Jews in the Empires of Jews in the Empires of IslamIslam

Living, Learning, Loving, and Living, Learning, Loving, and Loathing in the Middle EastLoathing in the Middle East

Introduction to Muslim Introduction to Muslim EmpiresEmpires• After the death of Muhammad in 632 CE, the After the death of Muhammad in 632 CE, the

young Muslim community came under strain. young Muslim community came under strain.

• The community immediately chose the The community immediately chose the Prophet's close companion and father-in-Law Prophet's close companion and father-in-Law Abu Bakr, as his successor. Abu Bakr was Abu Bakr, as his successor. Abu Bakr was known as the first caliph and took swift military known as the first caliph and took swift military action against the communities that wanted to action against the communities that wanted to break away. break away.

• These campaigns, known as the “apostasy These campaigns, known as the “apostasy wars,” effectively consolidated Arabia under wars,” effectively consolidated Arabia under Muslim control within two years.Muslim control within two years.

-- Paraphrased from as good a source as any: the BBC; -- Paraphrased from as good a source as any: the BBC; http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/earlyrise_2.shtmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/earlyrise_2.shtml

Umayyad Empire (661 – Umayyad Empire (661 – 750)750)

• Capital in DamascusCapital in Damascus

• Sets precedent for other Muslim Sets precedent for other Muslim EmpiresEmpires– Consolidates lands under Islamic rule and Consolidates lands under Islamic rule and

extends borders of the Islamic Empire from extends borders of the Islamic Empire from the Atlantic Coast to Chinathe Atlantic Coast to China

– Sets the precedent for further expansionsSets the precedent for further expansions– Creates culture of learning, translation, Creates culture of learning, translation,

studystudy

Abbasid Empire (750 ~ Abbasid Empire (750 ~ 1258) 1258)

• Took over Persia and other portions Took over Persia and other portions of Central Asiaof Central Asia

• Presided over unprecedented era of Presided over unprecedented era of intellectual interchangeintellectual interchange– Arabic as common language of Arabic as common language of

intellectual discourseintellectual discourse– 80% of all Jews were living within the 80% of all Jews were living within the

same Empire!same Empire!

YES! 80% of Jews in Single YES! 80% of Jews in Single Empire!Empire!

• Baghdad becomes preeminent Baghdad becomes preeminent center of Jewish learningcenter of Jewish learning

• Babylonian Talmud codified during Babylonian Talmud codified during this period (increasing evidence this period (increasing evidence suggests final redactions in 8suggests final redactions in 8thth Century or later!) Century or later!)

• Propaganda to spread TalmudPropaganda to spread Talmud– Preeminence of the Babylonian GaonatePreeminence of the Babylonian Gaonate

Putting the pieces togetherPutting the pieces together

• 80% of Jews in a single empire80% of Jews in a single empire

• Common language for them – ArabicCommon language for them – Arabic

• Codification of Jewish lawCodification of Jewish law

• Translation of Greek philosophy into Arabic being Translation of Greek philosophy into Arabic being disproportionately done by Jewsdisproportionately done by Jews

• Major academic and political institutions in the Major academic and political institutions in the capital of the Abbasid Empirecapital of the Abbasid Empire– NasiNasi– Gaon (also Gaon of Palestine)Gaon (also Gaon of Palestine)

Put them together and…Put them together and…

You get a sophisticated, outwardly You get a sophisticated, outwardly turned Jewish intellectual and social turned Jewish intellectual and social center, and:center, and:

ALMOST THE ENTIRE JEWISH WORLD ALMOST THE ENTIRE JEWISH WORLD LIVING UNDER A SINGLE SET OF LIVING UNDER A SINGLE SET OF LAWSLAWS

Controversial Claim: Controversial Claim: Could it Could it be that Judaism might not be that Judaism might not have survived the Middle have survived the Middle Ages without the existence Ages without the existence of Islam?!of Islam?!

