Jeffrey P Schaefer MSc MD FRCPC April 24, 2009 2 nd Annual Resident Evidence-Based Medicine Workshop...
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Transcript of Jeffrey P Schaefer MSc MD FRCPC April 24, 2009 2 nd Annual Resident Evidence-Based Medicine Workshop...
Jeffrey P Schaefer MSc MD FRCPC
April 24, 2009
2nd Annual Resident Evidence-Based Medicine Workshop
Diagnosis
Diagnostic Testing
• Advantages– can assess parameters beyond the 5 senses– can be more ‘objective’ than clinical data
• Disadvantages– test results can be incorrect– test results may lead you in the wrong direction– tests cost money– tests may confer risk– some diseases have no diagnostic test
Issues in Diagnostic Testing
• Risk– urine sample versus brain biopsy versus autopsy
• Cost– glucoscan strip ~ $1.00 versus MRI $1,000.00
• Availability– hemogram versus Positive Emission Tomogram
• Patient Acceptability– urine sample versus 3 day fecal fat collection
Clinical Scenario
• A 70 year old man presents to the ED complaining chest pain and shortness of breath for one hour.
• He has prostate cancer and just completed a car trip from Vancouver.
• He’s on no medications nor has allergies.
• He is distressed. Pulse is 130 / min, respiratory rate is 32 / min. There are no other physical findings.
1. Epidemiological Approach
• What’s common in this clinical setting?
– Right Lower Quadrant Pain: 18 year old male
– Right Lower Quadrant Pain: 80 year old
appendicitis
cecal carcinoma
2. Physiological Approach
• What pathophysiology is causing the condition?
• Hypoxemia– shunt– v/q mismatch– alveolar hypoventilation– decreased pAO2– increased diffusion gradient– (low mixed venous oxygen pressure)
3. Anatomical Approach
• Where is the problem?
• Chest Pain– skin: shingles– muscle: strain / injury / nail gun– rib / spine: fracture / tumor– lung / pleura: pneumonia, embolism– heart / pericardium: angina / pericarditis– esophagus: spasm / tumor
4. Pathological Approach
• What pathology is involved?
• Left sided weakness– brain tumor (slow)– stroke (fast)– multiple sclerosis (recurrent)
5. Pattern Recognition
• What’s this?– have you seen this before? (Herpes simplex
labialis secondary to HSV Type 1 in an immunocompromised patient)
Back to the case...• DDx chest pain and shortness of breath…
– epidemiology
–anatomy– physiology– pathology– pattern recognition– interventional efficacy
Test for Pulmonary Embolism
• Gold Standard: pulmonary angiogram– invasive– costly– not readily available– risky
• Other tests:– D-dimer, V/Q scans, Spiral CT scan– ? may be helpful in right setting with right results
- complex
Test Characteristics
• Sensitivity
• Specificity
• Positive predictive value
• Negative predictive value
• Accuracy
• Positive Likelihood ratio
• Negative Likelihood ratio
DISEASE
Present Absent
Positive TRUE POSITIVE
FALSE POSITIVE
TEST
Negative FALSE NEGATIVE
TRUE NEGATIVE
DISEASE (PE)
Present Absent
Positive TRUE
POSITIVE a = 80
FALSE POSITIVE
b = 20 a + b = 100
TEST (V/Q
scan) Negative
FALSE NEGATIVE
c = 10
TRUE NEGATIVE
d = 90 c + d = 100
a + c = 90 b + d = 110 a+b+c+d = 200
Hypothetical Test Results
DISEASE (PE)
Present Absent
Positive TRUE
POSITIVE a = 80
FALSE POSITIVE
b = 20 a + b = 100
TEST (V/Q
scan) Negative
FALSE NEGATIVE
c = 10
TRUE NEGATIVE
d = 90 c + d = 100
a + c = 90 b + d = 110 a+b+c+d = 200
Sensitivity
80 / (80 + 10) = 88.9%
DISEASE (PE)
Present Absent
Positive TRUE
POSITIVE a = 80
FALSE POSITIVE
b = 20 a + b = 100
TEST (V/Q
scan) Negative
FALSE NEGATIVE
c = 10
TRUE NEGATIVE
d = 90 c + d = 100
a + c = 90 b + d = 110 a+b+c+d = 200
Specificity
90 / (90 + 20) = 81.8%
Sensitivity - Specificity Trade-Off
• Most test results are not positive or negative.
• There is often a selected value– over which a test is said to be positive – under which a test is said to be negative.
• As a result….– increasing sensitivity results in loss of specificity– increasing specificity results in loss of sensitivity
Test Characteristic Issues
• Highly Sensitive Tests:– tend to be less invasive, less risky, less costly– best for screening programs– best for ruling out disease: “SNOUT”
Test Characteristic Issues
• Highly Specific Tests:– tend to be more invasive, more risky, more costly– best for confirming (ruling in) disease: “SPIN”
Positive Predictive Value
• Probability that disease is present given that the test was positive.
P (D+ | T+)
DISEASE (PE)
Present Absent
Positive TRUE
POSITIVE a = 80
FALSE POSITIVE
b = 20 a + b = 100
TEST (V/Q
scan) Negative
FALSE NEGATIVE
c = 10
TRUE NEGATIVE
d = 90 c + d = 100
a + c = 90 b + d = 110 a+b+c+d = 200
Positive Predictive Value
80 / (80 + 20) = 80.0%
Negative Predictive Value
• Probability that disease is absent given that the test was negative.
