PERSONAL VALUES, CAREER ASPIRATIONS, ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS AS

DETERMINANTS OF EDUCATIONAL CHOICE AT SENIOR SECONDARY LEVEL

L THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF

JBoctor of ^tiiloia^opiip \ I N f

EDUCATION

• ' ^ t

Under the Supervision of BY

DR. C . P . S . CHAUHAN M A H M O O D A L I Professor & Chairman &n Ho. ^ - '}>SCy

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY

; ALIGARH, (INDIA)

1998

T5580

piAmMAN ^'' C.P.S. Chauhan Professor & Chairman

„. . I External : 4 0 1 5 4 7 P' °n*M rnternal : 459 & 461

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY

ALIGARH 202 002, UP.

Dated 3^-^-7^

C^fK^TlfFTCJ^T^

Certified that the Thesis entitled "Personal Values,

Career Aspirations, Academic Achievement and Socio

Economic Status as determinants of Educational Choice at

Senior Secondary Levels", being submitted to Aligarh Muslim

University, Aligarh for the award of Ph.D. degree in Education

embodies the original research work of Mr. Mahmood Ali and

is a record of bonafide research carried out by him under my

guidance and supervision.

(C.P.S. CHAUHAN)

Supervisor

PREFACE

Modern education is largely based on the capac­

ity of the individual, both mental and social. Education, as

an instrument of change, is really one of the major means

available to a civilized society for improving the lot of its

members. The role of occupation in the life of an individual

has broader Psychological importance than has generally

been recognized. Youngmen and women passing out of

educational institutions and entering the world of work are

faced with various problems regarding their vocational life.

Those leaving educational and training institution are al­

ready under the impact of numerous variables in matters of

choice-educational, vocational, social and personal. These

variables appear to play an important role in educational

choice of the students which in trun become instrumental

in their occupational choices. The investigator selected the

present problem keeping in view its importance especially

in educational choices at senior secondary school level.

This study has been organised into five chapters.

Chapter I titled "Theoretical Framework" provides the academic

and research background of the problem. In this chapter

theory and research regarding all the relevant variables

II

associated with educational choice at senior secondary stage

has been discussed. In Chapter II, the research problem

selected by the investigator has been properly defined. In

addition, definitions of terms, objectives of the study,

hypothesis and delimitations have been presented lucidly.

Chapter III contains the methodology followed including

sampling methods, tools used and techniques of data anal­

ysis. Chapter IV presents the results of data analysis in

terms of tables, equations, graphs, and their interpretations.

Chapter V which is the last chapter of the reports includes

findings and their implications for education and further

research.

With immense pleasure and profound sense of

gratitude, I take this upportunity to express my most sincere

deep thanks to my supervisor Dr. C.P.S. Chauhan, Profes­

sor & Chairman, Deptt. of Education, A.M.U., Aligarh who

provided me with his valuable academic support, enlight­

ened guidance, constructive criticism, congenial atmosphere

and expert suggestions during the course of this study. His

deep rooted knowledge in research methodology, measure­

ment and evaluation and statistics always assited me at

difficult moments while pursuing this work. Despite his

busy schedule, administrative and academic responsibili-

I l l

t ies, he was readily available for help and guidance, when­

ever needed. It would have been difficult for me to complete

this challenging task without his wholehearted guidance

and supervision.

I must also aknowledge with thanks the help and

cooperation extended to me by the students, teachers and

principals of the intermediate colleges in which data col­

lection was carried out, I am also thankful to Prof. Ruqaiyya

Zainuddin, Prof. Anwar Jahan Zuber i , Prof. Najmul Haqae,

Prof. All Akhtar Khan and Dr. Nabi Ahmad, of the De­

partment of education for their blessings and good wishes.

Special thanks are also due to Prof. M. S. Khan, Professor

of Education (Retd) and Miss. Urus Fa t ima , Principal,

A.M.U., Girls High School for their elderly affection and

encouragement when the work was in progress.

I express my deep sense of regard and special

indebtness to my parents, my wife M r s . Naghma I r fan , my

brother and sisters, and friends who have always been a

source of inspiration for me to pursue higher studies and

have provided me all the facilities whenever needed. I also

thank to Mr. Shehzad (Sofword Computers) who despite

his business, took the pain to type my thesis neatly.

ismUMOtSUALl)

CONTENTS

Chapter TOPICS Page No.

1 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 1-63

1.1 The Education System in India 2

1.1.1 Elementry Stage 5

1.1.2 Secondary Stage 8

1.1.3 Senior Secondary Stage 10

1.1.4 Tertiary Stage 11

1.2 Educational Choice at Senior Secondary Stage 12

1.2.1 Academic Stream 14

1.2.2 Vocational Stream 14

1.3 Determinants of Educational Choice 15

1.3.1 Socio Economic Determinants 16

1.3.2 Psychological Determinants 19

1.3.3 Personal Determinants 20

(a) Sex 20

(b) Intellectual Abilities 21

(c) Academic Achievement 22

(d) Interest and Aspiration 25

(e) Family Background 26

(f) Peer group and environment 29

1.3.4 Institutional Determinants 30

(a) Educational System 30

(b) Differentiation System 31

(c) Admission and Selection 32

1.4 Theories of Educational Choice 34

1.4.1 Psychological Theories 34

1.4.2 Non Psychological Theories 39

1.5 Educational Choice and Adolescents.... 41

1.6 Values and Educational Choice 44

1.6.1 Classifications of Values 46

1.6.2 Value Orientation 47

1.7 Research Perspective 48

1.8 Research Gaps and Issues 57

Chapter TOPICS Page No.

2 THE PROBLEM 64-81

2.1 Rationale 66

2.2 Statement of the Problem 68

2.3 Concepts and Definition 70

(i) Personal Values 71

(ii) Career Aspiration 76

(iii) Academic Achievement 77

(iv) Socio-Economic Status 77

(v) Educational Choice 78

2.4 Objectives 79

2.5 Hypothesis 79

2.6 Delimitation 80

3 DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 82-106

3.1 Population and Sample 83

3.2 Research Tools used 85

3.2.1 Personal Value Questionnaire 86

3.2.2 Occupational Aspiration Scale 87

3.2.3 Personal Data Sheet 87

3.3 Collection of Data 88

3.4 Scoring Procedure 89

(a) Personal Value Questionnaire 89

(b) Occupational Aspiration Scale 91

(c) Personal Data Sheet 91

3.5 Statistical Techniques Used 94

(a) Descriptive Analysis 94

(b) Discriminant Analysis 95

4 PRESENTATION ANALYSIS AND INTERPRE­

TATION OF DATA 107-118

4.1 Study of Raw-score Distributions 108

4.2 Study of Inter Correlation 113

4.2.1 Correlat ion Matrix for the Combined

Sample 115

4.2.2 Correlation Matrix for Arts Group 118

4.2.3 Correlation Matrix for Science Group... 120

Chapter TOPICS Page No.

4.2.4 Correlation Matrix for Commerce Group... 122

4.3 Discriminant Analysis 125

4.3.1 Number of Significant Discriminant

Functions 127

4.3.2 Interpretation of Discriminant Function 132

4.4 The Classification Results 140

5 FINDINGS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS 159-172

5.1 Findings 159

5.2 Implication 164

5.2.1 Educational Implications 165

5.2.2 Implications for Research 170

REFERENCES 173-192

APPENDICES

A Research Tools (i) Occupational Aspiration Scale

(ii) Personal Values Questionnaire

(iii) Personal Data Sheet

B Scoring Sheet

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. TOPICS Page No.

3.1 Details of Sample 85

4.1 Coding System for Computer Service 110

4.2 Summary Statistics 111

4.3 Correlation Matrix for Total Sample 117

4.4 Correlation Matrix for Arts Group 119

4.5 Correlation Matrix for Science Group 121

4.6 Correlation Matrix for Commerce Group 124

4.7 Summary Statistics for Discriminant Analysis 127

4.8 Details of Discriminant Analysis Results 128

4.9 Pooled with in-group Correlation Matrix 131

4.10 Matrix of Correlation between Function and

Predictors 138

4.11 Standardized Canonical Discriminant

Function Coefficient 139

4.12 Canonical Discriminant Function at Centroids 140

4.13 Classification Function Coefficient 142

4.14 Details of Individual Classification Result 143

4.15 Summary of Classification Results 157

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. No. TOPICS Page No.

(a) Scores of Males and Females on Two Mea­

sures of Physiological Reaction to Stress 98

(b) Area of Scatter for Males and Females on

Two Measures 98

(c) Projection of Scores on to a Discrimnant

Function 100

(d) Distribution of Scores on a Discriminant

Function 100

4.1 Territorial Map Combined Graph showing

all the Three Groups 130

4.2 Scatter Plot for Group 1 (Arts) 133

4.3 Scatter Plot for Group 2 (Science) 134

4.4 Scatter Plot for Group 3 (Commerce) 135

4.5 All Group Scatter Plot 136

t

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

India is a vast country covering about 329 mil­

lion hectares of land and providing shelter for a population

of about 950 million (1997 estimate). Since the total pop­

ulation of the world is about 5800 million, India has to

support about 16% of the World's population on only 2.4%

of the land and 2% of the world's total income (Chauhan,

1990). The welfare of the people of India is the welfare of

over one -seventh of mankind. A large majority of the

people - over 75% live in villages which are 579000 in

number. About one third of the entire population live below

poverty line. According to 1991 census, about 48% of the

people are illiterate. The illiteracy among women is over

60%. There are caste-based, sex-based, religion-base and

region-base disparities, not only in education, but also in

health, income, occupation and general standard of living.