A shift in focusA shift in focus

• During 10During 10thth Century, Baghdad and Century, Baghdad and other Abbasid cities outgrow the other Abbasid cities outgrow the agricultural hinterlands that support agricultural hinterlands that support themthem– Huge problems; unrestHuge problems; unrest– Empire begins to decline; parts split offEmpire begins to decline; parts split off– It was just too big to stay unified; too It was just too big to stay unified; too

large to overseelarge to oversee

Parallel trends for JewsParallel trends for Jews

• Gaonate in Baghdad presides over too Gaonate in Baghdad presides over too large an arealarge an area

• Rival communities – namely in al-Rival communities – namely in al-Andalus, (modern day) Egypt, and the Andalus, (modern day) Egypt, and the Rhineland shift the focus Rhineland shift the focus

• Jewish communities stop donating to the Jewish communities stop donating to the Gaonate and stop paying homage to itGaonate and stop paying homage to it

• Result: Diffusion of Jewish intellectual and Result: Diffusion of Jewish intellectual and political clout political clout

Al-Andalus: New Center for Al-Andalus: New Center for Jewish Life in the DiasporaJewish Life in the Diaspora

• How did it get this way?How did it get this way?

• What is al-Andalus?What is al-Andalus?

• Who were its major intellectuals?Who were its major intellectuals?

• What roles could Jews play in the What roles could Jews play in the society?society?

Cant answer all of the questions, but will Cant answer all of the questions, but will try to illustrate a couple of pointstry to illustrate a couple of points

Al-Andalus through the eyes Al-Andalus through the eyes of a Jewish Intellectualof a Jewish Intellectual

Medieval Polemics:Medieval Polemics:What can we glean from them?What can we glean from them?

• [In mocking an opponent:] “He apparently [In mocking an opponent:] “He apparently finds no distinction between one who turns finds no distinction between one who turns to idolatry…voluntarily, like Jeroboam and to idolatry…voluntarily, like Jeroboam and his associates, and one who will under his associates, and one who will under compulsion say of someone that he compulsion say of someone that he [Muhammad] is a prophet because he is [Muhammad] is a prophet because he is afraid of the executioner’s sword.” afraid of the executioner’s sword.”

• Jesus is an “Illegitimate child”… “May his Jesus is an “Illegitimate child”… “May his bones be ground to dust”bones be ground to dust”

Polemics can be tellingPolemics can be telling

• Who wrote the earlier quotes?Who wrote the earlier quotes?

• What prejudices do they revealWhat prejudices do they reveal

• What can that teach us about What can that teach us about religion in the Middle East during the religion in the Middle East during the first six centuries following the birth first six centuries following the birth of Islam?of Islam?

Moses Maimonides: Moses Maimonides: Imperfect inter-religious leaderImperfect inter-religious leader

Known in three Known in three worlds:worlds:

• Rabbi Moshe ben Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon Maimon

• Mūsā ibn MaymūnMūsā ibn Maymūn

• Moses MaimonidesMoses Maimonides

Contemporary Saudi Arabian Contemporary Saudi Arabian professor, Huseyin Atay, once professor, Huseyin Atay, once quipped that “If you didn't quipped that “If you didn't know he was Jewish, you know he was Jewish, you might easily make the mistake might easily make the mistake of saying that a Muslim was of saying that a Muslim was writing." writing."

How could this be possible?!How could this be possible?!

General biographical General biographical informationinformation

• Born in Cordoba, al-Andalus (Modern Born in Cordoba, al-Andalus (Modern Spain) in 1135Spain) in 1135

• Died in the Ayyubid Empire (Modern Died in the Ayyubid Empire (Modern Day Egypt) in 1204Day Egypt) in 1204

• Rabbi, judge, philosopher, doctor, Rabbi, judge, philosopher, doctor, scholar, activist, “heretic” scholar, activist, “heretic”

• Major works: Major works: Mishneh TorahMishneh Torah, , Guide Guide to the Perplexedto the Perplexed, dozens of medical , dozens of medical treatisestreatises

Islam’s intellectual Islam’s intellectual undertakingsundertakings• Greek philosophy and science became Greek philosophy and science became

available in Arabic towards the end of the available in Arabic towards the end of the Umayyad reign (750 C.E.) and the beginning Umayyad reign (750 C.E.) and the beginning of the Abbasid Dynasty (762 C.E.).of the Abbasid Dynasty (762 C.E.).[1][1] – If Muhammad’s Prophecy contained in it all If Muhammad’s Prophecy contained in it all

wisdom, why be afraid of other sources of wisdom, why be afraid of other sources of knowledge?knowledge?

