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Transcript of Jet Fuel Characteristics
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Performance Engineer OperationsFlight Operations Engineering
Dave Lawicki
Performance Engineer OperationsFlight Operations Engineering
Dave Lawicki
May 2002May 2002
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Why this Subject?Why this Subject?
Provide a brief introduction to aviation fuel
definitions and characteristics Familiarize you with terminology and industry
jargon
Address operational concerns related to fuel Inform you of research work and possible future
fuels
Exchange some insight into the Energy of Flight
Provide a brief introduction to aviation fuel
definitions and characteristics Familiarize you with terminology and industry
jargon
Address operational concerns related to fuel Inform you of research work and possible future
fuels
Exchange some insight into the Energy of Flight
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
TopicsTopics
Oil Distillation
Types of Aviation Fuel Specifications
Composition of Fuel Fuel Properties
Non-Normal Situations
Alternative Fuels
Oil Distillation
Types of Aviation Fuel Specifications
Composition of Fuel
Fuel Properties
Non-Normal Situations
Alternative Fuels
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Distillation of Crude OilDistillation of Crude Oil
Diesel fuelDiesel fuel
CokeCokeSulfur Sulfur Bunker oilBunker oil
LPGLPG
Jet fuel (about 5 U.S. gallons)Jet fuel (about 5 U.S. gallons)
Co-generationCo-generation
GasolineGasoline
1 Barrel of Crude = 42 U.S. gallons1 Barrel of Crude = 42 U.S. gallons
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Types of Aviation FuelTypes of Aviation Fuel
Aviation Gasoline - AvGas
Turbine Fuels
Aviation Gasoline - AvGas
Turbine Fuels
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Aviation Gasoline (AvGas)Aviation Gasoline (AvGas)
Reciprocating Engines Only
Rated by Octane - 80/87, 100/130,115/145 - Red, Blue, Purple
Commercial Specification -ASTM D 910
Reciprocating Engines Only
Rated by Octane - 80/87, 100/130,115/145 - Red, Blue, Purple
Commercial Specification -ASTM D 910
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Turbine FuelsTurbine Fuels
Jet A Kerosene Type,freeze point -40C (U.S.domestic only)
Jet A-1 Kerosene Type,freeze point -47C
Jet B Wide Cut, freeze
point -50C
Jet A Kerosene Type,freeze point -40C (U.S.domestic only)
Jet A-1 Kerosene Type,freeze point -47C
Jet B Wide Cut, freezepoint -50C
Commercial GradesCommercial Grades
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
JP-4 Wide Cut, similar to Jet B JP-5 Higher flash point for carrier
operations
JP-7 Thermally Stable for SR-71higher temperatures
JP-8 Kerosene Type, similar to
Jet A-1 JP-9 Missile fuel (higher energy
per unit volume)
JP-4 Wide Cut, similar to Jet B
JP-5 Higher flash point for carrieroperations
JP-7 Thermally Stable for SR-71higher temperatures
JP-8 Kerosene Type, similar to
Jet A-1 JP-9 Missile fuel (higher energy
per unit volume)
Military Grades (U.S.)Military Grades (U.S.)
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Commercial Turbine FuelCommercial Turbine Fuel
Industry/Governmentspecifications
American Society forTesting and Materials(ASTM)
Industry/Governmentspecifications
American Society forTesting and Materials(ASTM)
ASTM D1655 Jet A, Jet A-1, Jet BASTM D1655 Jet A, Jet A-1, Jet B
SpecificationsSpecifications
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Commercial Turbine FuelCommercial Turbine FuelSpecificationsSpecifications
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Commercial Turbine FuelCommercial Turbine Fuel
International Air TransportAssociation (IATA guidance material)IATA ADD76-1 Kerosene Types andWide Cut
Aviation Fuel Quality Requirementsfor Jointly Operated Systems(AFQRJOS) Check List, Jet A-1, Jet B(non-U.S.)
International Air TransportAssociation (IATA guidance material)IATA ADD76-1 Kerosene Types andWide Cut
Aviation Fuel Quality Requirementsfor Jointly Operated Systems(AFQRJOS) Check List, Jet A-1, Jet B(non-U.S.)
Specifications (cont.)Specifications (cont.)
