preserve calorie-burning lean muscle; promote an optimal balance of healthy gut bacteria…do those seem like things that you might be interested in?

5. Berries and CherriesLow-energy-dense foods; smart carbs

Berries like blackberries, blueberries, raspberries, and strawberries are low-energy-dense foods, as they are high in both water and fiber, which can help keep you full. What’s more, they’re naturally sweet, which will help satisfy your sweet tooth, and they are low glycemic, which contributes to supporting healthy carbohydrate management.

The health benefits of blueberries, with their dark pigment indicative of their rich polyphenol content, have been demonstrated in various nutrition studies. Research suggests that these nutritional powerhouses may have cardioprotective effects as well as benefits ranging from anti-aging to optimized metabolic health.

Researchers from Texas Women’s University recently demonstrated that the polyphenols in blueberries might play a significant role in reducing body fat. Specifically, the researchers found that these compounds inhibited the formation of fat cells.96

What’s more, researchers from New Zealand found that consumption of blueberries may also accelerate muscle recovery when combined with exercise. Specifically, folks who consumed a blueberry smoothie before and after exercise experienced reduced muscle soreness and accelerated recovery of strength, which translates to more frequent exercise and improved performance.97 That also adds up to helping prevent the loss of calorie-burning muscle when dieting. Simply put, muscle loss contributes to

20

decreased metabolism, looking “skinny fat,” and rebound weight gain when resuming a “normal” eating routine after a diet—all things you don’t want.

Anthocyanins, the colorful antioxidant pigments that give berries their rich color, are well-known for their wide-ranging health benefits, including optimizing carbohydrate metabolism and insulin effectiveness. Specifically, cyanidin 3-glucoside (C3G), which is a member of the anthocyanin family, has been shown to enhance insulin efficiency and improve carbohydrate management, both of which have major implications for optimizing fat loss and supporting a healthy weight.98,99

What’s more, anthocyanins have been shown to have a unique effect on fat cells, and this has led researchers to state that they may play an intricate role in improving metabolic health. As a matter of fact, researchers investigating the effects of anthocyanins on fat cells (i.e., adipocytes) concluded, “Anthocyanins have a significant potency of anti-obesity and ameliorate adipocyte function,” and they have “important implications for preventing metabolic syndrome.”100

The myriad benefits associated with blueberries may also be extended to other dark-colored berries, which also contain a wealth of antioxidant phytochemicals and appetite-satisfying fiber.

6. GrapefruitLow-energy-dense food; smart carbs

Like oranges, another superstar citrus fruit worthy of making this list, grapefruits are an excellent source of vitamin C. In fact, when comparing whole fruits, grapefruits contain about 26% more of this key micronutrient.

In one study, German researchers found that, when faced with a stressful situation (e.g., public speaking), healthy young adults who supplemented with vitamin C experienced reduced blood pressure, a decreased stress response, and significant reductions in the hormone cortisol.101

21

Cortisol is one of the body’s primary stress hormones, and it can have a significant impact on fat loss and weight gain. In fact, cortisol has been shown to increase a process called “lipogenesis” (i.e., the creation of fat), and it is particularly associated with increased abdominal fat storage (i.e., excess belly fat).82,102,103 Previous research has shown that abdominal obesity is associated with a “constellation of metabolic abnormalities,” including:104,105

• High triglycerides• Low levels of “good” cholesterol (i.e., HDL)• High levels of apolipoprotein B (which is considered a better predictor of

cardiovascular risk than the more commonly used LDL106)• Small, dense LDL and HDL particles (small, dense particles are considered more

detrimental than large, fluffy particles107)• Unhealthy levels of inflammation• Insulin resistance• Poor carbohydrate tolerance and metabolism• Leptin resistance

In addition to its vitamin C content, grapefruits are also a good source of fiber, which helps slow gastric emptying and increase satiety (i.e., feelings of fullness). What’s more, grapefruits have a very high water content (~91%), and subsequently, they are considered a low-energy-dense food. As you already know, these are important factors that play a significant role in appetite control and weight management. In fact, consuming low-energy-dense foods increases feelings of fullness and reduces calorie intake.39

In one study published in the journal Nutrition & Metabolism, researchers from Vanderbilt found that when folks added half of a grapefruit (before breakfast, lunch, and dinner) to a reduced-calorie diet they ended up consuming up to 500 fewer calories per day—without any increase in hunger—which had a tremendous impact on weight loss. With the addition of grapefruit, the participants’ rate of weight loss increased by over 13% compared to when they were following a reduced-calorie diet without the fruit.108

In another study published in the Journal of Medicinal Food, researchers from the Scripps Clinic in California found that overweight folks consuming fresh grapefruit

22

three times daily before meals lost 5 TIMES more weight than the placebo group (i.e., no grapefruit) over the course of 12 weeks. Not only that, the researchers also found that the addition of grapefruit significantly improved insulin sensitivity, which is intimately tied to carbohydrate metabolism and weight management.109,110

Grapefruit has one more trick up its sleeve: Naringin, which is a potent antioxidant that helps protect cells from free radicals.111 Free radicals lead to oxidative stress, which is associated with aging, reduced carbohydrate tolerance, and obesity.

In the body, naringin is broken down into naringenin, a compound that has been shown to activate an important enzyme called AMPK, which facilitates the uptake of carbohydrates into muscles to be used for energy (instead of being stored as fat).112–114 If that’s not enough, naringenin has also been shown to reduce a process called adipogenesis—a fancy name for the creation of new fat cells—as well as increase fat burning.115,116

7. Beans and LentilsSmart carbs; protein-rich

Beans are an excellent plant-based source of protein, and depending on the type, they provide upwards of 12 grams of fiber per 1-cup serving. Dietary fiber and protein are two nutrients that researchers have found to be positively associated with satiety, or feelings of fullness.37

Not surprisingly, researchers found that, when folks added garbanzo beans to their regular daily diet, they reported significant improvements in satiety, appetite, meal satisfaction, and bowel function. Participants also decreased consumption of snack foods and reduced overall calorie intake.117 Additionally, researchers from Purdue University found that study participants who added beans to a reduced-calorie diet lost over three times as much weight as the control group, which consumed the same number of calories, over the course of 6 weeks.118

What’s more, following bean consumption, there is an increase in the hormone

23

cholecystokinin (CCK), which secreted in the gut in response to protein and fat intake and helps to slow gastric emptying and increase satiety.119 Thus, in addition to their high protein and fiber content, beans may positively influence appetite by stimulating satiety centers in the brain.

Legumes, including certain beans and lentils, are also a good source of resistant starch. As previously mentioned, resistant starch may help burn more fat and store less; increase satiety and improve appetite control; boost metabolism; preserve calorie-burning lean muscle; and promote an optimal balance of healthy gut bacteria.

If the weight management benefits aren’t enough, regular consumption of beans appears to also possess significant cardioprotective benefits. Specifically, researchers found that eating just one serving daily of pulses, which include beans, lentils, and peas, can significantly reduce “bad” (i.e., LDL) cholesterol and the risk of heart disease.120

Researchers from throughout Canada and the US reviewed 26 randomized controlled trials that included 1037 people. Despite variation between studies, the researchers found a 5% reduction in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in people who ate one serving (i.e., 3/4 cup) of pulses per day. Men had greater reduction in LDL cholesterol than women, perhaps because their diets are poorer, cholesterol levels are higher, and benefit more markedly from a healthier diet.