– Translation operations begin in Damascus; entire Translation operations begin in Damascus; entire movement of translation continues on work in movement of translation continues on work in BaghdadBaghdad

– Aristotle, PlatoAristotle, Plato– Great mobility of scholars from one area to the Great mobility of scholars from one area to the

nextnext– Jews and Christians share in these intellectual Jews and Christians share in these intellectual

developments, toodevelopments, too [1] Saliba, George. [1] Saliba, George. Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance. Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT, 2007: page 73. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT, 2007: page 73.

What problems could a What problems could a little philosophy cause?little philosophy cause?

All KindsAll Kinds

Philosophy spreadsPhilosophy spreads

• Across North Africa and Arabian Across North Africa and Arabian Peninsula (particularly Baghdad)Peninsula (particularly Baghdad)

– Kalam School of Aristotelian thoughtKalam School of Aristotelian thought– Platonic schools of thoughtPlatonic schools of thought

But nowhere more than…But nowhere more than…

Al-AndalusAl-Andalus

Brief history of al-AndalusBrief history of al-Andalus

Continuing to spread IslamContinuing to spread Islam• In the first of several invasions from Africa, Tariq Ibn In the first of several invasions from Africa, Tariq Ibn

Ziyad, a strong-willed Berber military commander, Ziyad, a strong-willed Berber military commander, crossed the Straits in 711 and rapidly pushed crossed the Straits in 711 and rapidly pushed northward.[1] Supported by reinforcements from his northward.[1] Supported by reinforcements from his governor, Musa Ibn Nusayr, in 712, Tariq quickly governor, Musa Ibn Nusayr, in 712, Tariq quickly wrested the peninsula from the Visigoths and placed wrested the peninsula from the Visigoths and placed it under Muslim rule by 715.[2] They hastily it under Muslim rule by 715.[2] They hastily dismantled vestiges of the previous regime and dismantled vestiges of the previous regime and established al-Andalus as a Muslim emirate by 716, established al-Andalus as a Muslim emirate by 716, with Cordoba as its capital.[3] But it is easier to with Cordoba as its capital.[3] But it is easier to conquer than it is to rule. Musa failed to create a conquer than it is to rule. Musa failed to create a stable government to take place of the feeble one it stable government to take place of the feeble one it had replaced.[4] had replaced.[4]

[1] The most recent invasion was from General Francisco Franco from Morocco in 1936. [1] The most recent invasion was from General Francisco Franco from Morocco in 1936. [2][2] Menjot, Denis, Menjot, Denis, Les Espagnes médiévales 409-1474. Les Espagnes médiévales 409-1474. Paris : Hachette, 2001: page 41. Paris : Hachette, 2001: page 41. [3][3] O’Callaghan, Joseph F. O’Callaghan, Joseph F. A History of Medieval Al-Andalus.A History of Medieval Al-Andalus. Ithaca: Cornell, 1975: page 95. Ithaca: Cornell, 1975: page 95. [4] O’Callaghan, Joseph F. [4] O’Callaghan, Joseph F. A History of Medieval Al-Andalus.A History of Medieval Al-Andalus. Ithaca: Cornell, 1975: page 95. Ithaca: Cornell, 1975: page 95.

