Nicaragua: rural water qualitysurveillance and improvementby Katherine WedgwoodPoverty coupl~d with war have left 86 percent of Nicaragua's population without asafe water supply. CIIR, with funds fromOxfam and Christian Aid, has been helpingthe national water authority to set up aNational Programme for safe water supply.UP TO 1987, only 13.5 per cent ofNicaragua's rural population hadbeen provided with a water supply .(see Table 1). However, at thepresent time, there are several watersupply construction programmesfinanced by such organizations asCARE (Canada), COSUDE ofSwitzerland and UNICEF. Themajority of these supplies are hand-dug wells fitted with a handpump.There are some boreholes withelectric pumps but the nationalwater authority, INAA, discouragestheir construction because of theircostly and difficult maintenancerequirements. In the mountainousRegions I and VI .there are somegravity-fed water supplies whichh~lVe both spring and surfacesources.

Starting a pilot projectIn February 1986, a pilot project wasinitiated in the Department ofBoaco with the aim of introducingthe concepts of routine water qualitycontrol and improving the rural

-"uZ@

Water-quality analysis was doneusing DelAgua kits.

water supplies in the area. Untilthen only in the capital, Managua,had routine water qualitysurveillance been carried out byINAA in accordance with WHO'sGuidelines. In other urban centressporadic water quality checks weremade. Some rural water qualityanalyses were carried out in RegionI but these excluded determinationof faecal contamination.

The pilot project began bytraining a small team of INA Acommunity promoters and aMinistry of Health (Minsa) workerin how to carry out sanitaryinspections of the water supplies,and how to use the Oxfam DelAguaportable water-quality testing kit.Six such kits had been donated alongwith some essential equipment forINAA's central water qualitylaboratory ~ part of purchasesmade with funds provided by severalUK non-governmental agenciesincluding Christian Aid and Oxfam.The kit enabled a number ofparameters to be determined: pH,turbidity, temperature, conduc-tivity, and number of faecalcoliforms (i.e. the most importantbacteria of sanitary significance).

Diagnostic surveyA diagnostic 'survey of all knownwater systems in the department wassubsequently carried out by theteam. Table 2 gives the results of thesanitary inspection and waterquality analyses of the 63cOrhmunities with installed supplies.

The survey revealed thatpreventive and correctivemaintenance was totallyinadequate, resulting in poor waterquality. Users lacked the Oasicorganization, training and resourcesnecessary to undertake rudimentaryrepairs and preventivemaintenance: many also lacked a

clear understanding of therelationship between water andhealth and the measures necessaryto prevent contamination ofdrinking-water.

Given the general level ofdevelopment in Nicaragua and aneconomic crisis exacerbated by'war,it was felt that the INAA could notbe expected to providecomprehensive maintenance of allrural supplies. Part of the burden ofpreventive and correctivemaintenance should be placed uponthe users themselves.

The pilot project set aboutattempting to improve this situation.First it sought to rehabilitate watersupplies where there was sufficientcommitment demonstrated by localpeople in a series of meetings held inthe community. Secondly it began todevelop a model of self-helpoperation and maintenance in therural sector of INAA, combiningwithin the model routine waterquality monitoring, sanitaryinspection and corrective action.

RehabilitationEvery community visited in theinitial survey was sent a report of theresults of the analyses, pointing outthe likely causes of contaminationand recommending necessaryrepairs and improvements. Publicmeetings were held in eachcommunity to discuss the reports, topromote the rehabilitation and toencourage the re-establishment ofelected drinking-water committees(CAPs). Such committees had beenformed during the constructionphase in order to organize the workcarried out by the community.Sadly, . most had subsequentlydisbanded instead of going on toassume maintenance responsi-bilities. Community re~ponse wa,smixed. Wherever the users werereceptive, rehabilitative work wentahead. A CAP was formed andremedial work began.

In the pilot project it was decidedthat wherever possible users shouldprovide local materials and pay forspare parts, cement and reinforcingsteel. This policy was adopted forthree reasons: to be lesspaternalistic; to overcome INAA''slack of available funds; and to try to

20 WATERLINES VOL.7 NO.3 JANUARY1989

further promoters were appointed,so each was responsible for about 20systems.

A community promoter isresponsible for 'promoting'community action with respect towater supply. INAA tries to selectpromoters from th~ area in whichthey will work who have completedboth secondary education andmilitary service. In theory, apromoter, having completed initial,intensive training, must work for aminimum of two years as aconstruction promoter, (i.e.promoting when the water supply isbeing constructed), before beingeligible to work for UNOM. INAAhas recognized that ensuring on-going maintenance is a difficult task,made even more so in communitieswhich did not meet theirresponsibilities right from the start.It is easier to interest a community inconstructing a new water supplythan in contributing to itssubsequent routine maintenance.

The pilot project has sought toachieve the inclusion of one extraresponsibility within the work ofUNOM: that of routine waterquality control and sanitaryinspection. The other areas ofresponsibility are: operation andmaintenance, administration,promotion and education. Toenable them to carry out their work,the UNOM promoters are providedwith motor bikes which they are ableto buy from INAA over a three-yearperiod. The project also has the useof a four-wheel-drive pick-up fortransporting materials andequipment.