Overall, the evidence suggests that adding 3 – 5 cups (per week) of beans to your diet may have some significant beneficial effects on your body composition as well as your cardiovascular health. There are many options from which to choose, including black beans, dried peas, garbanzo beans, kidney beans, lentils, lima beans, navy beans, pinto beans, and more.

8. Sprouted Grain CerealSmart carbs

Many people know that processed flours and the foods made from them (e.g., bread, ready-to-eat breakfast cereals, bagels, donuts, pastries etc.) are not the best options for optimal health and body composition. These fast-

24

digesting, processed carbohydrates can negatively impact carbohydrate management, insulin sensitivity, body composition, and a variety of other metabolic parameters (e.g., cholesterol, tryglycerides).

Furthermore, refined carbohydrates, like those found in these foods, are typically void of fiber, and researchers have linked low fiber intakes to increased risk for diabetes and obesity.63,121–123 What’s more, it’s no secret that heavily processed carbohydrates like these are some of the most fattening ingredients around and closely linked to obesity.61

Sprouted grains, on the other hand, are distinctly different from their traditionally harvested counterparts, and they have many favorable advantages over conventional grains like wheat. What’s more, sprouted grain breads are completely flour-free.

That’s right, you’ll actually be consuming the whole grain. Sprouted grain foods—like those from the folks at Food for Life®—are truly made with whole grains, unlike the vast majority of store-bought breads and cereals, which are made from refined flours and grains. The pulverization of a grain into flour essentially creates a heavily processed carbohydrate, which rapidly enters the blood stream.

According to the Food for Life® website,124 here are some of the benefits of sprouted grains:

• Increased digestibility. This should not be confused with the glycemic response, as it simply means that sprouting makes the digestion process easier on your body resulting in less gas, bloating, etc.

• Increased absorption of minerals. Sprouting grains increases the activity of phytase in plants. This is important because phytase is a naturally-occurring enzyme in plants that breaks down phytic acid, which is known as an “anti-nutrient” because of its ability to inhibit the absorption of key minerals (e.g., iron, calcium, magnesium, copper, zinc) in humans. Conventional whole wheat, on the other hand, is rich in phytic acid, which can bind these minerals and prevent you from absorbing them.125

• Increased antioxidants.• Increased vitamin C.• Increased B vitamins (e.g., B2, B5, and B6).

25

• Great source of fiber. Because these sprouted grains are not ground into a fine flour, the whole grain remains intact, including the fibrous bran component. A single slice of sprouted grain bread contains 50% and 200% more fiber than its whole wheat and white counterparts, respectively.

• Source of complete protein. Generally speaking, grains are not a complete source of protein. However, sprouted grains overcome this limitation, as they provide the full spectrum of essential amino acids that your body needs, and the proteins are rated nearly as efficient as those from animal sources like dairy and eggs.

Thus, you don’t give up the bread or breakfast cereals to achieve your body transformation goals, just choose the right kind. Food for Life® has an entire line of food products—including breads, cereals, and more—that have been certified as Low Glycemic by The Glycemic Research Institute.

In addition to sprouted grains, other minimally-processed, intact whole grains are also good carbohydrate choices, including whole or steel-cut oats; wild, brown, or red rice; amaranth; buckwheat groats; kamut or spelt grains; maize; millet; and barley.

9. OatmealSmart carbs

While oatmeal can indeed be a solid, healthy breakfast option, unfortunately many of the commercially-available options (e.g., pre-packaged oatmeal) are heavily processed and also contain added refined sugars.

That being said, whole rolled oats and steel-cut oats are both good sources of fiber, as well as a number of other nutrients:

• Manganese• Molybdenum• Phosphorus• Copper• Biotin

26

• Vitamin B1• Magnesium• Chromium• Zinc

With that in mind, if you do choose to include oatmeal as part of your fat-burning breakfast, take the extra time to prepare the old-fashioned, minimally-processed versions. In fact, you can even prepare an awesome oatmeal breakfast the night before:

• In a jar, combine equal parts rolled oats, milk/water, and plain yogurt (1/3 – 1/2 cup of each).

• Mix in healthy toppings, such as fruit, nuts, seeds, or protein powder.• Cover and store in the refrigerator overnight (i.e., 9 hours).• Enjoy for breakfast, either warm or cold.

10. Coconut Oil (cold-pressed, extra virgin)Healthy fats

While extra virgin olive oil has always been (and will continue to be) a staple, nutritious, go-to oil for healthy cooking, there’s a new kid on the block that’s getting all the attention as of late, and for good reason. Coconut oil, which is actually 90% saturated fat, is the new superstar, but it hasn’t always been viewed as healthy.

Perhaps some of the negative light that has previously been shined on coconut oil is somewhat deserved. According to Alexandra Bernardin:

“For years, coconut oil was portrayed as a destroyer of cardiovascular health. Its artery-clogging, heart attack-causing, cholesterol-raising side effects were flaunted in the media, and the public responded by shunning this useful and natural oil. However, researchers made one big mistake, which they conveniently did not publicize: In their studies, they used hydrogenated and partially hydrogenated coconut oil. By doing so, they changed everything good about coconut oil.”126

27

For sake of reference, hydrogenation essentially refers to the fact that these were trans fats that were used, and of course, coconut oil is going to get a bad rap if it’s being chemically warped into this health-derailing nightmare (i.e., trans fats). But, what happens when we use fresh, cold-pressed, extra-virgin coconut oil? We get an all-natural food that is chock full of health-building saturated fats.

According to Bernardin, here are some of the top reasons you should include coconut oil in your diet:

1. It’s composed of medium chain triglycerides (MCTs), which your body can quickly and efficiently use for energy and are not stored in the body as fat.

2. Like breast milk, coconut oil is high in the fatty acid lauric acid, which plays a critical role in immune system function.

3. It is antiviral, antifungal, antiparasite, and antiprotozoa.4. Coconut oil is high in capric acid and caprylic acid, which are antioxidants.5. It is cardioprotective. Populations that consume 30-60 percent of their daily

caloric intake from coconuts are virtually free from cardiovascular disease, and it helps to lower cholesterol.

6. Unlike unsaturated vegetable oils like soybean and corn oil, coconut oil does not block the secretion of thyroid hormone.

7. Coconut oil is easily digested and can support healthy digestive function.8. Coconut oil helps with zinc and magnesium absorption, two very important

minerals vital for a multitude of functions in the body including bone health.

In addition, several studies have linked the consumption of extra virgin coconut oil to smaller waist sizes. For example, researchers found that subjects who consumed two tablespoons of coconut oil per day for 12 weeks while following a reduced-calorie diet and including daily exercise (i.e., walking) lost a significant amount of abdominal fat compared to the control group that followed the same diet and exercise program without coconut oil.127 In addition, the coconut oil group also experienced an increase in HDL cholesterol and a decrease in their LDL:HDL cholesterol ratio.