P (D- | T-)
DISEASE (PE)
Present Absent
Positive TRUE
POSITIVE a = 80
FALSE POSITIVE
b = 20 a + b = 100
TEST (V/Q
scan) Negative
FALSE NEGATIVE
c = 10
TRUE NEGATIVE
d = 90 c + d = 100
a + c = 90 b + d = 110 a+b+c+d = 200
Negative Predictive Value
90 / (90 + 10) = 90.0%
Test Characteristic Issues
• Positive and Negative Predictive Values suffer from depending on disease prevalence
• This is a major drawback.*
(* excellent exam question)
Change Disease Prevalence from 90 to 110 per 200
DISEASE (PE)
Present Absent
Positive
TRUE POSITIVE
a = 80 97.7
FALSE POSITIVE
b = 20 16.4
a + b = 114.1 TEST
(V/Q scan)
Negative
FALSE NEGATIVE
c = 10 12.2
TRUE NEGATIVE
d = 90 73.6
c + d = 85.8
a + c = 90
110 b + d = 110 90
a+b+c+d = 200
prevalence = 110 / 200 = 0.55 = 55% (was 45%)
sensitivity = 97.7 / 110 = 88.8% (unchanged)specificity = 73.6 / 90 = 81.7% (unchanged)
positive predictive value = 86.5% (was 80%)negative predictive value = 85.8% (was 90%)
DISEASE (PE)
Present Absent
Positive TRUE
POSITIVE a = 80
FALSE POSITIVE
b = 20 a + b = 100
TEST (V/Q
scan) Negative
FALSE NEGATIVE
c = 10
TRUE NEGATIVE
d = 90 c + d = 100
a + c = 90 b + d = 110 a+b+c+d = 200
Accuracy
(80+90) / (80+ 20 + 10 + 90) = 85.0%
Test Characteristic Issues
• Accuracy:– not useful characteristic– high sensitivity / low specificity test may have
same accuracy as low sensitivity / high specifity test
(positive) Likelihood Ratio
• Ratio of:
probability of positive test when disease is present
--------------------------------------------------------------------
probability of positive test when disease is absent
DISEASE (PE)
Present Absent
Positive TRUE
POSITIVE a = 80
FALSE POSITIVE
b = 20 a + b = 100
TEST (V/Q
scan) Negative
FALSE NEGATIVE
c = 10
TRUE NEGATIVE
d = 90 c + d = 100
a + c = 90 b + d = 110 a+b+c+d = 200
Positive Likelihood Ratio
(80 / 90) / (20 / 110) = 4.89
Utility of (Positive) Likelihood Ratios
• expresses how many times more likely a test result is to be found in diseased, compared to nondiseased, people.
• can estimate the post-test probability of disease if prevalence is known.
Pre-test Probability of Disease
• Consider: a female presents for a screening breast mammogram for breast cancer.
• What’s her pre-test probability of disease?
Prevalence of Disease
Positive Test Result
• Say that her mammogram show her to have a 1 cm spiculated calcification
• Say that this finding is associated with a likelihood ratio of 20 (a very suspicious lesion).
What is the post-test probability of disease?
Answer:
Pretest odds x Likelihood Ratio = Posttest odds
(the use of odds ratios makes the math convoluted)
What is the post-test probability of disease?
Pretest odds x Likelihood Ratio = Posttest odds
Assume: prevalence = 10 / 1000 = 1% = P(0.01)
Odds = probability of event / (1 - probability of event)
Pre-test Odds = (10/1000) / (1 - (10/1000)) = 0.0101
What is the post-test probability of disease?
Pretest odds x Likelihood Ratio = Posttest odds
0.0101 x 20 = 0.2020
Probability = Odds / (1 + Odds)
Posttest Probability = 0.2020 / (1 + 0.2020)
Posttest Probability = 0.167 = 16.7%
Utility of (Positive) Likelihood Ratio
Pre-test Probability = 1%
Post-test Probability = 16.7%
Prudent Course: move from screening test to confirmatory test!
Critical AppraisalArticles about Diagnosis
• Are the results in the study valid?
• What are the results?
• Will the results help care for my patients?
Validity
1. Was there an independent, blind comparison with a reference standard?
2. Did the patient sample include an appropriate spectrum of patients to whom the diagnostic test will be applied in clinical practice?
3. Did the results of the test being evaluated influence the decision to perform the reference standard?
4. Were the methods for performing the test described in sufficient detail to permit replication?
Results
• Are likelihood ratios for the test results presented or data necessary for their calculation provided?
How much do Likelihood Ratios (LRs) change disease likelihood?
LRs >10 or <0.1 cause large changes in likelihood.
LRs 5-10 or 0.1-0.2 cause moderate changes.
LRs 2-5 or 0.2-0.5 cause small changes.
LRs between <2 and 0.5 cause little or no change.
Applicability
• Will the reproducibility of the test result and its interpretation be satisfactory in my setting?
• Are the results applicable to my patient?
• Will the results change my management?
• Will patients be better off as a result of the test?
Volume 292 January 2, 1975 Number 1
• Immunoblastic lymphadenopathy. A hyperimmune entity resembling Hodgkin's disease
• Immunoblastic lymphadenopathy with mixed cryoglobulinemia. A detailed case study
• Vinyl-chloride-induced liver disease. From idiopathic portal hypertension (Banti's syndrome) to Angiosarcomas
• Hodgkin's Disease, tonsillectomy and family size
• Reduction of ischemic injury by nitroglycerin during acute myocardial infarction (no abstract available)
• Frederick Stohlman, Jr., M.D