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
British - DERD.2494 (AVTUR) Canadian - CAN/CGSB 3.23-M86
French - AIR 3405/C
Russian - GOST 10227-86 T-1, TS-1(TS-1 freeze point -50 to -60C)
Romanian - 3754/73, CS-3, STAS 5639
British - DERD.2494 (AVTUR) Canadian - CAN/CGSB 3.23-M86
French - AIR 3405/C
Russian - GOST 10227-86 T-1, TS-1(TS-1 freeze point -50 to -60C)
Romanian - 3754/73, CS-3, STAS 5639
Kerosene TypesKerosene TypesJet A-1 SpecificationsJet A-1 Specifications
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Wide CutWide Cut
British - DERD.2486 (AVTUR)
Canadian - CAN/CGSB 3.22-M86
French - AIR 3407/B
Russian - GOST 10227-86, T-2 German - TL 9130-006 Issue 6
British - DERD.2486 (AVTUR)
Canadian - CAN/CGSB 3.22-M86
French - AIR 3407/B
Russian - GOST 10227-86, T-2 German - TL 9130-006 Issue 6
Jet B SpecificationsJet B Specifications
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Engine ManufacturesEngine Manufactures
General Electric - SpecificationNo. D50TF2
Pratt & Whitney - Service BulletinNo. 2016
Rolls-Royce - Appendix 2 to EngineOperating Manual
FAA/JAA Approved Airplane FlightManual
General Electric - SpecificationNo. D50TF2
Pratt & Whitney - Service BulletinNo. 2016
Rolls-Royce - Appendix 2 to EngineOperating Manual
FAA/JAA Approved Airplane FlightManual
SpecificationsSpecifications
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Airplane Flight ManualAirplane Flight Manual
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Airplane Flight ManualAirplane Flight Manual
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Airplane Flight ManualAirplane Flight Manual
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Airplane Flight ManualAirplane Flight Manual
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Turbine Fuel CompositionTurbine Fuel Composition
Four groups of Hydrocarbons in Jet Fuel:Four groups of Hydrocarbons in Jet Fuel:
HH
HH HH HH HH HH
HHCC CC CC CC CC
HH HH HH HH HH
Paraffins, Isoparaffins, Cycloparaffins Paraffins, Isoparaffins, Cycloparaffins
Aromatics Aromatics
Naphthalenes Naphthalenes
Olefins Olefins
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Other Fuel ConstituentsOther Fuel Constituents
Sulfur - corrosion and emissions
Gums - filter clogging andsticky valves
Water - corrosion and filter clogging
Naphthenic Acid - corrosion
Sulfur - corrosion and emissions
Gums - filter clogging andsticky valves
Water - corrosion and filter clogging
Naphthenic Acid - corrosion
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Fuel AdditivesFuel Additives
Approved Additives only
Antioxidents Metal Deactivators
Fuel System Icing Inhibitors
Corrosion Inhibitors
Static Dissipators
Approved Additives only
Antioxidents Metal Deactivators
Fuel System Icing Inhibitors
Corrosion Inhibitors
Static Dissipators
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Turbine Fuel PropertiesTurbine Fuel Properties
Density (Specific Gravity SG)
Lower Heating Value (LHV)
Viscosity
Lubricity
Low Temperature
Volatility
Electrical
Bulk modulus
Thermal Oxidation Stability
Material Compatibility
Toxicity
Density (Specific Gravity SG)
Lower Heating Value (LHV)
Viscosity
Lubricity
Low Temperature
Volatility
Electrical
Bulk modulus
Thermal Oxidation Stability
Material Compatibility
Toxicity
Fuel PropertiesFuel Properties
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Density, Specific GravityDensity, Specific Gravity
Density = Mass/Volume
Specific Gravity (SG) also known as RelativeDensity
Typical Jet A, Jet A-1: SG = 0.815
Typical Jet B: SG = 0.764 Varies with temperature API = (141.5/SG) - 131.5 SG measured with hydrometer per
ASTM D1298 Airplane Densitometers
Density = Mass/Volume
Specific Gravity (SG) also known as RelativeDensity
Typical Jet A, Jet A-1: SG = 0.815
Typical Jet B: SG = 0.764 Varies with temperature API = (141.5/SG) - 131.5
SG measured with hydrometer per ASTM D1298
Airplane Densitometers
Fuel PropertiesFuel Properties
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Lower Heating Value (LHV)Lower Heating Value (LHV)
LHV = Net Heat of Combustion (BTU/lb)
Jet A: 18,484 - 18,645 (ave. 18564) Density relationship to LHV
Performance analysis based on18,580 BTU/lb
Boeing Airplane Performance Monitoringprogram (APM) input
LHV = Net Heat of Combustion (BTU/lb)