The researchers concluded, “Supplementation with coconut oil does not cause dyslipidemia and seems to promote a reduction in abdominal obesity.”

28

What’s more, research also suggests that the MCTs found in coconut oil have a significant thermogenic (i.e., metabolism-boosting) effect. In one study, rats were overfed with either long-chain fatty acids (LCTs), which are the common form of fat found in foods, or MCTs. The rats fed the MCTS gained 20% less weight and 23% less body fat despite consuming the same overall amount of energy.128

In another study, researchers found that consuming MCTs increased metabolism more than eating LCTs from other foods. As a matter of fact, the subjects that consumed MCTs lost significantly more weight and burned more fat than the group consuming LCTs.129 Researchers have also found that consuming just 1 – 2 tablespoons daily of MCTs can elevate the metabolism by as much as 5%, which may mean burning an additional 150 calories or more just by swapping your oils.130

11. Green Tea

If your goals are to lose fat and add calorie-burning lean muscle mass—and who doesn’t want to do that—then, besides plain, filtered water, your beverage of choice should be green tea. According to researchers, Camellia sinensis, which is the plant species whose leaves and buds are used in the production of tea, exerts several “anti-obesity effects.”131

Although various types of teas (e.g., oolong, black, green) all come from the Camellia sinensis plant, green tea leaves are processed (i.e., fermented) differently, which leaves them with a higher concentration of beneficial polyphenols called catechins, and it’s these compounds, which also have noteworthy anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, along with green tea’s naturally-occurring caffeine that seem to have quite a potent effect on the metabolism and helping reduce body fat.

Specifically, green tea extracts standardized for the catechin epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) and caffeine have been shown to increase the rate of fat oxidation (i.e., fat burning) at rest and during exercise. In one study, subjects that took a green tea extract, which contained both caffeine and EGCG, three times per day increased both

29

thermogenesis (i.e., metabolic rate) and fat oxidation over the course of 24 hours.132 The authors stated that the effect was superior to that witnessed by caffeine alone.

Subsequently, researchers have found that consumption of a green tea extract prior to exercise increased the amount of fat burned during the bout of training.133 What’s more, the researchers also noted improvements in blood sugar management and insulin sensitivity. Overall, researchers have concluded, “A green tea-caffeine mixture improves weight maintenance, through thermogenesis, fat oxidation, and sparing fat free mass.”134

In addition to an increased metabolic rate, heightened fat oxidation, and improved blood sugar and insulin sensitivity, green tea consumption has also been found to decrease appetite and help regulate blood triglycerides. Researchers suggest consumption of 2 – 4 cups (i.e., 500mL – 1L) of green tea per day to reap these fat-burning and health promoting benefits.135

12. Coffee

Coffee is one of the world’s most consumed drinks, trailing only water and tea, although the latter is often debated. Despite its popularity, coffee seems to be a somewhat contentious beverage, as it is frequently considered “unhealthy.” However, there’s seemingly more research to suggest the opposite, as there are a multitude of health benefits associated with regular coffee consumption, and amongst them is an increase in metabolic rate.

Research over the past several years suggests that coffee consumption may protect against type 2 diabetes, Parkinson’s disease, liver cancer, and liver cirrhosis. It’s important to point out that studies suggesting these benefits are observational in nature, which means that they don’t necessarily prove that coffee caused the effects. Here’s a sampling of some of the health benefits associated with regular coffee consumption:

• Research suggests that regular coffee consumption is associated with a

30

substantially lower risk of type 2 diabetes.136

• Some studies have shown an inverse relationship between coffee consumption and Alzheimer’s disease, suggesting that coffee may have protective benefits against dementia.137 Recent reports estimate that moderate coffee consumption may lower the risk of Alzheimer’s by as much as 20%.138

• Studies have shown that coffee drinkers have a significantly lower risk of developing Parkinson’s disease.139

• Recent research on coffee and mortality performed by scientists from the Harvard School of Public Health found that people who regularly drank coffee had a lower risk of death from cardiovascular disease than those who rarely drank coffee.140

Often, people think of coffee just as a vehicle for caffeine, which we’ll discuss more in just a moment. But it’s actually a very complex beverage with hundreds and hundreds of different compounds in it. In fact, a cup of coffee contains all of the following essential nutrients:

• Pantothenic Acid (Vitamin B5)• Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)• Niacin (Vitamin B3)• Thiamine (Vitmain B1)• Potassium• Manganese

Even more, coffee is loaded with antioxidants. In fact, studies show that coffee is the single greatest dietary source of antioxidants—outweighing even fruits and vegetables—amongst many cultures.141

Of course, coffee is synonymous with caffeine, and there may be a host of benefits—including metabolism-boosting advantages—associated with caffeine consumption. For instance, coffee consumption increases alertness and energy levels, and studies have shown that coffee consumption can improve performance on mental tasks.142,143

In addition, studies have found that coffee can improve mood, feelings of well-being, reaction times, vigilance, and cognitive function.144 Caffeine is also widely studied from a

31

sports performance standpoint, and it has been shown to significantly improve physical performance and reduce perceived levels of exertion (i.e., makes tasks feel easier) when taken before exercise.145

From a metabolism standpoint, studies show that coffee consumption significantly increases metabolic rate.146 In fact, consuming as little as 100mg of caffeine, which you can get from a single cup of coffee, is enough to boost metabolic rate, and it appears that repeated/greater doses lead to an even more pronounced effect.147 What’s particularly interesting is that this increase in resting metabolic rate is accompanied by greater oxidation of fat. Simply put, coffee and caffeine appear to boost metabolic rate and increase fat burning.

While there are many health and metabolism benefits associated with regular, moderate coffee consumption, it’s important to assess and consider your tolerance to caffeine. Individual differences in caffeine metabolism apply, and genetically, some folks are “slow” caffeine metabolizers, which makes them more sensitive to the stimulatory effects (e.g., jitters, feeling wired) of the compound.

Skipping Breakfast: Intermittent and Periodic Fasting

While it’s beyond the scope of this report to discuss intermittent and periodic fasting, there’s quite a bit of evidence that periodic fasting—as well as calorie restriction—may lead to certain health benefits. For instance, in yeast, periodic fasting results in increased lifespan and improved stress resistance. In mice, fasting leads to reductions in body fat, decreased risk of certain types of cancer, reductions in the risk of inflammatory diseases, increases in lifespan, and improved immune and cognitive regeneration. In humans, research suggests improved insulin sensitivity, decreased body weight, reduced risk of diabetes, slowed aging, reduced risk of certain types of cancer, decreases in biomarkers associated cardiovascular disease.148–151

That said, there are many different forms of “fasting”. A periodic diet that mimics fasting (i.e., marketed as the “fast-mimicking diet”) is one of them. There’s also “intermittent fasting”, which typically involves condensing the feeding window on a daily basis (e.g., skipping breakfast; eating all meals within a 4 - 8–hour window), and there’s also alternate-day fasting, which this typically involves 1 – 2 complete days of fasting each

32

week. In some cases, folks will consume a small meal on those fast days.