The census experience shows that about 65% of the Indian

population are below the age of 30 years. Therefore, India,

essentially is the land of children and youth. Every year,

1 7 million are born. This adds to it a population greater than

that of Australia. It is likely that by the turn of this century

our population will touch the one-billion mark.

The complexities and dilemmas of socio-economic,

scientific and technological development in India are ob­

vious. The achievement on all fronts are nullified by pop­

ulation growth. The problems of education are more com­

plex because these involve children and youth which form

a major chunk of our population. Though, we have created

a very large system of education, yet our targets are far away.

1.1 THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA :

India being a Union of States, education has mainly

been a state responsibility (according to the Indian Consti­

tution), except for certain specified areas like determina­

tion of standards in institutions of higher education and

research, including establishment and maintenance of cen­

tral universities as well as specified institutions of national

importance for scientific and technological education and

research. The Constitution also recognizes the need of providing

for adequate facilities for instruction in mother tongue at

the primary stage, and the right of religious and linguistic

minorities to establish and administer educational institu­

tions of their choice. However, it directs these institutions

not to impart religious instruction in case they receive state

funds. Similarly, special provisions are made in the Con-

stitution to protect the educational interests of the under­

privileged sections of the society, particularly, women and

constitutionally recognized weaker sections of the popu­

lation (Art 46) like the Scheduled Castes (SCs) and the

Scheduled Tribes (STs).

The Constitution also specifically directs the state

to make every effort to provide free and compulsory ed­

ucation for all children (Art. 45) upto the age of fourteen

years with due regard to equalization of educational oppor­

tunities to achieve equity along with social just ice. The

Constitution prohibits any kind of discrimination in edu­

cational provisions based on social and economic factors.

According to Article 29(1), no citizen can be denied admis­

sion into any educational institution maintained by the state

or receiving aid out of the state funds on grounds only of

religion, race, caste, language or any of them. India has

parliamentary form of government both at the centre and

state levels. Till 1976, education was exclusively a state

responsibility. In the seventh schedule of the Constitution

it was laid down that education, including universities,

subject to a few provisions, would be a state subject. However,

the 42nd amendment to the Constitution effected in 1976

has made education a concurrent subject thereby vesting the

Parliament with the authority to legislate on education.

Prior to this constitutional amendment, the Central Govern­

ment was directly responsible, by virtue of entries in the

Union List, for certain education sectors including coordi­

nation and determination of standards in institutions of

higher education and research, and scientific and technical

institutions, union agencies and institutions for profession­

al, vocational or technical training, promotion of special

studies or research in central universities and any other

institutions declared by parliament as institutions of na­

tional importance. Efforts have been mainly to arrive at a

meaningful partnership between Union Government and the

state governments. The Central Advisory Board of Educa­

tion (CABE) is vested with the responsibility of laying

down national policies in the field of education and thereby

coordinating the actions of various states and the Central

Government in enacting legislations on various aspects. The

approach, thus, has been to evolve meaningful ways for

sharing the responsibility between the central and state

governments. It is in line with this that the National Policy

on Education (NPE) 1986 states : "While the role and re­

sponsibility of the states in regard to education will remain

essentially unchanged, the Union Government would accept

a larger responsibility to reinforce the national and inte­

grative character of education, to maintain quality and

standards (including those of the teaching profession at all

levels), to study and monitor the educational requirements

of the country as a whole in regard to manpower for de­

velopment to cater to the needs of research and advanced

study, to look after the international aspects of education

culture and human resource development and, in general

to promote excellence at all levels of the educational pyr­

amid throughout the country".

Education in India has been divided into three major

stages - elementary, secondary and tertiary. The elementary and

secondary stages constitute 'school education' and the tertiary

includes college and university education. It is relevant here to

present a brief overview of each of these stages.

1.1.1 Elementary Stage :

The existing system of elementary education

emerged out of the system first developed by the East India

Company and then by the British Government. The elemen­

tary stage of education consists of two sub-stages: primary

stage and upper primary stage. In general, primary stage

consists of first five years of schooling from class I to class

V. The upper primary stage consists of classes VI, VII and

VIII. Thus, elementary stage is meant for children of age

group 6-14 years. However, there are variations in this struc­

ture depending on the local conditions of the states. In some

states, primary education consists of classes I to IV. Cor­

respondingly, the upper primary stage consists of classes

V to VIII, or V to VII. The primary and upper primary (or

middle) stages together constitute the "Elementary Stage".

The National Policy on Education (1986) has envisaged that

there should be a common structure for the elementary stage

consisting of 5 years of primary education followed by 3

years of upper primary/middle school education. The ex­

isting primary school system may be regarded as a single

point entry, sequential, and full time system of institutional

instruction by full time and professional teachers. The single

point entry means that a child is expected to enter the school

in class I at about the age of six years. The elementary

education of 8 years from class I to class VIII is supposed

to be made compulsory for all children. The concept is

known as Universalization of Elementary Education (UEE).

The Provision of universal elementary education has always

been conceived as an integral part of the national system

of education in India. Article 45 of the Indian Constitution

states : "The State shall endeavour to provide within a

period of 10 years, from the commencement of this consti­

tution, for free and compulsory education for all children

until they complete the age of 14 years."

Prescription of curriculum is also the primary

concern of the different states and union terr i tories, The

National Council of Education Research and Training (NCERT)

has formulated a National Curriculum Framework for ele­

mentary education. The suggested scheme of studies for

different stages of education under the national framework

is that in the pre-primary education for children of 2-5 years

of age, the basic mode of upbringing of children at this stage

should be through group activities and playway techniques,

language games, number games, and activities directed to

promote environmental awareness. In the primary stage, the

child should be taught one language-the mother tongue/

regional language, mathematics, environmental studies, work

experience, art education, and health and physical educa­

tion. In the upper primary stage which is of 3 years duration,

the child is taught three languages along with mathematics.

8

science, social science, work experience, art education, and

health and physical education.

1.1.2 Secondary Stage :

Secondary stage of education in India also con­

sists of two substages - lower secondary or high school and

senior secondary. The lower secondary consists of two years

(classes IX and X) after elementary education, while the

senior secondary consists of classes XI and XII. The system

of secondary education inherited at the time of indepen­

dence was extremely unsatisfactory in fulfilling the twin

objectives of serving as a vital link between primary and

higher education on the one hand, and being an outlet to

the world of work on the other. In the National Policy

Education (NPE)-1968, a new structure of education called

10+2 + 3 was envisaged for providing a broad-based general

education during the first ten years of schooling followed

by two years of higher (senior) secondary and three years

of collegiate education for obtaining the first degree .

Nevertheless, until recently, many of the states continued to

follow either, 10+2+2 or 10+1+3 pattern of education. The

curriculum at the (lower) secondary stage is designed to

equip the children either to take up higher level courses of

study to prepare them for entrance into the first degree in

a college, or for vocational instruction to prepare for entry

into the world of work. The curriculum at this stage is,

therefore, undifferentiated and all the curricular area are

compulsory and no attempt is made to introduce diversified

courses at this stage. Since secondary education continues

to be terminal for a large majority of children who are likely

to enter the world of work, the emphasis is on bringing their

education to a standard which would enable them to enter

life with self-confidence along with useful knowledge ai^d-

skills, proper work habits, attitudes and character which

would contribute to their productivity and well being. The

scheme of study at this stage consists of study of two or

three languages, science, social sciences, work experience

art education, health and physical education. The subject

of science draws its content from chemistry, physics and

biology while social sciences include the study of history,

geography and civics. The curriculum is undifferentiated

for all areas of study except in the case of work experience,

art education, and health and physical education where ac­

tivities are chosen depending upon the availability of fa­

cilities and local requirements to develop work skills and

creative abilities of the learners.

10

1.1.3 Senior Secondary Stage :

The senior secondary stage of education is also

of 2 years' duration in which the child enters after attaining

lower secondary education or high school education. The senior

secondary stage has two streams : academic stream and

vocational stream. This kind of diversification has inherent

advantages. Diversification of courses is introduced at the

higher/senior secondary stage. The courses for preparing

students either for entrance into the first degree in college

or entry into the world of work or for entry into technical/

professional education are provided at the higher/senior

secondary stage. This stream, therefore, is directed to pre­

pare students for university/professional education and provides

elective courses covering science, mathematics, commerce,

social science and humanities. The courses of study in this

stream known as 'academic stream', consist of study of one

or two languages and elective subjects out of which three

are chosen for in-depth study. Another stream referred to

as 'vocational stream' is designed to prepare students for

careers in agricultural, industrial or service sectors as well

as for self-employment. The scheme of studies for this

stream consists of study of one or two languages, general

11

foundation courses and elective subjects related to specific

vocations. The vocational courses are so designed as to

impart intensive training related to certain voca t ions so

that the s tudents would acqui re suff icient competenc ies

for immediate employment or se l f -employment .