Jet A: 18,484 - 18,645 (ave. 18564) Density relationship to LHV
Performance analysis based on18,580 BTU/lb
Boeing Airplane Performance Monitoringprogram (APM) input
Fuel PropertiesFuel Properties
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
APM Program DocumentationAPM Program Documentation Fuel PropertiesFuel Properties
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Fuel Lower Heating Value EstimationFuel Lower Heating Value Estimation Fuel PropertiesFuel Properties
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
ViscosityViscosity
Fuel line pressure drop and
pumping capabilities Low temperatures increase
viscosity
Measuring units areCentistokes (mm /sec)
Fuel line pressure drop and
pumping capabilities Low temperatures increase
viscosity
Measuring units areCentistokes (mm /sec)
Fuel PropertiesFuel Properties
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Fuel LubricityFuel Lubricity
Controls, valves, bearing, pumps
Low viscosity preventshydrodynamic film
Absorbs into surface - Boundarylayer lubricants
Refining removes lubricants(thermally stable fuels, SR-71)
Corrosion inhibitors augment Lubricity
Controls, valves, bearing, pumps
Low viscosity preventshydrodynamic film
Absorbs into surface - Boundarylayer lubricants
Refining removes lubricants(thermally stable fuels, SR-71)
Corrosion inhibitors augment Lubricity
Fuel PropertiesFuel Properties
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Low Temperature PropertiesLow Temperature Properties
Freeze Point (wax crystals disappear)
Pour Point (1.5 inch cylinder test)(4C to 20C below Freeze Point)
Cloud Point (haze forms)
Fuel will not flow when indicatedtemperature is below pour point
Fuel starts to solidify when recoverytemperature is below pour point
Operational Considerations
Freeze Point (wax crystals disappear)
Pour Point (1.5 inch cylinder test)(4C to 20C below Freeze Point)
Cloud Point (haze forms)
Fuel will not flow when indicatedtemperature is below pour point
Fuel starts to solidify when recoverytemperature is below pour point
Operational Considerations
Fuel PropertiesFuel Properties
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Operational ConsiderationsOperational Considerations
Pilots must maintain fuel temperature at least 3Cabove fuel freeze point
Low temperature operations is a concern for fueltransfer, boost pump inlets and in fuel lines
The rate at which the fuel temperature declines is
a function of air temperature, airplane geometry,fuel management schedule and time
Fuel temperature will approach the recovery
temperature Recovery Temperature is slightly lower than TAT
TAT and Recovery Temperature are a function ofambient air temperature and Mach
Pilots must maintain fuel temperature at least 3Cabove fuel freeze point
Low temperature operations is a concern for fueltransfer, boost pump inlets and in fuel lines
The rate at which the fuel temperature declines is
a function of air temperature, airplane geometry,fuel management schedule and time
Fuel temperature will approach the recovery
temperature Recovery Temperature is slightly lower than TAT
TAT and Recovery Temperature are a function ofambient air temperature and Mach
Fuel PropertiesFuel Properties
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Lowest Fuel TemperaturesLowest Fuel Temperatures
F u e
l T e m p e
r a t u r e
C
Initial fuel temperature = +5C
Jet A Freeze Point
Minimum Recovery Temperature
Jet A-1 Freeze Point
Range-Nautical Miles
Initial fuel temperature = -18C
74710
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500 5,000
C A L C
C H E
C K
A P R
A P R
F U E
C A P Y
R E V I S E D
D A T E
D 6 - 4 2 3 8 6
F I G . 3 5
P A
G E 1 3 A
L O WE
S T F
U E L T E M P E R A
T U R E
S I N
O U T B
O A R D M A I N T A N K
S O F 7 4 7 A
S A
F U N
C T I O N
O F R A N
G E
T H E B
O E I N
G C O M P
A N Y
Fuel PropertiesFuel Properties
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Increasing use of Polar RoutesIncreasing use of Polar Routes Fuel PropertiesFuel Properties
Hong Kong
Chicago
UnitedStates
Canada
Russia
Mongolia
China ArcticOcean
PacificOcean
Japan
777 Demonstration Flight:15 hours 22 minutes total flight timeAt 10 hours into the flight, OAT = -64C, TAT = -35C,Recovery Temp = -38C. The lowest fuel temperature was-32C at 11 hours into the flight.