It’s also important to point out that most of what is currently “known” about fasting is from research done on yeast, animals, and in cell cultures. There is some research done on humans, and while it seems to support the existence of health benefits of fasting, the body of evidence is not robust enough to make any clear-cut conclusions.152 For instance, it’s not clear if it applies particularly well to certain populations (e.g., normal weight versus obese) or if a certain type of fasting is superior to others (e.g., intermittent fasting versus fast-mimicking approaches).

One of the ways that periodic fasting may “work” is through a process called autophagy, which essentially means “self-eating” and refers to the process of “cellular cleaning” or “tidying” things up on a cellular level. Periodic fasting can upregulate healthy autophagy. (Note: If you ever hear anyone talking about “detoxing” or “cleansing”, you might throw out the term autophagy. This is the truest sense of “cleansing”, and it’s superior to any of those detox/cleanse, which really have no evidence to support them.)

So, as you can see, there may be some potential health benefits to periodic fasting; however, it may not be for everyone, and a number of factors may have to be considered. For instance, how does it impact your social surroundings (e.g., family), work situation, etc.? Are you setting yourself up for success? Or, are you creating even more stress, mentally and physically? How does this impact your performance and energy expenditure? How does it influence your subsequent eating behaviors and food choices? How does this impact your feelings of well-being?

With any goal or decision, there are costs and benefits. If you want to make changes, then you have to recognize that there are certain trade-offs. It’s a good idea to consider what these are when making the best decision for you. With regard to periodic fasting, Krista Scott-Dixon may have said it best: “Periodic fasting should be considered if appropriate and properly applied.”

Wake Up, Eat This, Burn Fat

The take-home point of all of this is that consuming the right foods in the right amounts, consistently, at breakfast—if you choose to eat breakfast—is crucial to helping you

33

achieve your health and body composition goals.

In fact, a balanced diet rich in high-quality protein, low-energy-dense, fiber-rich foods, and healthy fats can help improve appetite control and satiety, promote fat loss, boost body composition, support muscle size, strength, and recovery, and optimize health.

Remember, it’s not a single food or meal that will make or break your body transformation efforts; it’s your entire body of nutrition work, and it’s a commitment to healthy eating habits, creating a positive food environment, and choosing high-quality, nutritious foods in appropriate amounts regularly and consistently over time.

34

References:1. Deshmukh-Taskar PR, Nicklas TA, O’Neil CE, Keast DR, Radcliffe JD, Cho S. The

relationship of breakfast skipping and type of breakfast consumption with nutrient intake and weight status in children and adolescents: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2006. J Am Diet Assoc. 2010;110(6):869-878. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2010.03.023.

2. Timlin MT, Pereira MA, Story M, Neumark-Sztainer D. Breakfast Eating and Weight Change in a 5-Year Prospective Analysis of Adolescents: Project EAT (Eating Among Teens). PEDIATRICS. 2008;121(3):e638-e645. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-1035.

3. Rampersaud GC, Pereira MA, Girard BL, Adams J, Metzl JD. Breakfast Habits, Nutritional Status, Body Weight, and Academic Performance in Children and Adolescents. J Am Diet Assoc. 2005;105(5):743-760. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2005.02.007.

4. Sjöberg A, Hallberg L, Höglund D, Hulthén L. Meal pattern, food choice, nutrient intake and lifestyle factors in The Göteborg Adolescence Study. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2003;57(12):1569-1578. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601726.

5. Savige G, Macfarlane A, Ball K, Worsley A, Crawford D. Snacking behaviours of adolescents and their association with skipping meals. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2007;4:36. doi:10.1186/1479-5868-4-36.

6. Leidy HJ, Racki EM. The addition of a protein-rich breakfast and its effects on acute appetite control and food intake in “breakfast-skipping” adolescents. Int J Obes 2005. 2010;34(7):1125-1133. doi:10.1038/ijo.2010.3.

7. Hoertel HA, Will MJ, Leidy HJ. A randomized crossover, pilot study examining the effects of a normal protein vs. high protein breakfast on food cravings and reward signals in overweight/obese “breakfast skipping”, late-adolescent girls. Nutr J. 2014;13:80. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-13-80.

8. Leidy HJ, Hoertel HA, Douglas SM, Higgins KA, Shafer RS. A high-protein breakfast prevents body fat gain, through reductions in daily intake and hunger, in “Breakfast skipping” adolescents: High-Protein Breakfast Improves Weight Management. Obesity. 2015;23(9):1761-1764. doi:10.1002/oby.21185.

35

9. Rains TM, Leidy HJ, Sanoshy KD, Lawless AL, Maki KC. A randomized, controlled, crossover trial to assess the acute appetitive and metabolic effects of sausage and egg-based convenience breakfast meals in overweight premenopausal women. Nutr J. 2015;14(1):17. doi:10.1186/s12937-015-0002-7.

10. Karalus M, Barisas L, Zaripheh S. The effect of commercially prepared breakfast meals with varying levels of protein on acute satiety in non-restrained women. FASEB J. 2014;28(1):823.6.

11. Schlundt DG, Hill JO, Sbrocco T, Pope-Cordle J, Sharp T. The role of breakfast in the treatment of obesity: a randomized clinical trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 1992;55(3):645-651.

12. Nonino-Borges CB, Martins Borges R, Bavaresco M, Suen VMM, Moreira AC, Marchini JS. Influence of meal time on salivary circadian cortisol rhythms and weight loss in obese women. Nutr Burbank Los Angel Cty Calif. 2007;23(5):385-391. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2007.02.007.

13. Stote KS, Baer DJ, Spears K, et al. A controlled trial of reduced meal frequency without caloric restriction in healthy, normal-weight, middle-aged adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85(4):981-988.

14. Brown AW, Bohan Brown MM, Allison DB. Belief beyond the evidence: using the proposed effect of breakfast on obesity to show 2 practices that distort scientific evidence. Am J Clin Nutr. 2013;98(5):1298-1308. doi:10.3945/ajcn.113.064410.

15. Pasiakos SM. Metabolic Advantages of Higher Protein Diets and Benefits of Dairy Foods on Weight Management, Glycemic Regulation, and Bone: Benefits of higher protein…. J Food Sci. 2015;80(S1):A2-A7. doi:10.1111/1750-3841.12804.

16. Layman DK, Boileau RA, Erickson DJ, et al. A reduced ratio of dietary carbohydrate to protein improves body composition and blood lipid profiles during weight loss in adult women. J Nutr. 2003;133(2):411-417.

17. Tang M, Armstrong CLH, Leidy HJ, Campbell WW. Normal vs. high-protein weight loss diets in men: effects on body composition and indices of metabolic syndrome. Obes Silver Spring Md. 2013;21(3):E204-E210. doi:10.1002/oby.20078.

18. Wycherley TP, Moran LJ, Clifton PM, Noakes M, Brinkworth GD. Effects of energy-restricted high-protein, low-fat compared with standard-protein, low-fat diets: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012;96(6):1281-1298. doi:10.3945/ajcn.112.044321.

19. Layman DK, Evans EM, Erickson D, et al. A Moderate-Protein Diet Produces Sustained Weight Loss and Long-Term Changes in Body Composition and Blood

36

Lipids in Obese Adults. J Nutr. 2009;139(3):514-521. doi:10.3945/jn.108.099440.20. Larsen TM, Dalskov S-M, van Baak M, et al. Diets with High or Low Protein

Content and Glycemic Index for Weight-Loss Maintenance. N Engl J Med. 2010;363(22):2102-2113. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1007137.