1.1.4 Tert iary Stage :

The s tuden ts who pass the senior secondary

stage under the academic stream pursue higher educa­

tion (in ar ts sc ience & commerce) in co l leges and

un ive r s i t i e s . The dura t ion of underg radua te courses is

3 years fol lowed by 2 years. Of pos tgradua te cou r se s .

Three o r four years of research work may lead to doctoral

degree in most of the un ive r s i t i e s . The e s t ab l i shmen t

of open un ive r s i t i e s have added a new d imens ion of

non-formal educat ion programme at this s tage . Under

cont inuing educa t ion /ex t ens ion p rogrammes , there are

many un ive r s i t i e s which offer courses of appl ied nature

and some of these have employment o r i en ta t ion . These

include programmes for f i shermen, courses on oceanog­

raphy, deve lopment of ar t i san in brick making , mach in ­

ery and water management , small bus iness management

coopera t ion , self employment programmes in hand l ing

12

and repair of agr icul tura l ins t ruments and domes t i c

machines , farm management , b io-sc ience and ho r t i cu l ­

tu re , t ranspor t management , food technology , tour i sm

wood craft, rural en t r ep reneu r sh ip etc.

1.2 EDUCATIONAL C H O I C E AT SENIOR SECOND­

ARY STAGE :

Choosing an educational stream at +2 stage means

choosing a way of life. The choice of educational stream

at this stage is directly related to the occupation which one

tends to adopt after studying in that particular stream. Today,

an occupation is not only considered as a means of fulfilling

one's basic needs of food, clothing and shelter, it is much

more than that. It affects ail aspects of one's life, be it his

life style, friends, marriage, leisure - time activities, or post

retirement life. Thus, choosing a career which is suitable

to one's needs, abilities, interests, personal qualities, and

values etc. and which also provides enough job opportu­

nities and chances for further advancement is of utmost

importance for the youth.

Of course, one can not choose what one does not

know. Moreover, the occupational world is quite big and

13

complicated. It is dynamic too. The influence of social,

economic, and technological developments has shaped the

future of many occupations. The satellite revolution, elec­

tronic revolution, information technology, new inventions,

changes in the economic policy, industrial policy and in

habits and styles of people have created demand for various

kinds of occupation as well as eliminated or distorted certain

other occupations. These changes further influence the

preparation required for various occupations and hence affect

education and training opportunities. These changes re­

quire watch and up-dating of the educational occupational

information so that students could be provided with accu­

rate reliable and up-to-date information in order to help

them choose and prepare for future careers. In India, 10

years of general education are followed by diversification

of courses within the systems of general and technical ed­

ucation as well as under the training system of other sec­

tors. Courses for preparing students either for entrance into

the first degree in college or for entry into the world of work

or for entry into technical/professional education are pro­

vided at the higher/senior secondary stage. The senior sec­

ondary stage consists of two major streams.

14

1.2.1 Academic Stream :

This stream is directed to prepare students for

university/professional education and provides elective courses

covering science, mathematics, commerce, social sciences

and humanities. The courses of study in this stream consist

of study of one or two languages and elective subjects out

of which three are chosen for in-depth study. The students

who pass +2 stage under the academic stream pursue higher

education (Arts, Commerce and Science) in colleges and

universities. The duration of the undergraduate courses is

3 years followed by 2 years of postgraduate courses.

1.2.2 Vocational Stream :

This stream is designed to prepare students for

careers in agricultural, industrial or service sectors as well

as for self-employment. The scheme of studies for this

stream consists of study of one or two languages, general

foundation courses, and elective subjects related to specific

vocations. The vocational courses are so designed as" to

impart intensive training related to certain vocations so that

the students would acquire sufficient competence for im­

mediate employment or self employment.

15

1.3 DETERMINANTS OF EDUCATIONAL CHOICE :

According to the traditional viewpoint, the 'choice'

is a decision which the individual makes at a given moment

in time. It is a basic assumption of all but one theory (ac­

cident theory) of vocational choices that an individual sys­

tematically chooses the curriculum or occupation he intends

to enter. Super (1960) has treated the concept of educational

and vocational maturity as a part of the decision making

process. Granted then, that the educational decisions re­

quired of a young person at about the age of fourteen have

an important bearing on his later occupational history, it

is pertinent to ask whether he is ready to make the decisions

typically required at the given age. Is his vocational maturity

sufficient to enable him to deal adequately with the choice

making tasks with which he is faced ? If he has to make

a choice before he is ready to make it, what will happen?

What can be done to increase readiness for decision making

of those who are not ready ? A student's chances of choosing

a stream wisely depend on the various variables like socio­

economic determinants, psychological determinants, and per­

sonal determinants.

16

1.3.1 Socio-economic Determinants :

Social-class membership influences educational

choice in a variety of ways. For one thing, it helps to

determine the streams with which the young person will be

familiar and hence be likely to consider informulating aims.

In addition, it plays an important role in determining the

social acceptability (i.e. the reward value) of a given oc­

cupation to the young person and to his peers. Certain types

of occupations are considered appropriate to the members

of a particular social class, others inappropriate. The in­

dividual who deviates from class expectancies for occupa­

tional choice is likely to be subjected to anxiety - producing

disapproval from peers, particularly if this deviation is in

the direction of jobs associated with lower class status.

The very young upper class child who wants to

be an ice-cream vendor or truck driver may be indulged or

even encouraged after the attainment of adolescence. How­

ever, when the problem of a career choice becomes a serious

one with practical implications, the child's parents are not

likely to find such notions amusing. Choices of lower status

occupations run counter to the parents ideas about appro­

priate behaviour for a member of their social class, and

consequently, are likely to be discouraged.

17

The reactions of many tolerant and reasonably

flexible upper and upper-middle class parents to the an­

nouncement by a son that he intends to live frugally by

taking part-time labouring job or driving a car in order to

devote as much time as possible to painting or writing

poetry. Parents may also fear that such choices will lead

to general social disapproval both of their child and of

themselves. Furthermore, when the economic rewards of the

career selected are meagre, parents may fear that the child

will not be able to live comfortably as other members of

his social class, or to afford the same social, recreational,

and educational advantages.

Several hypotheses have been offered to account

for social class differences in goals. Other theorists, how­

ever, have argued that both middle class and working class

youth agree on the relative desirability and prestige of var­

ious educational streams and that differences in goals stem

not primarily from values but from class associated percep­

tions of differences in opportunities and general life chanc­

es. Although, many adolescents may be somewhat unrealistic

about their career goals, they nevertheless, possess some

awareness of practical obstacles that may modify their

18

educational aspirations and these are certainly affected by

social class status. A lower class boy whose parents expect

him to go to work upon completion of the ninth grade is

not likely to spend much time to be an engineer.

In addition to limiting the adolescent's opportu­

nity for training in a particular occupation, social class

factors may also influence their chances of obtaining some

jobs, even if he or she is a qualified person. A particular

social class, tends to pick others from the same social class

as their colleagues and successors, although they often do

this without conscious awareness. An employer may say

that a person from another social class does not have the

right sort of personality for a particular job, when he or

she means that the person does not have the same sets of

class learned social traits as others in that position.

To a certain extent, such attitudes may be "jus­

tified" in that people with similar social backgrounds may

find it easier to deal with one another in the job situation.

But. it appears that the importance of socially derived per­

sonality characteristics is often exaggerated by employers.

This may be attributable in part to their need to maintain

their own status as members of a particular social class.

19

Somewhat similar arguments may also be used, consciously

or not, to justify racial, ethnic, or sex-related discrimina­

tions despite the fact that substantial members of minority

groups, individuals and women are currently doing well in

their occupation and professions.

1.3.2. Psychological Determinants :

The education may offer adolescents a socially

approved way to achieve direct or indirect satisfaction of

motives that may have been strong but not fully gratified

in the course of their earlier developments. Thus, motives

such as dominance over others, aggression, nurturance, can

be atleast partially gratified in one or another occupation

(e.g. army officers, police officers, social workers, physi­

cians or nurses). More broadly, choice of an educational

stream which leads to a particular profession and subse­

quent participation in it may help to crystallize and rein­

force an adolescent's self concept (Bordin, 1943, Caro and

Philblad, 1965 Super et. al.. 1963 and Zytowski 1968).

A very important aspect of peoples' working life

is the fact that "working gives them feeling of being tied

into larger system of society, of having something to do or

20

having the purpose in life (Morse and Weiss, , 1968). In an

investigation in which men were asked" if by some chance

you have inherited enough money to live comfortably without

working, do you think you would work anyway or not ?"

80% of the respondents answered that they would indeed

continue to work. Many stated that they would "feel lost"

of they did not work "go crazy with idleness" and "not know

what to do" with their t ime. Such responses indicated to the

investigators that many adults work toward off the twin

threat of loneliness and isolation (Mc Candless 1970).