777 Demonstration Flight:15 hours 22 minutes total flight timeAt 10 hours into the flight, OAT = -64C, TAT = -35C,Recovery Temp = -38C. The lowest fuel temperature was-32C at 11 hours into the flight.
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Actual Fuel vs. SpecificationActual Fuel vs. Specification
Specification: Jet A -40C, Jet A-1 -47C,Jet B -50C
Freeze Point of actual fuel varies from day-to-dayand airport-to-airport
Actual delivered fuel might have freeze point asmuch as 40% better than specification
Pilot must observe specification value unless testresults are known
Specification: Jet A -40C, Jet A-1 -47C,Jet B -50C
Freeze Point of actual fuel varies from day-to-dayand airport-to-airport
Actual delivered fuel might have freeze point asmuch as 40% better than specification
Pilot must observe specification value unless testresults are known
Fuel PropertiesFuel Properties
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Operational Response to Cold FuelOperational Response to Cold Fuel
Increase Mach (.01 Mach is 0.5C)
Divert around cold air mass
Descend to lower (warmer) altitude(extreme cases may require 25,000 ft at .85 Mach)
Dispatch with known fuel freeze point
Increase Mach (.01 Mach is 0.5C)
Divert around cold air mass
Descend to lower (warmer) altitude(extreme cases may require 25,000 ft at .85 Mach)
Dispatch with known fuel freeze point
Fuel PropertiesFuel Properties
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Cold Fuel Flow ResearchCold Fuel Flow Research Fuel PropertiesFuel Properties
Bay 1Bay 2
Thermocouplerake
Thermocouple
rakes
Boost pumpinlet
Flapper valves
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
0
35
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0
90 min450 min 2 min
Temperature ( o F)
Low-convection,mushy zone
Bulk tank temperature(airplane probe)
H e i g h
t a b o v e t a
n k b o t
t o m
( i n c h
e s )
Fuel pour point
102 < q total < 103 W/m 2
with
20 W/m2
latentheat release
qtotal 30 W/m 2
Fuel PropertiesFuel PropertiesCold Fuel Flow ResearchCold Fuel Flow Research
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Cold Fuel SummaryCold Fuel Summary
Fuel Tank tests at cold temperatures
Computer Models of tank cooling - FuelTemperature Prediction Program (FTPP)
IATA is reviewing ASTM/GOST testing procedures
Fuel additives being considered
Fuel Freeze points are being monitored in U.S.
IATA team to audit fuel quality around the world Future system to monitor fuel freeze points at
airports on-line, real time. (Phase Technology)
Fuel Tank tests at cold temperatures
Computer Models of tank cooling - FuelTemperature Prediction Program (FTPP)
IATA is reviewing ASTM/GOST testing procedures
Fuel additives being considered
Fuel Freeze points are being monitored in U.S.