21. Mamerow MM, Mettler JA, English KL, et al. Dietary Protein Distribution Positively Influences 24-h Muscle Protein Synthesis in Healthy Adults. J Nutr. 2014;144(6):876-880. doi:10.3945/jn.113.185280.

22. Rodriguez NR. Protein-Centric Meals for Optimal Protein Utilization: Can It Be That Simple? J Nutr. 2014;144(6):797-798. doi:10.3945/jn.114.193615.

23. Paddon-Jones D, Leidy H. Dietary protein and muscle in older persons. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2014;17(1):5-11. doi:10.1097/MCO.0000000000000011.

24. Westerterp-Plantenga MS, Rolland V, Wilson SA, Westerterp KR. Satiety related to 24 h diet-induced thermogenesis during high protein/carbohydrate vs high fat diets measured in a respiration chamber. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1999;53(6):495-502.

25. Westerterp KR. Diet induced thermogenesis. Nutr Metab. 2004;1(1):5. doi:10.1186/1743-7075-1-5.

26. Soenen S, Martens EAP, Hochstenbach-Waelen A, Lemmens SGT, Westerterp-Plantenga MS. Normal protein intake is required for body weight loss and weight maintenance, and elevated protein intake for additional preservation of resting energy expenditure and fat free mass. J Nutr. 2013;143(5):591-596. doi:10.3945/jn.112.167593.

27. Ebbeling CB, Swain JF, Feldman HA, et al. Effects of dietary composition on energy expenditure during weight-loss maintenance. JAMA. 2012;307(24):2627-2634. doi:10.1001/jama.2012.6607.

28. Halton TL, Hu FB. The effects of high protein diets on thermogenesis, satiety and weight loss: a critical review. J Am Coll Nutr. 2004;23(5):373-385.

29. Leidy HJ. Increased dietary protein as a dietary strategy to prevent and/or treat obesity. Mo Med. 2014;111(1):54-58.

30. Ortinau LC, Hoertel HA, Douglas SM, Leidy HJ. Effects of high-protein vs. high- fat snacks on appetite control, satiety, and eating initiation in healthy women. Nutr J. 2014;13:97. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-13-97.

31. Layman DK, Baum JI. Dietary protein impact on glycemic control during weight loss. J Nutr. 2004;134(4):968S - 73S.

32. Farnsworth E, Luscombe ND, Noakes M, Wittert G, Argyiou E, Clifton PM. Effect of a high-protein, energy-restricted diet on body composition, glycemic control, and

37

lipid concentrations in overweight and obese hyperinsulinemic men and women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;78(1):31-39.

33. Gannon MC, Nuttall FQ, Saeed A, Jordan K, Hoover H. An increase in dietary protein improves the blood glucose response in persons with type 2 diabetes. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;78(4):734-741.

34. Gannon MC, Nuttall FQ. Effect of a high-protein, low-carbohydrate diet on blood glucose control in people with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 2004;53(9):2375-2382.

35. Mangano KM, Sahni S, Kerstetter JE. Dietary protein is beneficial to bone health under conditions of adequate calcium intake: an update on clinical research. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2014;17(1):69-74. doi:10.1097/MCO.0000000000000013.

36. Tang M, O’Connor LE, Campbell WW. Diet-induced weight loss: the effect of dietary protein on bone. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2014;114(1):72-85. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2013.08.021.

37. Holt SH, Miller JC, Petocz P, Farmakalidis E. A satiety index of common foods. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1995;49(9):675-690.

38. Rolls BJ, Bell EA. Intake of fat and carbohydrate: role of energy density. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1999;53 Suppl 1:S166-S173.

39. Ledikwe JH, Blanck HM, Kettel Khan L, et al. Dietary energy density is associated with energy intake and weight status in US adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;83(6):1362-1368.

40. Duncan KH, Bacon JA, Weinsier RL. The effects of high and low energy density diets on satiety, energy intake, and eating time of obese and nonobese subjects. Am J Clin Nutr. 1983;37(5):763-767.

41. Ello-Martin JA, Roe LS, Ledikwe JH, Beach AM, Rolls BJ. Dietary energy density in the treatment of obesity: a year-long trial comparing 2 weight-loss diets. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85(6):1465-1477.

42. Tohill BC, Seymour J, Serdula M, Kettel-Khan L, Rolls BJ. What epidemiologic studies tell us about the relationship between fruit and vegetable consumption and body weight. Nutr Rev. 2004;62(10):365-374.

43. Yao M, Roberts SB. Dietary energy density and weight regulation. Nutr Rev. 2001;59(8 Pt 1):247-258.

44. Lee A, Ader M, Bray GA, Bergman RN. Diurnal variation in glucose tolerance. Cyclic suppression of insulin action and insulin secretion in normal-weight, but not obese, subjects. Diabetes. 1992;41(6):750-759.

38

45. Saad A, Dalla Man C, Nandy DK, et al. Diurnal pattern to insulin secretion and insulin action in healthy individuals. Diabetes. 2012;61(11):2691-2700. doi:10.2337/db11-1478.

46. Verrillo A, De Teresa A, Martino C, et al. Differential roles of splanchnic and peripheral tissues in determining diurnal fluctuation of glucose tolerance. Am J Physiol. 1989;257(4 Pt 1):E459-E465.

47. Ivy JL. The insulin-like effect of muscle contraction. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 1987;15:29-51.

48. United States Department of Agriculture. USDA Economic Research Service: Food Consumption and Nutrient Intake Estimates, 2007 - 10. http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/FoodConsumption/.

49. Johnson RJ, Segal MS, Sautin Y, et al. Potential role of sugar (fructose) in the epidemic of hypertension, obesity and the metabolic syndrome, diabetes, kidney disease, and cardiovascular disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86(4):899-906.

50. Nielsen SJ, Popkin BM. Changes in beverage intake between 1977 and 2001. Am J Prev Med. 2004;27(3):205-210. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2004.05.005.

51. Malik VS, Schulze MB, Hu FB. Intake of sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain: a systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;84(2):274-288.

52. Eicher-Miller HA, Fulgoni VL, Keast DR. Contributions of processed foods to dietary intake in the US from 2003-2008: a report of the Food and Nutrition Science Solutions Joint Task Force of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, American Society for Nutrition, Institute of Food Technologists, and International Food Information Council. J Nutr. 2012;142(11):2065S - 2072S. doi:10.3945/jn.112.164442.

53. Swinburn BA, Sacks G, Lo SK, et al. Estimating the changes in energy flux that characterize the rise in obesity prevalence. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;89(6):1723-1728. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2008.27061.

54. Hu FB. Are refined carbohydrates worse than saturated fat? Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;91(6):1541-1542. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2010.29622.

55. Gross LS, Li L, Ford ES, Liu S. Increased consumption of refined carbohydrates and the epidemic of type 2 diabetes in the United States: an ecologic assessment. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;79(5):774-779.

56. Brand-Miller JC, Holt SHA, Pawlak DB, McMillan J. Glycemic index and obesity. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;76(1):281S - 5S.