1.3.3. Personal Determinants :

(a) Sex :

Sex-differences exist in the choice of elective

subjects and branches at secondary level and in the choice

of subjects, faculties, and sectors in higher education. These

differences seem to be fairly universal, with some excep­

t ions. They have also proved to be rather resistant to change

even under conditions where equalization between men and

women has been a prime goal in educational reforms.

Sex-differences in participation at different ed­

ucational levels vary between more and less developed

21

countries. In less developed countries women are under-

represented at all levels, but increasingly so, at levels beyond

compulsory schooling. In more developed countries, the

differences have moved upward to secondary, post second­

ary, or even to graduate level in a few countries, but in

general, men are in the majority atleast at some levels.

To some extent, sex-differences in educational

choice can be related to differences in attainment and in­

terest at earlier levels of schooling. Much research, how­

ever, indicates that even these differences are culturally

determined. Sex role expectations operate from a very early

age. Sex-differences in educational choice also seem to

become sharpened where there is a close correspondence

between educational options and occupational fields.

(b) Intellectual Abilities :

When educational pathways are ordered hierar­

chically according to length and academic content, average

scores on intelligence tests closely follow the same ranking.

In studies where the test scores are assessed before any

educational differentiation has taken place, this ranking

reflects the successive processes of selection and self selection

22

within the educational system. In studies where intelligence

is measured at the end of the normal period of education,

the variation between levels is increased by a generalized

training effect of schooling superimposed upon the result

of selection and self-selection.

Several attempts have been made to make choice,

success, and failure in education less dependent on general

intelligence by introducing choice alternatives and instruc­

tional methods which call upon other aspects of the indi­

vidual intellectual resources. The most important among

these approaches is the study of Aptitude Treatment Inter­

actions (ATI) (Cronbach and Snow- 1977). This approach

has led to many new insights into the complicated relations

between the ability and educational performance, but it is

still far from classroom applicability.

(c) Academic Achievement :

Measures of achievement in school are among

the most common and most powerful instruments of predic­

tion for educational selection. Achievement is also strongly

related to the process of self-selection in comprehensive

elective system. Among the different measures of achieve-

23

ment, school marks seem to be more predictive for the choice

than scores in objective achievement tests. But school marks

are also more influenced by parents, and teacher expecta­

tions and thus derive some of their predictive power from

psychosocial sources rather than from attainment as such.

Not only the general level of achievement but

also the individual's strengths and weaknesses in different

subject matter areas are predictive of educational choice.

Although verbal and linguistic skills are important in most

branches of higher education, yet, it is the relative perfor­

mance in mathematics and science that influences choice

in the 'horizontal ' dimension.

The relations between achievement and choice

are not, however, so straight-forward even at an aggregated

level as to mean that the level of education corresponds to

the level of achievement, and the sector of education (at

one and the same level) to the achievement profile. Very

often achievement level also discriminates between branch­

es of study at the same educational level. For instance,

medical school can select from much higher achievement

strata than most other university faculties, probably, due to

the attractiveness of the medical profession. The other way

24

around, profile differences can influence the choice of level

within a sector, in the case, for instance, where the 'higher'

level affords a more all-round education and the lower level

a more specialized application within the sector. This might

very well influence the choice between different levels of

engineering education-technological education versus training

as a technician. Both the preference and expectancies

immediately preceding an educational choice are influenced

by educational achievement. A student's preferences are

affected by a liking for school, in general, and for different

subjects, which in turn, interact with achievement and with

the reactions to achievement by parents, teachers, peers and

other persons who are important to the individual. The

expectations are influenced by self-evaluation in general

and by more specific information about the competitive

strength of earlier achievements. Rejection from selective

schools and failure in school directly influence achieve­

ment and may successively reduce the number of alterna­

tives for which the student possesses the necessary "tech­

nical qualifications".

25

(d) Interest and Aspirations :

Interests share in common with the other "hor­

izontal" predictors - ability and achievement profiles, a

lower degree of productiveness than "vertical" (or level)

predictors . One may ask whether the 'horizontal" dimension

is weaker as such or only measured in a less reliable way.

When it comes to ability and achievement, schooling is

likely to strengthen the common element in performance

via, for instance, general adjustment to the demands of the

si tuation, to strengthen out profiles and disregard qualities

of the individual outside the verbal and logical reasoning

domain. To some extent, a similar modeling and leveling

process may also go on in interest. The vertical dimension

in ability and achievement also tends to gain support from

social background and family aspirations, with which these

differences are correlated. A similar reinforcement is hard

to think of for the horizontal dimension.

Stability over time tends to be lower for interests

than for performance and this has a negative influence on

the predictiveness of early interests on choices. In addition,

interest measurement is less advanced from a methodolog­

ical point of view than the measurement of ability and

26

achievement. If, on the other hand, one develops interest

measurement with a very close correspondence to educa­

tional choice , the instruments will ul t imately become

tantological in relation to choice - just another way of

saying. "I would like to enter this branch of education".

The vertical aspirational dimension of preferenc­

es should also have its counterpart among explanatory variables

in-terms of more general tendencies in the individual to

strive for status and achievement. This domain, however,

is even less developed and less uniformly organized than

that of interests and its variables have been studied very

little in relation to choices. In some studies educational

plans or the choice itself have been taken as an indicator

of aspiration but then a tantological relationship again develops

and this does not add to the explanation of the individual 's

decision.

(e) Family Background :

The relationship between educational choice and

the cultural and socioeconomic conditions of the home and

family has been treated in several works. A good overview

is found in a commented reader by Karabel and Halsey

27

(1977). Considerable differences still exist in participation

in non-compulsory education by students from different

racial, cultural, and socioeconomic backgrounds. This is

the case not only in the western industrial countries and in

developing countries but also in the socialistic countries of

Eastern Europe. Even where equality of opportunity has

long been a major target for educational policy the socio-

cultural differences in choice of level of education have

been resistant to change almost as resistant as the sex differences

in choice of sector. From the planning point of view these

are the major stable elements in social demand for educa­

tion but unwanted ones. Still some changes are taking place.

As the general level of education rises in a society, the zone

where decisions to continue education are problematic to

the individual moves down the socioeconomic scale little

by little. At the top and the bottom of the socioeconomic

status scale, choices are still rather fixed and predetermined

in most countries. A similar generalization may be true in

relation to level of education. As the average level of ed­

ucation rises in a society, the stages where social handicaps

have their strongest impact move up the scale from lower

secondary to upper secondary, college, or even to graduate

education.

28

Boudon (1974 pp. 22-24) categorizes different

theories tliat have been proposed to explain socio-cultural

differences in educational choice :

(a) According to the "value" theory different social class­

es have different value systems that influence their

attitudes towards the benefit of education.

(b) The "social position" theory points to the difference

among social classes in the social distance they have

to 'travel* in order to reach a given educational level,

and the costs involved (both social and economic)

compared to the benefits anticipated.

(c) The "cultural theory" maintains that inequality of ed­

ucational opportunity is generated mainly by differ­

ences in cultural opportunities among families in dif­

ferent social classes the differences that the compul­

sory school is not capable of neutralizing. By means

of survey data and school statistics, Bondon shows

that the "cultural" and "value" theories do not suffice

for explaining the existing relationship between back­

ground and educational experience. The 'cultural the­

ory' may explain what he calls a primary effect of

29

social stratification, namely, that students from dif­

ferent backgrounds differ in achievements and this

influences their choice. When achievement is con­

trolled, however, there remain great differences in

choice between the social classes. Here the 'value'

theory might offer some help but it does not explain

existing differences within social classes.

(f) Peer Group and School Environment :

A great many studies have tried to find out whether

the choices of friends and peers have any direct influences

on a students ' own choice to continue education and whether

the social composition of a school has a similar effect. In

both cases complicated methodological problems have turned

up since it is necessary to control for the influence of, for

instance, similarity in family background, school achieve­

ment, characteristics of community and residence area variables

that all tend to be correlated with one another. Only when

influences exceed what can be expected on the basis of a

number of reasonable competing individual and social vari­

ables, is there ground for speaking of a direct effect.

30

1.3.4 Institutional Determinants :

(a) Educational System :

Educational reforms have often been undertaken

with explicit references to social demand- either in order

to improve the organization's adjustment to students needs,

or to modify students' choices so as to correspond better to

goals and targets of the educational system. Introducing

new fields of study, changing admission rules, and integrat­

ing academic and vocational programs are examples of such

reforms, and often, they have tried to serve both the pur­

poses: adjustment to student-needs and modification of choice

behaviour. The intended effects of the changes may be both

general, and differential, general in the sense that they

result in, for instance, an overall increase in demand for

education at the next higher level or a shift of emphasis

from one sector to another, and differential, in the sense that

different subgroups alter their demand in varying degrees.

Attempts to equalize the participation of women and men,

or lower and upper class students are aimed at such differ­

ential outcomes.

31

(b) Differentiation System :

Differentiation in all its forms means a gradual

delimitation of the range within which the students acquire

"technical qualification" for further choices of education

and occupation. The following characteristics of differen­

tiation are considered to be of special importance.