IATA team to audit fuel quality around the world Future system to monitor fuel freeze points at
airports on-line, real time. (Phase Technology)
Fuel PropertiesFuel Properties
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
VolatilityVolatility
Tendency to change from liquid
to vapor Reid vapor pressure
Relative to Jet A-1 at 60F:
Jet B vapor pressureis 1,750% higher
AvGas vapor pressureis 4,600% higher
Tendency to change from liquid
to vapor Reid vapor pressure
Relative to Jet A-1 at 60F:
Jet B vapor pressureis 1,750% higher
AvGas vapor pressureis 4,600% higher
Fuel PropertiesFuel Properties
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
ElectricalElectrical
Dielectric constant
(fuel quantity) Electrical Conductivity
Dielectric constant
(fuel quantity) Electrical Conductivity
Fuel PropertiesFuel Properties
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Flammability and IgnitionFlammability and Ignition
Flammabilityvs. Altitude
Flash Point
Flammabilityvs. Altitude
Flash Point
CharacteristicsCharacteristics
Fuel PropertiesFuel Properties
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Bulk ModulusBulk Modulus
Fuel is used as hydraulic fluid in
servo valves Jet A-1: 193 kpsi
Airplane hydraulic fluid (Skydrol):210 kpsi
Fuel is used as hydraulic fluid in
servo valves Jet A-1: 193 kpsi
Airplane hydraulic fluid (Skydrol):
210 kpsi
Fuel PropertiesFuel Properties
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Thermal Oxidation StabilityThermal Oxidation Stability
Gums and Deposits
Fuel additives to reduce thermaldegradation(thermally stable fuels only, SR-71)
Commercial grades controlledby specification
Gums and Deposits
Fuel additives to reduce thermaldegradation(thermally stable fuels only, SR-71)
Commercial grades controlledby specification
Fuel PropertiesFuel Properties
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Material CompatibilityMaterial Compatibility
Metals
Satisfactory Aluminum and alloys Carbon steels
Stainless steels
Unsatisfactory
Bronze Nickel Copper
Zinc Cadmium
Metals
Satisfactory Aluminum and alloys Carbon steels
Stainless steels
Unsatisfactory
Bronze Nickel Copper
Zinc Cadmium
Packing and gaskets Satisfactory
Nylon Polyethylene
Packing and gaskets Satisfactory
Nylon Polyethylene
Unsatisfactory Fluorothene
Vinylite
Teflon
Unsatisfactory Fluorothene
Vinylite
Teflon
Fuel PropertiesFuel Properties
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
ToxicityToxicity
Not highly toxic
Handle with Care
Not highly toxic
Handle with Care
Fuel PropertiesFuel Properties
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Non-Normal SituationsMixing of FuelsNon-Normal SituationsMixing of Fuels
Jet A and Jet B - Ok, increased
volatility Mixing Jet A and Jet A-1 raises
freeze point significantly towards
that of Jet A AvGas - Vapor pressure, boil off,
cavitation, fueling dangers, hot
section deposits, lubrication Diesel/heating oils - Cold flow,
viscosity, freeze point
Jet A and Jet B - Ok, increased
volatility Mixing Jet A and Jet A-1 raises
freeze point significantly towards
that of Jet A AvGas - Vapor pressure, boil off,
cavitation, fueling dangers, hot
section deposits, lubrication Diesel/heating oils - Cold flow,
viscosity, freeze point
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Airplane FuelsNet Heat of CombustionAirplane FuelsNet Heat of Combustion
44.644.6
44.444.4
44.244.2
44.044.0
43.843.8
43.643.6
43.443.4
43.043.0
42.842.8
42.642.6
42.442.4
42.242.2
42.042.0
N e
t H e a
t , M J
/ k g
N e
t H e a
t , M J / k g
Av. GasAv. Gas Jet A,Jet A-1Jet A,
Jet A-1JP-5JP-5 JP-7JP-7 Thermally StableThermally StableJet B,
JP-4Jet B,JP-4
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Airplane FuelsVapor PressureAirplane FuelsVapor Pressure
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Future FuelsFuture Fuels
Hydrogen
Methane Synthetic Fuels
(about 4 times more
expensive)
Hydrogen
Methane Synthetic Fuels
(about 4 times more
expensive)
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
When The Tank Runs Dry...When The Tank Runs Dry...Alternative FuelsAlternative Fuels
00 66 1212 1818 2424 3030 3636 4242 4848
A pound of hydrogen has almost three times the energy of a poundof conventional fuel.A pound of hydrogen has almost three times the energy of a poundof conventional fuel.
Liquid hydrogen
Liquid methane
Jet fuel
Thousands of BTUsper poundThousands of BTUsper pound
l h
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Questions?Questions?
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J F l Ch i iJet Fuel Characteristics
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Jet Fuel CharacteristicsJet Fuel Characteristics
Fuel Energy Content Versus Fuel Density (continued)
correction for density and LHV should be made. The LHVcorrection is difficult since The LHV for the particular fuel loadcan only be determined after the flight by laboratory analysis. Itmay be possible, however, to combine density and energyeffects into a single correction, based on Figure 1 variation,which could be referenced to density only. However, this may beunnecessarily complicated, particularly since the fuel density of
the destination airport is probably unknown. Our generalrecommendation on tankering fuel is that this should not be doneunless the price advantage is really significant. This would allowfor unknowns such as wear and tear on airframe, wheels, tires,engines, etc.., and for fuel density and energy content variations.