39

57. Ludwig DS. Dietary glycemic index and obesity. J Nutr. 2000;130(2S Suppl):280S - 283S.

58. Howarth NC, Saltzman E, Roberts SB. Dietary fiber and weight regulation. Nutr Rev. 2001;59(5):129-139.

59. Slavin JL. Dietary fiber and body weight. Nutr Burbank Los Angel Cty Calif. 2005;21(3):411-418. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2004.08.018.

60. Slavin JL. Position of the American Dietetic Association: health implications of dietary fiber. J Am Diet Assoc. 2008;108(10):1716-1731.

61. Salmerón J, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Wing AL, Willett WC. Dietary fiber, glycemic load, and risk of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in women. JAMA. 1997;277(6):472-477.

62. Salmerón J, Ascherio A, Rimm EB, et al. Dietary fiber, glycemic load, and risk of NIDDM in men. Diabetes Care. 1997;20(4):545-550.

63. Moghaddam E, Vogt JA, Wolever TMS. The effects of fat and protein on glycemic responses in nondiabetic humans vary with waist circumference, fasting plasma insulin, and dietary fiber intake. J Nutr. 2006;136(10):2506-2511.

64. Gentilcore D, Chaikomin R, Jones KL, et al. Effects of fat on gastric emptying of and the glycemic, insulin, and incretin responses to a carbohydrate meal in type 2 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(6):2062-2067. doi:10.1210/jc.2005-2644.

65. Samra RA. Fats and Satiety. In: Montmayeur J-P, le Coutre J, eds. Fat Detection: Taste, Texture, and Post Ingestive Effects. Frontiers in Neuroscience. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press/Taylor & Francis; 2010. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK53550/. Accessed December 8, 2015.

66. Burton-Freeman B, Davis PA, Schneeman BO. Plasma cholecystokinin is associated with subjective measures of satiety in women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;76(3):659-667.

67. Tobias DK, Chen M, Manson JE, Ludwig DS, Willett W, Hu FB. Effect of low-fat diet interventions versus other diet interventions on long-term weight change in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2015;3(12):968-979. doi:10.1016/S2213-8587(15)00367-8.

68. Unlu NZ, Bohn T, Clinton SK, Schwartz SJ. Carotenoid absorption from salad and salsa by humans is enhanced by the addition of avocado or avocado oil. J Nutr. 2005;135(3):431-436.

69. Josse AR, Atkinson SA, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM. Increased Consumption of

40

Dairy Foods and Protein during Diet- and Exercise-Induced Weight Loss Promotes Fat Mass Loss and Lean Mass Gain in Overweight and Obese Premenopausal Women. J Nutr. 2011;141(9):1626-1634. doi:10.3945/jn.111.141028.

70. Shen J, Obin MS, Zhao L. The gut microbiota, obesity and insulin resistance. Mol Aspects Med. 2013;34(1):39-58. doi:10.1016/j.mam.2012.11.001.

71. Sanchez M, Darimont C, Drapeau V, et al. Effect of Lactobacillus rhamnosus CGMCC1.3724 supplementation on weight loss and maintenance in obese men and women. Br J Nutr. 2014;111(8):1507-1519. doi:10.1017/S0007114513003875.

72. Boirie Y, Dangin M, Gachon P, Vasson MP, Maubois JL, Beaufrère B. Slow and fast dietary proteins differently modulate postprandial protein accretion. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997;94(26):14930-14935.

73. Norton LE, Layman DK. Leucine regulates translation initiation of protein synthesis in skeletal muscle after exercise. J Nutr. 2006;136(2):533S - 537S.

74. Benbrook CM, Butler G, Latif MA, Leifert C, Davis DR. Organic production enhances milk nutritional quality by shifting fatty acid composition: a United States-wide, 18-month study. PloS One. 2013;8(12):e82429. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0082429.

75. Whigham LD, Watras AC, Schoeller DA. Efficacy of conjugated linoleic acid for reducing fat mass: a meta-analysis in humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85(5):1203-1211.

76. Zemel MB, Richards J, Mathis S, Milstead A, Gebhardt L, Silva E. Dairy augmentation of total and central fat loss in obese subjects. Int J Obes 2005. 2005;29(4):391-397. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0802880.

77. Wilkinson SB, Tarnopolsky MA, Macdonald MJ, Macdonald JR, Armstrong D, Phillips SM. Consumption of fluid skim milk promotes greater muscle protein accretion after resistance exercise than does consumption of an isonitrogenous and isoenergetic soy-protein beverage. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85(4):1031-1040.

78. Hartman JW, Tang JE, Wilkinson SB, et al. Consumption of fat-free fluid milk after resistance exercise promotes greater lean mass accretion than does consumption of soy or carbohydrate in young, novice, male weightlifters. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86(2):373-381.

79. Josse AR, Tang JE, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM. Body composition and strength changes in women with milk and resistance exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2010;42(6):1122-1130. doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181c854f6.

80. Daley CA, Abbott A, Doyle PS, Nader GA, Larson S. A review of fatty acid profiles

41

and antioxidant content in grass-fed and grain-fed beef. Nutr J. 2010;9(1):10. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-9-10.

81. Noreen EE, Sass MJ, Crowe ML, Pabon VA, Brandauer J, Averill LK. Effects of supplemental fish oil on resting metabolic rate, body composition, and salivary cortisol in healthy adults. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2010;7:31. doi:10.1186/1550-2783-7-31.

82. Epel ES, McEwen B, Seeman T, et al. Stress and body shape: stress-induced cortisol secretion is consistently greater among women with central fat. Psychosom Med. 2000;62(5):623-632.

83. Munro IA, Garg ML. Prior supplementation with long chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids promotes weight loss in obese adults: a double-blinded randomised controlled trial. Food Funct. 2013;4(4):650-658. doi:10.1039/c3fo60038f.

84. Long C, Alterman T. Meet Real Free-Range Eggs. Mother Earth News. November 2007. http://www.motherearthnews.com/real-food/free-range-eggs-zmaz07onzgoe.aspx.

85. Murphy MM, Douglass JS, Birkett A. Resistant starch intakes in the United States. J Am Diet Assoc. 2008;108(1):67-78. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2007.10.012.

86. Bodinham CL, Frost GS, Robertson MD. Acute ingestion of resistant starch reduces food intake in healthy adults. Br J Nutr. 2010;103(6):917-922. doi:10.1017/S0007114509992534.

87. Nilsson AC, Ostman EM, Holst JJ, Björck IME. Including indigestible carbohydrates in the evening meal of healthy subjects improves glucose tolerance, lowers inflammatory markers, and increases satiety after a subsequent standardized breakfast. J Nutr. 2008;138(4):732-739.

88. Higgins JA, Higbee DR, Donahoo WT, Brown IL, Bell ML, Bessesen DH. Resistant starch consumption promotes lipid oxidation. Nutr Metab. 2004;1(1):8. doi:10.1186/1743-7075-1-8.

89. Robertson MD, Wright JW, Loizon E, et al. Insulin-sensitizing effects on muscle and adipose tissue after dietary fiber intake in men and women with metabolic syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012;97(9):3326-3332. doi:10.1210/jc.2012-1513.