(i) Age or grade : when differentiation takes place earlier

it is more likely it is the family background that will

influence the decision.

(ii) Scope of differentiation : the limitation of range for

further choice is greater and more difficult to com­

pensate for when differentiation covers the whole cur­

riculum rather than certain subjects.

(Hi) Organizational separation : The effects are less defin­

itive when the alternative provided are within the same

school.

(iv) Decision making : by school one sidedly (placement),

by school after application (selection), by parents and

students (election).

32

(v) Criteria of placement or selection : Ability versus

achievement versus interests : general legal versus

profiles.

(vi) Preparation through guidance : When the students

and parents can influence the decision, guidance can

contribute to equalizing information and advice.

The effects described for each aspect are mainly

hypothetical outcomes that have been used in debating different

organizational solutions. In real school system these char­

acteristics are combined in different ways and it is difficult

to evaluate the effects as separate characteristics are likely

to interact with each other, that is. have different effects

in different mixes, and each mix has a unique relation to

the broader educational and societal context in which the

differentiation system works.

(c) Admission and Selection :

Most educational programmes beyond the com­

pulsory elementary level have some sort of minimum re­

quirement for entry. These are usually expressed in-terms

of earlier educational attainment, but, experience in the

specific field and general vocational experience may also

33

be required in addition to, or in some cases, even as a

substitute for formal education. When the number of places

is restricted (numerous clauses), a selection is made among

the applicants and this may be based on criteria similar to

the minimum requirements for admission but sometimes

may be supplemented with tests and interviews. Both ad­

mission and selection procedures vary in their degree of

formality from strict scoring of merits to a clinical type of

global assessment.

Relaxation of admission requirement is likely to

have an influence on demand. An example is the recruitment

to post-secondary education of adults without the regular

upper secondary preparation. However, not all such chang­

es in admission rules are automatically followed by the

desired effects, for instance, persons who have a weak ed­

ucational background and who are therefore the target group

may resist even a change in rules because they lack con­

fidence in their capacity. They may also perceive environ­

mental conditions as obstacles more often than persons who

have greater confidence in their psychological resources.

Active recruitment campaigns seem to have some effect.

However, the abolition of unnecessary formal requirement

34

remains a precondition for increasing demand from such

new groups of potential applicants.

An educational system with selection to some

programs and free entry to others is likely to affect the

distribution of individual demand. The restriction may add

to prestige of the numerous clauses institutions and make

them more attractive to students who expect to succeed in

the competition for places. Students who are attracted but

expect to be borderline cases in such competitions are more

likely to try by all possible means if they come from a high

social economic background.

1.4 THEORIES OF EDUCATIONAL C H O I C E :

The theories of educational and vocational choice

which have been formulated, explain how individuals choose

occupations and why they select and eventually enter dif­

ferent occupations. The theories can be broadly classified

as psychological and non-psychological.

1.4.1 Psychological Theories :

In contrast to non-psychological theories, the

psychological theories of choice focus more upon the in-

35

dividual as the crucial variable in decision making process.

They posit that choice is determined by the characteristics

or functioning of the individual and only indirectly, by the

environment in which he lives. There are four major types

of psychological theories of choices.

1. Trait and factor Theory.

2. Psychodynamic Theory

3. Developmental Theory and

4. Decision making Theory.

Each of these emphasizes a different aspect of

individual's behaviour as the basic factor in choice. The

Trait and factors theories emphasize the relationship of an

individual's personal characteristics to his selection of a

stream. The logic of this theory is that because individuals

differ in their aptitudes, interests and personalities, and

because occupations require varying amounts and kinds of

these traits and factors, different individuals choose to enter

in different streams. The psychodynamic theory proposes

that the most significant factor in the making of a career

choice is a motivational or process variable. For this rea­

son, they contrast sharply with the trait and factor theories

which emphasize observable characteristics of the Individ-

36

ual and not the inferred states or conditions which prompt

him to behave as he does. The central theme of psychoanal­

ysis is that individual adjusts the social expectations and

moves by sublimating the desires and impulses which he

experiences as a result of his biological nature. He express­

es libido in a socially acceptable form by participating in

appropriate activities or by making responses which are

conversion of psychic energy. Whereas psychoanalytic theories

of educational choice stress the defence mechanism of the

individual in the selection of a stream, need theories of

choice give primary attention to the desires which stimulate

the individual to prefer one stream to another. The most

prominent need theory is the one put by Roe (Roe 1956;

Super & Bachrach 1957) which begins with the individuals

early psychosocial experiences, particularly in the family

and traces their effects upon the formation needs and the

patterning of psychic energy. The specific needs which Roe

(1 956) relates to career choice are those defined by Maslow

(1954) in his theory of personality. These needs are ar­

ranged in hierarchy of prepotency. Since the higher order

needs (understanding beauty, self actualization) only be­

come effective after the lower order needs (food, safety,

love) have been satisfied. In modern society, of course.

most of the lower -order needs are satisfied for most people

most of the time, so that it is the higher order needs which

play a significant part in the motivation of educational

behaviour. 'Self theory' has several different definitions

depending upon the frame of reference used. In sociological

terminology, the 'self is what the person is (Sarbin, 1954,

P. 244) which consists of two components, the "I" and the

"me". The "I" refers to the individual's personal character­

istics, as he sees them, whereas the "me" reflects the re­

action of others to the individual (Mead, G.H. 1934). The

'self influences educational choice because, as super (195 1,

lb, p. 88) has put it, "the choice of a stream is one of the

points in life at which a young person is called upon to state

rather explicitly his concepts of himself. The individual as

he grows older attempts to select a stream which will be

compatible with his self-concept and which will allow him

to make it a reality by permitting him to play the role he

wants to play.

Tiedman and his associates (Tiedman & Pandit,

1958; O'Hara Tiedman, 1959, Kibrick & Tiedman, 1961,

Tiedman & O'Hara 1968) have also related the 'self to

career choice but their approach is somewhat different.

38

They have emphasized the formation on the 'self in relation

to educational experiences more than Super has, and they

have conceived of the 'self as the individual 's evaluation

rather than perception of himself, which continually chang­

es as he progresses from one educational "position" to another.

While the trait and factor and psychodynamic

theory of educational choice assume that choice takes place

at a given point in time rather than over a period of time,

in contrast, developmental explanation of choice proposes

that the decisions involved in the selection of the occupa­

tion occur at a number of different points in the individual's

life and that they constitute a continuous process that starts

in childhood and ends in early adulthood. This conception

of career choice as a developmental process had its origin

in the early work of Carter (1940) on the formation of

interests pattern of adolescents, which he concluded, are

solutions to the problems of "growing up".

The current theories of educational development

assert that choice behaviour matures as the individual grows

older (Dysinger. 1950,Beilin. 1955). The theory formulated

by Ginzberg et.al. (1951) which they derived from inter­

views with adolescence consists of three propositions about

39

the developmental nature of educational choice. First, they

point out that it is a process which spans the entire period

of adolescents, from approximately 10 to the age of 2 1 .

Second, this process is largely irreversible, that is, it is

difficult for the individual to change his goal. And third,

the process ends in a compromise between an individuals

needs. Super (1953) places more emphasis than Guizberg

upon educational choice as a process and suggests that the

term "development" be used rather than 'choice', because it

comprehends the concept of preference, choice entry and

adjustment" Super (1953) introduced the concept of edu­

cational maturity to denote the individuals degree of de­

velopment from the time of his early fantasy choices in

childhood to his decisions about retirement from work in

old age (Super 1955).

1.4.2 Non-Psychological theories :

The non-psychological theories of educational

choice are those which attribute choice phenomenon to the

operation of some system which are external to the indi­

vidual. In other words, in these theories the conditions or

the characteristics of the individual e.g. his intell igence,

interest, personality traits are not considered to be either

40

directly or indirectly related to educational choice; the

individual enters in stream solely because of the operation

of the environmental factors. There are three types of such

factors which may determine his course of action.

1. Chance or contingency factors.

2. The law of supply and demand, and

3. The folkways and institutions of society.

The theories which deal with the effects of these

factors upon choice are known as the accident, economic and

sociological theories of educational and vocational choice

respectively.

The 'accident theory' stresses the fact that chance

factors are the fortuitous, unplanned, and unpredicted events

which affect a persons career. In other words, 'chance'

refers to experiences "which are unplanned so far as the

individuals themselves are concerned" or it means "an

unplanned exposure to powerful stimulus (Ginzberg et. al.

1951 P -19). The 'economic theory' asserts that given com­

plete freedom of choice, the individual selects that stream

which he thinks will bring him the greatest advantage. Similarly,

the cultural and sociological theories say that the major

factor in the determination of an individual's career choice

41

is the impact of the culture and society in which he l ives,

and upon the goals and objectives he learns to value. The

broad cultural milieu in which a person is raised has an

overall influence upon his freedom to choose.