““Last Umayyad Emirate”Last Umayyad Emirate”

• For nearly forty years, a series of weak emirs, For nearly forty years, a series of weak emirs, appointed by the governor of North Africa, were appointed by the governor of North Africa, were unable to unify al-Andalus.[1] Particularly unable to unify al-Andalus.[1] Particularly challenging were relations between the diverse challenging were relations between the diverse groups of Muslims who had settled in the region. groups of Muslims who had settled in the region. Conflicts broke out between two prominent Arab Conflicts broke out between two prominent Arab tribal groups, as well as between North African tribal groups, as well as between North African Berbers and Arabs.[2] The infighting became Berbers and Arabs.[2] The infighting became fierce and might have ended in outright civil war fierce and might have ended in outright civil war had it not be for Abd al-Rahman, a prince from had it not be for Abd al-Rahman, a prince from the rapidly declining Umayyad Empire, who the rapidly declining Umayyad Empire, who abandoned its capital of Damascus in 750 and abandoned its capital of Damascus in 750 and maneuvered his way to the throne in al-Andalus. maneuvered his way to the throne in al-Andalus.

[1] Ibid. [1] Ibid. [2] Ibid. [2] Ibid.

Jews are a beloved ally Jews are a beloved ally

Okay… maybe not like Okay… maybe not like that:that:• Though Abd al-Rahman was at times a Though Abd al-Rahman was at times a

brutal leader, he treated his Jewish and brutal leader, he treated his Jewish and Christian subjects with remarkable Christian subjects with remarkable respect. He recognized that they were respect. He recognized that they were not involved in the intertribal strife that not involved in the intertribal strife that continued to simmer throughout the continued to simmer throughout the kingdom and did not pose a significant kingdom and did not pose a significant threat to his reign. threat to his reign.

•   

Why else reach out to Jews?Why else reach out to Jews?

• Moreover, they served as a major source Moreover, they served as a major source of tax revenue, since their status as of tax revenue, since their status as dhimmis dhimmis (religious groups exempt from (religious groups exempt from conversion to Islam due to their conversion to Islam due to their Abrahamic origins) was accompanied by Abrahamic origins) was accompanied by a supplementary levy. The Emir remained a supplementary levy. The Emir remained concerned for the stability of his domain concerned for the stability of his domain and was both prudent and genuinely and was both prudent and genuinely open-minded in his willingness to reach open-minded in his willingness to reach out to non-Muslims. Ashtor, 47-49. out to non-Muslims. Ashtor, 47-49.

Result:Result:

• Emirate that in time came to rival the Emirate that in time came to rival the Abbasid EmpireAbbasid Empire

• Singular Jewish community, rivaling that Singular Jewish community, rivaling that of the Abbasid Empireof the Abbasid Empire

• In both spheres, Baghdad and Cordoba In both spheres, Baghdad and Cordoba became rivalsbecame rivals

• By the 10By the 10thth Century, Cordoba was clearly Century, Cordoba was clearly the preeminent cultural capitalthe preeminent cultural capital

OustedOusted

• When forced to leave, Jews felt dejected!When forced to leave, Jews felt dejected!– Almoravid invasion (1086)Almoravid invasion (1086)

• My time has purged me from among them My time has purged me from among them [the intellectuals of al-Andalus] and appointed [the intellectuals of al-Andalus] and appointed me to live in a desert of wild beasts; Beasts, me to live in a desert of wild beasts; Beasts, though they starve for a morsel of intellect, though they starve for a morsel of intellect, thirsting for waters of faith.” – Moses Ibn Ezra thirsting for waters of faith.” – Moses Ibn Ezra

- Decter, Jonathan P. - Decter, Jonathan P. Iberian Jewish Literature. Iberian Jewish Literature. Bloomington: Indiana U, Bloomington: Indiana U, 2007: page 41. 2007: page 41.

•   

Out ForeverOut Forever

• Almohad invasion (1147)Almohad invasion (1147)

• Maimonides’ life goal: rebuilding the Maimonides’ life goal: rebuilding the intellectual home he was born inintellectual home he was born in• Could not find it in Christian Domains at the Could not find it in Christian Domains at the

timetime

• Tried North AfricaTried North Africa

• Tried the Latin Kingdom of JerusalemTried the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem

• Finally found refuge in the (Egyptian) Empire of Finally found refuge in the (Egyptian) Empire of Saladin (Salah al-Din)Saladin (Salah al-Din)

Never satisfied, always Never satisfied, always strivingstriving

At least he left an intellectual At least he left an intellectual party for us to enjoy!party for us to enjoy!