Once the CAP in a community hasparticipated in the trainingworkshop, s/he is expected to beable to carry out basic preventivemaintenance and minor repairsunaided by the promoters. Regularcleaning, greasing and repair of pipeand tap leaks figure among theirresponsibilities. To do this a CAPhas to collect a,monthly tariff, anamount which is decided by theusers themselves in public meetings.The fund is kept and controlled bythe treasurer of the CAP, who isaccountable to the community. TheUNOM team also has someentertainment films which areloaned to CAPs for fund-raisingevents on condition that the waterand sanitation videos are alsoshown.

The Boaco team has produced asimple manual on the basicoperation and maintenance of hand-dug wells and handpumps to be

Operation andmaintenanceDuring the rehabilitation stage itbecame clear that to keep thosesystems in working order neededcontinuing attention from INAA.Recognizing this, INAA created aUnit of Operation and Maintenance(UNOM). In Boaco, this hadcomprised one community liaisonofficer, called a promoter who waspart of the pilot project from itsinception. Subsequently, two

spring-fed gravity water supplies therehabilitation typically consists ofrepairing inspection covers, leakyvalves and taps, covering air ventsand overflow pipes with fine meshand improving the construction ofthe public standpipes. Uponcompletion of work the supplies aredisinfected using a 50 mg/I solutionof nationally produced sodiumhypochlorite. The final requirementis that the CAP and any otherinterested users attend a workshopon operation, maintenance andadministration of the supply. Theimportance of basic sanitation andwater quality are once againemphasized in these workshops.

deepen a sense of communityownership and responsibility for thewater supply.

The CAP organized the collectionof sand, gravel and stones by thecommunity, and the projecttransported the cement and steelpurchased from the town council.Spare parts and handpumps wereobtained from the stock left overfrom a previous programme. Therehabilitation was carried out by theusers under the technicalsupervision of the communitypromoters, who simultaneouslycarried out a programme of basic,sanitary education involving bothadults and children. To aid thiseducational work a video recorderwas purchased along withappropriate educational videos.Illustrative posters were developed.This was particularly useful incommunities without electricity.

Typically, the rehabilitation of awell includes the installation of anew handpump or the repair of abroken pump, repair of the welllining and platform, improvement ofdrainage, construction of a stock-proof fence and a sanitary inspectioncover, and repair of existing bathingand clothes-washing facilities. In the

g>:l

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Water committee members re-threading the pump rising main of their well.

WATERLINES VOL.7 NO.3 JANUARY 1989 21

Number Abandoned In need In need ABC Dof major of minor

repair repair

*In the case of the hand-dug wells water quality analyses were only carried out when therewas sufficient water in the well. If the well was dry analyses were carried out, where possible.in alternative sources.**Water quality classification keyA = less than 10 faecal coliforms/100ml C = 50-500 faecal coliforms/100mlB = 10-50 faecal coliformsl1 OOml 0 = more than 500 faecal coliforms/1 OOml

2

Percentageof

rural pop.

6%13.5%50%

7 6 12 4

8

3 2

Water quality**

18 6 16 6

3

3

20

14

77,449196,397750,000

2

3

8

Number of ruralpeople served

13

chlorinated. Public meetings werefirst held in these communities toexplain why and how chlorinationwould be carried out, and to gain theapproval of the users, at least inprinciple. Implementation hasproved more difficult. Many peopledo not like the taste of chlorine.However, with time and constanteducation about its importance,users are gradually coming to acceptchlorination. The personresponsible for chlorinating isprovided with a stock of 1 per centsodium hypochlorite solution, DPD1 tablets and a simple comparator(pool tester). Slhe is taught by thepromoter how to measure thechlorine concentration everyevenmg.

Another landmark was passed inJuly 1988 when the water treatmentplant for the town of Boaco wasinaugurated. Previously the townhad used untreated river water. Theincidence of diarrhoeal disease wascorrespondingly high: in April 1988over 900 cases were reported toMinsa in a town with a populationof 19,000. The treatment processesnow being used are flocculation,

16

16

Percentageof

urban pop.

35%77%

100%

7

9

63

913,4181,581,0872,100,000

Total

Surface water

Table 2. Results of the 1986 diagnostic survey

System Physical state

Spring-fedsupply

Borehole withelectric pumpor windmifl

Hand-dug wellwith handpump* 46

198019871990

given to the CAP with copies beingmade for regional and central INA Aoffices. Copies are also given to localschools and health centres, so thatteachers and nurses can encourageimplementation of therecommendations.

INAA's water quality controldivision has decided that in the shortterm, the target for rural watersupplies will be less than 10 faecalcoliforms per 100ml. Promoterscarry out a disinfection of the systemshould the results exceed this level,having first eliminated potentialsources of contamination. Withinseven days of disinfection thepromoter checks the water qualityagain. Sometimes it is necessary tocarry out a series of disinfections.On other occasions it is necessary torelocate wells because of poor siting.