1.5 EDUCATIONAL CHOICE AND ADOLESCENTS :

Choice of an educational stream represents one

of the critical developmental tasks of adolescents. The con­

temporary Indian adolescent faces the problem of choosing

the right type of stream which is compatible with his in­

terest, aptitude and socio-economic status. Stream choice

has often been defined as the individual's preference to opt,

within a given number of alternatives, he expresses for one

or another, and this constitutes his choice. More specially,

he indicates that he has ranked two or more occupations

along some continuum of desirability or favourability. When

boys reach the high school age, they gradually begin to

think about their future and the kind of vocation they want

to make their life-work. Whether or not they can plan ahead

depends partly on the economic stability of the family,

partly on whether they belong to a social class where plan­

ning ahead is encouraged, and partly on their sex. Boys for

the most part, are more seriously concerned about the problem

42

of the choice of educational streams, because to them, it

will be a life-career.

The fantasy-dominated preferences of childhood

give way to a more reality-oriented concept of work and

its more requirement in the way of ability, education, train­

ing, and of what the individual's capacities actually are.

Adolescents recognize that they are likely to follow the

pattern of their fathers in their occupational selection unless

circumstances force them to attain a higher education and

thus move into a higher vocational bracket. While many

adolescents aspire for jobs above the occupational level of

their families, they are realistic about their chances of

getting them because of the early unrealistic attitude toward

career. It is not surprising that most adolescents are change­

able in their career selection, atleast for a few years. This

instability slowly decreases as adolescents grow older.

Boys typically, want jobs that have glamour and

excitement regardless of the ability required or chances that

such jobs will be available for them. It is very necessary

to have a knowledge of vocational interests of the students

to determine whether the individual gets satisfaction from

the stream which he has chosen. The greater the correspon-

43

dence between the educational stream and vocational choic­

es, the greater the expectancy of success and happiness in

life. Therefore, the educational choices hold a vitally im­

portant role in the whole gamut of educational issues and

problems.

This is the reason why the pattern of our second­

ary school education has been recognized into anew structure

known as 10+2+3. This reorganization has provided diver­

sified courses, so that it can be made suitable for varying

needs, interests, and aptitudes of different students. It has

provided for the recognition of individual differences for

the first t ime. It has saved human resources from being

wasted. Education processes try to make the best use of

human resources. In this way, each and every individual

may get satisfaction and would derive maximum happiness

from his life which will contribute to the optimum good of

society. So, each and every student should be given oppor­

tunities to develop his potentialities in his own way. It

would be possible only when students abil i t ies, potential­

ities and interests are identified in such a way that they

make right career choices.

44

1.6 VALUES AND EDUCATIONAL CHOICE :

Values have been defined in many ways. Accord­

ing to the Oxford Dictionary of English Language, it is

"One's judgement of what is valuable or important in life".

In the Dictionary of Education, value is defined, as "a norm

or standard of desirability within a culture and interiorized

within the individual through interaction with and critical

study of his environment". In the words of Jullios Gould

and William L. Kohl, "The meaning of value has come to

denote not only social norms , but also the broader standards

which, when related to the activities of social life can give

rise to complexes of institutionalized norms," C. Kluckhohn

defines value as, "a conception explicit or implicit, distinc­

tive of an individual or characteristic of a group, of the

desirable which influences the selection from available modes,

means, and end of action'. Value is defined in the words

of T. Parsons as, 'an element of shared symbolic system

which serves as a criterion or standard for selection among

the alternatives of orientation which are intrinsically open

in a situation, may be called a value". In the view of Carter

V. Good, Dean and Professor of Education. Emeritus, university

of Cincinnati, Value is. "any characteristic, deemed impor­

tant because of psychological, social, moral or aesthetic

45

considerations". According to Henry E. Garret values are,

"certain behaviours or v ays of life regarded as more de­

sirable than others." Rakesh (1973) as quoted by Saroj

Bansal defined value as, "an ending belief that a specific

mode of conduct or end state of existence is personally and

socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of

conduct or end state of existence". In the words of Birghman

(1964), "It is the actual experience of enjoying a desired

object or activity", Flisk, defines values as ..." normative

standards by which human beings are influenced in the

choice among the alternative courses of action which they

perceive." Allport says, "Values represent the apex of

development in the mature personality". These enable the

individual to evaluate, to judge, and to choose. In the view

of Cattel, "the social, artistic, moral and other standards

which the individual would like others and himself to follow."

Cattell insists that values play a significant role in person­

ality integration.

Man has immense potential for both good and

evil, for creation and destruction, which enables him to

differentiate between right or wrong, desirable and unde­

sirable, reasonable and unreasonable, or make the right

choice and act in a manner which is socially desirable,

46

morally acceptable and personally satisfying. This inherent

ability is the product of a higher order development of the

personality of an individual. An important attribute of value

is its permanence. It has been designated as, "Persisting

disposition", and once formed, there is possibility of its

being stable. Values do not require any reference. Gener­

ality is another characteristic of values. They determine

every sphere of human activity. In order to clarify the

concept of values it is essential to differentiate between

values and attitude. While attitudes are positive and neg­

ative predispositions, essentially directed towards an indi­

vidual, a group or an idea. Values are independent of any

reference. Secondly, attitudes are stable preferences. They

emerge as a result of constant exposure to certain types of

stimuli. The attitude may change, as a result of change in

the situation, values, on the contrary, are acquired as aresul t

of structuring and restructuring of experiences so as to

reach a level of sophistication and permanence. Psychol­

ogists agree that at the root of values is interest and motive.

1.6.1 Classification of Values :

Though there are many ways in which values may

be classified. Spranger, a German Psychologist, made an

attempt at classifying individuals on the basis of values

47

they uphold. He postulates, "Ideal Types" representing ultimate

and coherent pattern of values, unifying any personality

capable of following any one of them consistently. Each of

these ideal types was considered not as a pattern which

would be shown in pure form by many individuals but as

hypothetical extreme, which various people approached by

degrees. These values have been criticized for not being

complete. There may be many more values which have been

neglected here in the Sherry and Verma's personal value

questionnaire. Even though, like all typologies. Sherry's

and Verma's typology also suffers from defects. Yet, it has

provided most sound basis for empirical investigation of

those complex phenomena in human personality which have

been beyond the grip of the empiricists.

1.6.2 Value Orienfation :

Value orientation may be defined as value direc­

tion. It is an integrating factor in mature personali ty. Much

or most of the unity in life came from the following values.

Values have selective power. What a person perceives, remem­

bers and thinks, is determined by his personal values. Value

orientations are powerful and silent agents for selecting and

directing whatever is related to them. Thus, people with a

strong aesthetic value respond more quickly to areas con-

48

nected with this value than relating to other values they

lack. If people with strong aesthetic value are provided a

newspaper, they will read more items pertaining to art than

will non-aesthetic people. The selective tendency is discov­

ered in all forms of values, that have been tested value

directions.

1.7 RESEARCH PERSPECTIVE :

S tudies made by Terman and Miles (1936),

Carter and Strong (1933), Yum (1942) and Traxler, and

McCall (1941) all agree that men are more interested in

physical activities, mechanical and scientific matters, pol­

itics and selling.

Strong (1955) made a study of vocational inter­

ests of adolescents by applying his Vocational Interest Blank.

The result he drew was that adolescent boys are interested

mostly in aviation, inventing, exploring, engineering and

mechanics. He further found that their areas of interest were

auto-driving, hunting, secret-services, and likewise, several

studies have shown that there is a close relation between

vocational interest and socio-economic status on the one

hand, and the development and manifestations of interests

49

on the other-hand. Jordan (1949) found that mechanically

gifted boys opt to have the expected scientific and technical

interests, but when their fathers are executives, they do not

have an interest in science and technology. Studies made

by King-man (1963-64) indicate that a change in interest

may be one reason for the apparently low correlation be­

tween interest and achievement. He found significant gains

in scores on the Classical Interest Blank when students were

tested at the beginning and again at the end of a year of

schooling.

Studies by Kroger (1935), Freston (1939), Bradely

(1943), Carter (1944), Stubbins (1950), Galler (1951) ,

Himmelwell Halsey and Oppen (1952), Kahl (1953) Youman

(1956), Stephen (1957). Mclyer and Bancroft (1962), Davis

(1963), Jain (1964), Thayer (1966), Writz(1966). adn Wytic,

Hutchim and Edwin show positive relationship between the

youth's level of occupational aspirations and various mea­

sures of social status of his family. Reisman (1950) attr ib­

uted this correlation to educational and occupational achieve­

ment values that are presumed to be directly influenced by

the family's position in the status structure. It is supposed

that the level of aspiration is generally influenced by the

50

educational and occupational values specific to the status

milieu in which one is reared. Hollings head (1949) hypoth­

esized that lower class youngsters limit their horizons to

the class horizon and in this process they unconsciously

place themselves in such a position that they will occupy

the same level as their parents. However, Bennet and Gist

(1949) and Hodgkins and Parr (1965) found that the dif­

ferent social classes did not differ significantly in their

occupational aspirations, but they differed in their Plans

i.e. what they expected to achieve. They have explained

these findings by proposing contrary to the rest of the

literature that there are no major differences between social

classes with regard to aspirations, but the plans differ

because of objective differences in opportunity.