90. Higgins JA. Resistant starch and energy balance: impact on weight loss and maintenance. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2014;54(9):1158-1166. doi:10.1080/10408398.2011.629352.

42

91. Moshfegh AJ, Friday JE, Goldman JP, Ahuja JK. Presence of inulin and oligofructose in the diets of Americans. J Nutr. 1999;129(7 Suppl):1407S - 11S.

92. Gibson GR, Probert HM, Loo JV, Rastall RA, Roberfroid MB. Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota: updating the concept of prebiotics. Nutr Res Rev. 2004;17(2):259-275. doi:10.1079/NRR200479.

93. Cani PD, Delzenne NM. The gut microbiome as therapeutic target. Pharmacol Ther. 2011;130(2):202-212. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2011.01.012.

94. Ridaura VK, Faith JJ, Rey FE, et al. Gut microbiota from twins discordant for obesity modulate metabolism in mice. Science. 2013;341(6150):1241214. doi:10.1126/science.1241214.

95. Liou AP, Paziuk M, Luevano J-M, Machineni S, Turnbaugh PJ, Kaplan LM. Conserved shifts in the gut microbiota due to gastric bypass reduce host weight and adiposity. Sci Transl Med. 2013;5(178):178ra41. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3005687.

96. Moghe SS, Juma S, Imrhan V, Vijayagopal P. Effect of blueberry polyphenols on 3T3-F442A preadipocyte differentiation. J Med Food. 2012;15(5):448-452. doi:10.1089/jmf.2011.0234.

97. McLeay Y, Barnes MJ, Mundel T, Hurst SM, Hurst RD, Stannard SR. Effect of New Zealand blueberry consumption on recovery from eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2012;9(1):19. doi:10.1186/1550-2783-9-19.

98. DeFuria J, Bennett G, Strissel KJ, et al. Dietary blueberry attenuates whole-body insulin resistance in high fat-fed mice by reducing adipocyte death and its inflammatory sequelae. J Nutr. 2009;139(8):1510-1516. doi:10.3945/jn.109.105155.

99. Sasaki R, Nishimura N, Hoshino H, et al. Cyanidin 3-glucoside ameliorates hyperglycemia and insulin sensitivity due to downregulation of retinol binding protein 4 expression in diabetic mice. Biochem Pharmacol. 2007;74(11):1619-1627. doi:10.1016/j.bcp.2007.08.008.

100. Tsuda T. Regulation of adipocyte function by anthocyanins; possibility of preventing the metabolic syndrome. J Agric Food Chem. 2008;56(3):642-646. doi:10.1021/jf073113b.

101. Brody S, Preut R, Schommer K, Schürmeyer TH. A randomized controlled trial of high dose ascorbic acid for reduction of blood pressure, cortisol, and subjective responses to psychological stress. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2002;159(3):319-324. doi:10.1007/s00213-001-0929-6.

43

102. Lee M-J, Fried SK. The glucocorticoid receptor, not the mineralocorticoid receptor, plays the dominant role in adipogenesis and adipokine production in human adipocytes. Int J Obes 2005. 2014;38(9):1228-1233. doi:10.1038/ijo.2014.6.

103. Rosmond R. Stress induced disturbances of the HPA axis: a pathway to Type 2 diabetes? Med Sci Monit Int Med J Exp Clin Res. 2003;9(2):RA35-RA39.

104. Despres J-P. Body Fat Distribution and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease: An Update. Circulation. 2012;126(10):1301-1313. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.067264.

105. Oliveros E, Somers VK, Sochor O, Goel K, Lopez-Jimenez F. The Concept of Normal Weight Obesity. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2014;56(4):426-433. doi:10.1016/j.pcad.2013.10.003.

106. Walldius G, Jungner I. Apolipoprotein B and apolipoprotein A-I: risk indicators of coronary heart disease and targets for lipid-modifying therapy. J Intern Med. 2004;255(2):188-205.

107. Toft-Petersen AP, Tilsted HH, Aarøe J, et al. Small dense LDL particles - a predictor of coronary artery disease evaluated by invasive and CT-based techniques: a case-control study. Lipids Health Dis. 2011;10(1):21. doi:10.1186/1476-511X-10-21.

108. Silver HJ, Dietrich MS, Niswender KD. Effects of grapefruit, grapefruit juice and water preloads on energy balance, weight loss, body composition, and cardiometabolic risk in free-living obese adults. Nutr Metab. 2011;8(1):8. doi:10.1186/1743-7075-8-8.

109. Fujioka K, Greenway F, Sheard J, Ying Y. The effects of grapefruit on weight and insulin resistance: relationship to the metabolic syndrome. J Med Food. 2006;9(1):49-54. doi:10.1089/jmf.2006.9.49.

110. Kahn BB, Flier JS. Obesity and insulin resistance. J Clin Invest. 2000;106(4):473-481. doi:10.1172/JCI10842.

111. Jung UJ, Kim HJ, Lee JS, et al. Naringin supplementation lowers plasma lipids and enhances erythrocyte antioxidant enzyme activities in hypercholesterolemic subjects. Clin Nutr Edinb Scotl. 2003;22(6):561-568.

112. Zygmunt K, Faubert B, MacNeil J, Tsiani E. Naringenin, a citrus flavonoid, increases muscle cell glucose uptake via AMPK. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2010;398(2):178-183. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2010.06.048.

113. Kurth-Kraczek EJ, Hirshman MF, Goodyear LJ, Winder WW. 5’ AMP-activated protein kinase activation causes GLUT4 translocation in skeletal muscle. Diabetes. 1999;48(8):1667-1671.

114. O’Neill HM, Holloway GP, Steinberg GR. AMPK regulation of fatty acid metabolism

44

and mitochondrial biogenesis: implications for obesity. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2013;366(2):135-151. doi:10.1016/j.mce.2012.06.019.

115. Richard AJ, Amini-Vaughan Z, Ribnicky DM, Stephens JM. Naringenin Inhibits Adipogenesis and Reduces Insulin Sensitivity and Adiponectin Expression in Adipocytes. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2013;2013:1-10. doi:10.1155/2013/549750.

116. Yoshida H, Watanabe W, Oomagari H, Tsuruta E, Shida M, Kurokawa M. Citrus flavonoid naringenin inhibits TLR2 expression in adipocytes. J Nutr Biochem. 2013;24(7):1276-1284. doi:10.1016/j.jnutbio.2012.10.003.

117. Murty CM, Pittaway JK, Ball MJ. Chickpea supplementation in an Australian diet affects food choice, satiety and bowel health. Appetite. 2010;54(2):282-288. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2009.11.012.

118. McCrory M, Lovejoy J, Palmer P, et al. Effectiveness of legume consumption for facilitating weight loss: a randomized trial (abstract). FASEB J. 2008;22:1084.9.

119. Bourdon I, Olson B, Backus R, Richter BD, Davis PA, Schneeman BO. Beans, as a source of dietary fiber, increase cholecystokinin and apolipoprotein b48 response to test meals in men. J Nutr. 2001;131(5):1485-1490.