The INAA, as it is interested inchlorination of small rural supplies,has encouraged the team toexperiment with continuouschlorination. There are now fourwells in communities which did notwant to move them, or where therewas no obvious alternative site,which are being continuously

Table 1. Growth and target growth of water supplies1980-90 (Source: INAA)

Year Number of urbanpeople served

distributed to all CAP members.The UNOM promoter, who plansthe monthly visit to eachcommunity, has access to moresophisticated tools should they berequired - for example, pipethreading and cutting equipmentand large wrenches. The CAPs willcontact the UNOM office if theyhave a problem at any other time.

The promoter supervises thetreasurer of the water committee,who keeps a record of the accountsin a simple system recommended byINAA. To try to keep upcommunity participation andinterest, the promoter and CAPorganize user meetings to report anddiscuss changes, problems, tariffincreases and the like. Periodicallythe promoter also carries outeducational activities in house-to-house visits, in the school, or inpublic meetings, using the audio-visual aids.

Monitoring and inspectionRoutine water quality monitoringand sanitary inspection are carriedout in accordance with WHO'sGuidelines for Drinking WaterQuality. Every three months thepromoters conduct a full sanitaryinspection of the systems under theircontrol. Appropriate inspectionforms have been developed for thethree most common kinds of supply.At the same time the water quality isdetermined using the portabletesting kit. The promoter uses theresults to make recommendationsfor corrective action. A report ofresults and recommendations is

22 WATERLINES VOL.7NO.3 JANUARY1989

sedimentation, filtration andchlorination.

Within the plant there is a smalllaboratory for monitoring thetreatment processes. Thislaboratory has the equipmentnecessary to prepare materialneeded in the portable testing kits.

National ProgrammeIn late 1986 a course was held inINAA's central laboratory for allUNOM promoters in the country. Itintroduced the concept of waterquality control and field testing.Four of the six portable test kitswere distributed to UNOMs inRegions I, IV, VI and Special ZoneIII. Regular follow-up training andsupervision has been given.

It became clear that a more clearlydefined strategy was required, so inMay 1987, INAA produced a'National Programme for WaterQuality Control and Rural SupplyMaintenance'. This five-yearprogramme is based on theexperiences of the pilot project inBoaco. In each region similarlaboratories will be constructed andequipped. UNOM offices andworkshops will have tools andspares. Extra staff will be employedand trained to ensure that theProgramme fulfils its objective ofmonitoring all INAA watersupplies, urban and rural, inaccordance with WHO Guidelines.

Twice yearly, samples will be sentto the central laboratory forextensive physical and chemicalanalysis. All records of analysescarried out in the regional andcentral laboratories will be kept in acentral data bank. It is hoped thatover time the most importantparameters to be controlled in eachregion can be determined. Financialresources permitting, the regionallaboratories would then beequipped to carry out such analyses.

The National Programme isambitious and as yet not all thenecessary funding has beenapproved. The original pilot projectfunders, Oxfam and Christian Aid,have already agreed to supply partof the funds. It is to be hoped thatthe Programme will achieve successin a country whose government hasclearly demonstrated itscommitment to the prevention ofdisease and the promotion of publichealth. ~

The author works at rNAA and can be writtento at CUR, Apartado A248, Telcor Altamira,Managua, Nicaragua.

Hydrogeologist'alawi Southern Africa

I the Children Fund SJf' lI'arkin \lith th Ma/all'/RnCo~ rnment WaterDepdItment on aprogramme of, . an andtraming 10 better equip the counll} to handl em n· andeli ~f! •

In particular. th Feare currently 6OO,()(X) MOZ8/lJbicanrefu ",hose pl1lS8I1cehas senous~I' affec/ed th arailabilitvof

fe I\at r for both the original population and thelm I •The 81m for this /8HI11 of tiro shallow well engllleers and th

I~l'drogeologisll\"iJJbe to iniV/l the community in d~ lopIng1111-i101l'nsafe wilter uppliBS through a programme of constructionand rehabilitation. Your role will COI'llf /h, siting 01nell borehol ,allocation and upentision aloontract a Irellaslrainin81!~ter

taffthroughou/ theaffeded areas. The tOOll1wilJalso pla.vanaclil'fJ part in the dOI'lHopmen/oftb nulJonaJ \I fer slttJt I.

Id8il111'you should hal'f!apron ional qualification inHydro eo/ogyas 11'011 some expenence/II the dm'elopm \I 'arid.

In re/um 1\ can offer asalarJ'in Iherwgion of£12.(}(){J(nomlan,· tlJ).·free);all travel. acmmmodation and living e\fJfJllplu a compl8hensil insurance pa

Forfurther d tails and an application(ann. contad Mr BiJ1 Tod. OIwrse8 PersonnelOfficer. sa: 17Grov8Lane. Landon E5 BRD.Te1:01·7035400.Closing dat .31s1JanuaJ)·19B9.

HAND PUMPS FORWELLS & BORE HOLESCONSALLEN GROUP SALES

23 Oakwood Hilllnd.Est., Laughton, Essex, England.

WATERLINES VOL.7 NO.3 JANUARY 1989 23