Another group of investigators think that the

previous studies have largely dealt with occupational as­

pirations in absolute terms and the aspiration of the lower

class youth have been compared with the aspirations of

those from the upper classes. Since the lower classes are

less inclined to aspire for professional and managerial

occupations it is inferred that they do not have the desire

to go ahead. But, there is reason to believe that relative

51

position should be taken into account, that is, some atten­

tion should be paid to the class from which the individual

begins in deciding whether or not he desires to go ahead.

When this later approach was applied, studies by Berdie

(1954), Lipset (1955), Payne (1956), Slocum - Sewell (1957),

Lipset and Bindex (1959), Middleton and Crigg (1959),

Nam and Cowley (1959) Schwarzweller (1959), Crigg and

Russell (1960) Edlefand Martin (1960), Schwarzweller( 1960)

and Burchinal (1962), showed that children from lower

status families aspired for occupations higher than those in

which their fathers were engaged. Moreover, most of the

researches in the area have been done in the U.S.A. and

other developed countries; but no such work appears to have

been done in this area in India. Because of the peculiarities

of the Indian social set-up, it appears interesting to study

the vocational choices of the adolescents from the different

socio-economic levels in India.

Berdie's (1960) findings have indicated that the

objectively measured interests of students are valid and

predictive of future occupational choices. Berdie found that

for a sample of students who finished college studies and

completed advance training in four different professions.

52

their measured interest as high school seniors related very

much to their chosen occupations. Crites (1962) investigat­

ed relation between parents occupation and vocational inter­

est and found that " identification with both the par­

ents influences the formation of vocational interest patterns

but identification with the father is more important than the

mother".

Effect of the socio-economic status and achieve­

ment on occupational choice is also studied by other re­

searches. Their studies found that the economic status operate

directly or indirectly on the selection of vocation. The

children whose families are living at marginal economic

status or just slightly above it are not provided with stim­

ulating experiences and exposure such as books, travels,

radios, television, museums and so on, which constituted

a large part of informal education for most of the children

of upper income groups. The adolescents of the low income

groups, in the absence of any substantial savings, are led

to look forward for earning money as early as possible.

Children from upper income families have almost a com­

plete freedom in making an occupational choice, while the

interests of those having a low socio-economic status are

53

vary much restricted. The children of upper income group

have no anxiety about financing long period of preparation

for the realization of their vocational choice. Children be­

longing to lower income group are aware of the obstacles

of economic investments in the realization of their voca­

tional choice, and so, boys having mechanical interest and

ability can not think beyond becoming a mechanic or elec­

trician or any such semi-professional jobs that are closely

related to engineering. However, he explored the relation­

ship between the measured interests of students and the

socio-economic status of their homes and found that, in

general, interests are not independent of social origin. In

case of effect of achievement on vocational choice it is

found that the vocational choices of high achievers, differ

from those of low achievers. The high achievers tend to

engage in those occupations that require longer period of

time. They also exhibit a preference for public service,

professions and artistic occupations, while the low achiev­

ers tend to engage in those occupations which require minimum

training and provide a chance for employment sooner. The

individual who are uncertain of their occupation choices are

less studious and are likely to obtain lower scores on

achievement test.

54

The related studies reported above lead to the

following observations with regard to vocational choices of

adolescent boys and their correlates such as achievement,

socio-economic status and their vocational preferences.

1. Most of the studies reported have found that vocation­

al choices are moderately related with the factors of

achievements.

2. They also showthat socio-economic status of the family

affects vocational choices.

Small, L. (1955) constructed a vocational inter­

est inventory to study the interest pattern of high school

students and its relationship with achievement, and socio­

economic status. The purpose of the investigation was to

make a differential study of interest patterns of high school

senors and to study its relation with achievement and socio-

- economic status. The study was undertaken on a stratified

and randomized sample of 570 boys of 10th class. It was

concluded that sex-wise difference was found to a great

extent in administrative business, social service and arts.

Interest in agriculture, business and clerical activities cor­

related nesativelv with socio-economic status. None of the

55

interest scales correlated significantly with achievements.

There was no clear cut difference in interest of high and

low groups. Trend of relationship between academic suc­

cess and interest showed that interest in related area was

a must to achieve success in any curricular subject.

It has been shown in several studies that socio­

economic status is related to the development of interests.

Strong (1960), McArthur (1955) and Stevens found that

inventoried interests are better predictors of the regular

adults occupation than are expressed preferences when the

subjects are mobile class young men but that preferences

are better predictors of adult occupation in the case of

young men of upper class status.

Some studies have also been carried out by re­

searchers in India. Singh (1967) made a study of patterns

of educational and vocational interest of adolescents with

a purpose to test the hypothesis regarding the differences

in interest based on rural urban origin, the educational

interest, vocational interest, and course of study. The find­

ings revealed that educational and vocational interests of

adolescents were not identical. It means that educational

courses or subjects of,study and vocational interests did not

56

tally with each other. In the scientific and constructive

areas, the subject courses offered and the vocational inter­

est of male students differed very much. But, they had more

or less similar interests in literary, commercial or aesthetic

groups. No one is purely theoretical or religious in his

interests. He may have preponderance of choices for one

value direction over others.

A sizeable number of studies have been conduct­

ed to determine the educational preferences and values of

senior secondary schools. Many theorists have attempted

to establish the relationship between values and choices.

Super and Crites considered values as "basic Interests"

According to them" If values are thought of as repre­

senting a layer of personality which is deeper than those

at which occupational choice and social attitudes are framed,

then it is significant that there is also some relat ionship

between these two types of Interests". They further add,

" values are related in expected ways to choice of

training in fields, such as art. business, drama, education,

engineering, law, literature, medicine, natural sciences,

psychology and social work". This assumption has given

way to a large number of empirical studies which have

57

attempted to discover relationship between values and interests

in educational and other fields.

The study of values by Allport and Vernon (1931)

which is a pioneering work in the field of measurement of

values gave way to a number of researches on the subject

of values and led to adaptation of the scale in various

languages. Kumar, (1972) conducted a study on social

climate in school and characteristics of pupils, and also

investigated value orientations towards basic values of Indian

society. He concluded that there was no significant dif­

ference in values of school climate groups.

1.8 RESEARCH GAPS AND ISSUES :

Choice of an educational stream represents one

of the critical developmental tasks of adolescents. The con­

temporary Indian adolescent faces the problem of choosing

the right type of stream which is compatible with his in­

terest, aptitude and socio-economic status. Parsons (1909)

writes that an individual 's stream choice is his "greatest

decision" and that it occurs at that time in his life when he

is about to enter the world of work. Every individual decision

can be seen as a compromise between preference for and

58

expectancies of a certain education. Whether this decision

leads to entry or not in the education, chosen also depends

on a number of factors outside the control of the individual,

such as the supply of places, the choices of other individ­

uals competing for the same places, the admission require­

ments, and selection procedures of the school. To some

extent, however, these restr ic t ions already might have

influenced the individual's expectancies, and the restric­

tions set by the system, in turn, are being influenced by the

expected social demands. Already this dialectic mechanism

makes it unrealistic to look upon educational or, for that

matter, stream choice as a one time decision. Rather, it

should be conceived as a developmental process where

consecutive choice situations, often institutionalized by the

educational system, in addition to presenting appropriate

options, also function as "developmental task" for the stu­

dent. They are in other words, situations that train for

further and more complicated choices.

Educators are preoccupied with problems of per­

sonality, whereas personality implies the totality of behav­

ior potentials and tendencies of a human being. The con­

temporary adolescents of our society have only a vague idea

59

of the nature of the many different kinds of options avail­

able in the society. They do not know what they would be

able to do successfully and would enjoy. As adolescents

leave childhood behind and the time when they must support

themselves approaches, they are likely to spend more of

their time thinking about educational goals. They also become

progressively more realistic about these goals. Three dis­

tinguishable periods in the maturation of educational choice

have been suggested, the fantasy period, the tentative period,

and the realistic period. In early and middle childhood,

careers are likely to be selected that seem active and ex­

citing, such as pilot, astronaut, fire-fighter and explorer.

These choices are emotional, not practical, they are made

within the child's world, not in terms of the actual world

in which the adolescent will eventually function. Beginning

with pre-adolescence. however, there is a progression into

the tentative period. This period may be sub-divided into

four stages-interest, capacities, values and transit ion.

At the beginning of the tentative period, the in­

fluence of adolescents interest predominates, however, as

they mature, they begin to assess their capacity for actually

performing the jobs in which they are interested. Still later,

60

they attempt to integrate interest and capacities into abroader,

gradually emerging value system. At this juncture, adoles­

cents are ready for the transition to the period of realistic

choices somewhere around age 17 to 18. During the latter

period, "the adolescent assesses his aspiration level, his

motivation and the requirements of the job he wants and

then pursues his objective by educational and career plan­

ning. Empirical research supports the notion of a steady but

gradual maturation of the average young person's career

thinking during the early adolescent years, at-least for boys

(O'Hara and Tiedman 1959). In particular, investigators

have been able to identify "an interest stage seemingly

terminated by grade 10 and a work value stage probably

proceeding through a secondary phase in grade 12". How­

ever, they caution that "aptitude is relatively poorly per­

ceived throughout grades 9 through 12 even by academi­

cally able boys".