120. Ha V, Sievenpiper JL, de Souza RJ, et al. Effect of dietary pulse intake on established therapeutic lipid targets for cardiovascular risk reduction: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. CMAJ Can Med Assoc J J Assoc Medicale Can. 2014;186(8):E252-E262. doi:10.1503/cmaj.131727.

121. Roberts SB. High-glycemic index foods, hunger, and obesity: is there a connection? Nutr Rev. 2000;58(6):163-169.

122. Pi-Sunyer FX. Glycemic index and disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;76(1):290S - 8S.123. Nuttall FQ, Gannon MC. Plasma glucose and insulin response to macronutrients in

nondiabetic and NIDDM subjects. Diabetes Care. 1991;14(9):824-838.124. Food for Life®. The Sprouted Grain DifferenceTM. http://www.foodforlife.com/

about_us/sprouted-grain-difference.125. Febles CI, Arias A, Hardisson A, Rodrıguez-Alvarez C, Sierra A. Phytic Acid Level

in Wheat Flours. J Cereal Sci. 2002;36(1):19-23. doi:10.1006/jcrs.2001.0441.126. Bernardin A. Why I Love Coconut Oil: The facts about this health-building elixir.

Lifestyle Poliquin. February 2013. http://www.lifestylebypoliquin.com/Lifestyle/Nutrition/504/_Why_I_Love_Coconut_Oil.aspx.

127. Assunção ML, Ferreira HS, dos Santos AF, Cabral CR, Florêncio TMMT. Effects of dietary coconut oil on the biochemical and anthropometric profiles of women

45

presenting abdominal obesity. Lipids. 2009;44(7):593-601. doi:10.1007/s11745-009-3306-6.

128. Geliebter A, Torbay N, Bracco EF, Hashim SA, Van Itallie TB. Overfeeding with medium-chain triglyceride diet results in diminished deposition of fat. Am J Clin Nutr. 1983;37(1):1-4.

129. St-Onge M-P, Jones PJH. Greater rise in fat oxidation with medium-chain triglyceride consumption relative to long-chain triglyceride is associated with lower initial body weight and greater loss of subcutaneous adipose tissue. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord J Int Assoc Study Obes. 2003;27(12):1565-1571. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0802467.

130. Dulloo AG, Fathi M, Mensi N, Girardier L. Twenty-four-hour energy expenditure and urinary catecholamines of humans consuming low-to-moderate amounts of medium-chain triglycerides: a dose-response study in a human respiratory chamber. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1996;50(3):152-158.

131. Torres-Fuentes C, Schellekens H, Dinan TG, Cryan JF. A natural solution for obesity: Bioactives for the prevention and treatment of weight gain. A review. Nutr Neurosci. 2015;18(2):49-65. doi:10.1179/1476830513Y.0000000099.

132. Dulloo AG, Duret C, Rohrer D, et al. Efficacy of a green tea extract rich in catechin polyphenols and caffeine in increasing 24-h energy expenditure and fat oxidation in humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;70(6):1040-1045.

133. Venables MC, Hulston CJ, Cox HR, Jeukendrup AE. Green tea extract ingestion, fat oxidation, and glucose tolerance in healthy humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;87(3):778-784.

134. Westerterp-Plantenga MS. Green tea catechins, caffeine and body-weight regulation. Physiol Behav. 2010;100(1):42-46. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2010.02.005.

135. Kao YH, Hiipakka RA, Liao S. Modulation of obesity by a green tea catechin. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;72(5):1232-1234.

136. van Dam RM, Hu FB. Coffee consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review. JAMA. 2005;294(1):97-104. doi:10.1001/jama.294.1.97.

137. Barranco Quintana JL, Allam MF, Serrano Del Castillo A, Fernández-Crehuet Navajas R. Alzheimer’s disease and coffee: a quantitative review. Neurol Res. 2007;29(1):91-95. doi:10.1179/174313206X152546.

138. The Institute for Scientific Information on Coffee. Good Things in Life: Can Coffee Consumption Reduce the Risk of Developing Alzheimer’s Disease?; 2014. http://coffeeandhealth.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/ISIC-Alzheimers-Report-2014.pdf.

46

139. Ross GW, Abbott RD, Petrovitch H, et al. Association of coffee and caffeine intake with the risk of Parkinson disease. JAMA. 2000;283(20):2674-2679.

140. Lopez-Garcia E, van Dam RM, Li TY, Rodriguez-Artalejo F, Hu FB. The relationship of coffee consumption with mortality. Ann Intern Med. 2008;148(12):904-914.

141. Svilaas A, Sakhi AK, Andersen LF, et al. Intakes of antioxidants in coffee, wine, and vegetables are correlated with plasma carotenoids in humans. J Nutr. 2004;134(3):562-567.

142. Smith AP, Brockman P, Flynn R, Maben A, Thomas M. Investigation of the effects of coffee on alertness and performance during the day and night. Neuropsychobiology. 1993;27(4):217-223. doi:118984.

143. Hindmarch I, Rigney U, Stanley N, Quinlan P, Rycroft J, Lane J. A naturalistic investigation of the effects of day-long consumption of tea, coffee and water on alertness, sleep onset and sleep quality. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2000;149(3):203-216.

144. Ruxton CHS. The impact of caffeine on mood, cognitive function, performance and hydration: a review of benefits and risks. Nutr Bull. 2008;33(1):15-25. doi:10.1111/j.1467-3010.2007.00665.x.

145. Doherty M, Smith PM. Effects of caffeine ingestion on rating of perceived exertion during and after exercise: a meta-analysis. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2005;15(2):69-78. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2005.00445.x.

146. Acheson KJ, Zahorska-Markiewicz B, Pittet P, Anantharaman K, Jéquier E. Caffeine and coffee: their influence on metabolic rate and substrate utilization in normal weight and obese individuals. Am J Clin Nutr. 1980;33(5):989-997.

147. Dulloo AG, Geissler CA, Horton T, Collins A, Miller DS. Normal caffeine consumption: influence on thermogenesis and daily energy expenditure in lean and postobese human volunteers. Am J Clin Nutr. 1989;49(1):44-50.

148. Klempel MC, Kroeger CM, Bhutani S, Trepanowski JF, Varady KA. Intermittent fasting combined with calorie restriction is effective for weight loss and cardio-protection in obese women. Nutr J. 2012;11(1):98. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-11-98.

149. Brown JE, Mosley M, Aldred S. Intermittent fasting: a dietary intervention for prevention of diabetes and cardiovascular disease? Br J Diabetes Vasc Dis. 2013;13(2):68-72. doi:10.1177/1474651413486496.

150. Halberg N. Effect of intermittent fasting and refeeding on insulin action in healthy men. J Appl Physiol. 2005;99(6):2128-2136. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00683.2005.

151. Brandhorst S, Choi IY, Wei M, et al. A Periodic Diet that Mimics Fasting Promotes

47

Multi-System Regeneration, Enhanced Cognitive Performance, and Healthspan. Cell Metab. 2015;22(1):86-99. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2015.05.012.

152. Horne BD, Muhlestein JB, Anderson JL. Health effects of intermittent fasting: hormesis or harm? A systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr. 2015;102(2):464-470. doi:10.3945/ajcn.115.109553.