Other investigators have found that, whereas the

younger child is likely to be influenced vary much by the

social status of a preferred occupation, as he grows older,

he begins to prefer occupations of marked prestige in the

adults world. Finally, as adulthood approaches, he is likely

6]

to settle on some occupation that represents a realistic

reconciliation between what he would like to do and what

he think he might actually be able to do. As the young

persons career interest become progressively more realistic

and less influenced by glamour and excitement, they also

become more stable, for example, the older the adolescent,

the less changeable the career interests become (as mea­

sured by vocational interest tests repeated after a given

interval of time), by middle adolescence, career interest

becomes fairly stable, though changes may still occur. By

age 25, complete stability is usually achieved.

Although adolescents' career interests reflect in­

creasing stability and realism, there is considerable evi­

dence that they can not simply be left to their own devices

in coping with educational problems. In a society as com­

plex as ours, in which the actual requirement of most jobs

and their availability in the labour market are not the matters

of common knowledge, the adolescent clearly needs help.

Unfortunately, however, the availability of truly knowl­

edgeable and skilled assistance is extremely limited. In our

country, the young person's career interests usually develop

in a rather unsystematic fashion, guided by such influences

62

as parental desires, relationship with parents accidental

contact with various occupations, and the icinds of jobs

friends are going into; class and sex typed standard also play

a role. These occupations lead the students to select the

educational stream: arts, science or commerce.

The foregoing discussion shows that the most

suitable age at which adolescents can make realistic deci­

sions about their career choices ranges between 16 and 18

years. In our educational system a young boy or girl within

the age group 16-18 years is generally studying in classes

XI and XII (Senior Secondary Stage). Therefore, it appears

that it is at this stage that Indian adolescents have to make

crucial decision of their career choice and hence of the

educational stream most suitable to their vocational aspi­

rations. If studies are conducted to evaluate vocational

preferences of adolescents of the age group 16-18 years,

very useful data may be made available which would lead

to important results.

Traditionally the Indian youth generally adopted

the vocation or profession of their parents or family in

which caste system played an important role. However,

education has brought about significant changes in the attitude

63

of adolescents and their parents, but still, the hang-over of

traditional values influences career choices to some extent.

This needs to be probed into. Socioeconomic status, which

is a modified version of caste system, may have important

bearing on career aspirations of young adolescents. More­

over the value system of one's family or one's self may also

influence one's choice of career. In case, the impact of

socioeconomic status, values system, career aspiration and

academic achievement on choice of vocational streams is

known it can provide useful information for guidance and

counselling . These issues and some other academic con­

siderations prompted the investigator to undertake the present

study.

64

THE PROBLEM

According to the t radi t ional viewpoint , 'choice '

is a dec i s ion which an ind iv idua l makes at a given

moment in t ime . The basic a s sumpt ion of all but one

( acc iden t theory) of the theor ies of educa t iona l choice

s ta tes that the individual sys t ema t i ca l ly chooses the

cu r r i cu lum or stream he in tends to enter . Educa t iona l

choice is operat ional ly defined as the e lec t ive subjec t -

group which the student prefers to s tudy and opts for

the same whenever requi red to make such a cho ice .

Cho ice , as defined by Cri tes (1969 , p . 164) is the ind i ­

v idual ' s s ta tement of the occupa t ion (or cu r r i cu lum) he

in tends to enter . Choice is simply, not as real i ty - based

ea r l i e r as it is later in his deve lopmen t . The school

sys tem in our country is so o rgan ized that some an­

t i c ipa to ry or actual voca t iona l dec i s ions have to be

made at the end of the secondary (high) school. The

ind iv idua l s tudent usually has to decide among differ­

ent cu r r i cu la , such as sc ience , human i t i e s , commerce ,

home sc ience , agr icu l ture , fine arts and t echno logy .

Other dec i s ions must be made dur ing senior secondary

y e a r s . Super and a s s o c i a t e s (1960) e m p h a s i z e the

65

importance of educational and vocational decision making

in the fo l lowing words :

"... obviously, educational and vocational deci­sions have to be made sooner or later, and many decisions are the right ones for the persons con­cerned. But time is wasted if unwise educational and vocational choices have been made necessi­tating attempts at correction later, especially, in years of political and social crisis. It is impor­tant for the individual and for the society that time and resources should not be wasted in unneces­sary educational and vocational floundering".

Hays and Rothrey (1961) emphas ize the role

of school and home exper i ences in making wise edu­

cat ional c h o i c e s . Students are f requent ly asked to make

dec is ions about some of the specifics of the i r secondary

education, A student's chances of choosing wisely depends

on the dec i s ion-making exper iences he has had in school

and home se t t ings , and his dec is ions are inf luenced by

the degree of independence from adult au thor i ty which

he has ach ieved . Confl ic ts may arise when the ch i ldren

want freedom in choices . Educa tors be l ieve that supe­

rior s tuden t s mature ear l ier than their a g e - m a t e s . They

may expect them to be capable of making dec is ions

which the i r paren ts have not prepared them to make.

66

Mortensen and Schumul ler (1966) say that the school

curr iculum choice is the medium through which socie ta l

va lues are expressed . Cur r icu la are the media through

which the purpose of guidance (and of educa t ion ) are

expres sed . They serve as d i rec t express ion of the school

phi losophy. Through the curr iculum, the values of society

are brought d i rec t ly to the child and he thus begins

ear ly in life to ass imi la te those values which the so­

cie ty ho lds . Crow and Crow (1951) hold the view that

all educa t iona l guidance given for educa t iona l choices

has voca t iona l impl i ca t ions . Vocat ional gu idance usu­

ally, is in terpre ted as the ass i s t ance given to learners

in choos ing , p repar ing for and p rogress ing in an occu­

pa t ion . Near ly al l , so ca l led , educa t iona l gu idance has

voca t iona l impl ica t ions .

2.1 RATIONALE :

The general trend observed is that s tudents

who have scored very good marks at the high school

stage go to science stream offering subjects like mathe­

matics and bio logica l sciences. Those who are not able

to find a way, somehow, to these courses, r e luc tan t ly

walk into arts and commerce s t ream. Some s tudents use

67

these s t reams a "way-station" t i l l they get their fortune

e l sewhere . It is repor ted that the select ion of the groups

of the students at the degree level in co l leges is in the

order of phys ics , mathemat ics and chemis t ry . So, the

choice of educat ional s t ream at senior secondary level

is a very crucial dec is ion hav ing s igni f icant bear ing on

the future life of the s t uden t s . It is hypothes ized that

there are cer ta in pe r sona l , socia l and psychologica l

factors which determine this choice. Brake and Kukopadyya

(1978) studied the voca t iona l in te res t s of the technica l

s t uden t s in r e l a t i o n to their a cademic ach i evemen t ,

in te l l igence and choice of cou r se s . The study revealed

that there was no s ign i f ican t re la t ion among choice of

sub jec t s , in teres t and academic ach ievement . The pro­

cess of career choice has severa l s tages through which

every individual must pass (Super , 1957) . At the pri­

mary stage the child imagines h imsel f as being any

th ing that appeals to the imag ina t ion wi thout knowing

the rea l i t i e s . At the upper p r imary stage the child is

drawn toward those j o b s tha t seem to embody the

th ings which he finds i n t e r e s t i ng . At high school level

which is also a per iod of middle ado lescence , the child

deve lops a t endency to reject a poss ib le career that

68

appears to fall above or below his abi l i ty level , and at

the +2 level the chi ld is able to make a ten ta t ive choice

of career and finds out more about the rea l i t i e s of

working l i fe . At th is s tage severa l social forces tend

to guide the behaviour of chi ldren including their choice

of educa t iona l and voca t iona l s t ream. The inves t iga to r

feels that career a s p i r a t i o n s , personal va lues , soc ia l -

economic s ta tus and academic ach ievement may be

s ignif icant de te rminants of educat ional choice at sec­

ondary s tage .

2.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM :

In our p resen t system of school ing we have

10 + 2 pa t te rn i .e. upto c lass X, we have general edu­

cation for all ch i ld ren and beyond this they can choose

different streams of educat ion. This structure of schooling

was proposed by Calcut ta Univers i ty Commission (1919)

and was a l soendorsed by Univers i ty Education Commis­

sion (1948) s ta t ing that s tuden ts should be admit ted to

the un ivers i ty after comple t ing twelve years of schooling

and the first degree course should be of 3 years in

dura t ion . Educat ion Commiss ion in 1964-66, also rec­

ommended s t rong ly that a 10 + 2 s t ructure of school

69

education be implemented through a phased programme

spread over 20 years. Therefore, by the year 1985

approximately all the states of India had implemented

this system. Under the new pattern there is general

education for all , and an external examination is con­

ducted to mark the termination of the first ten years

of general education at the end of class X. The Commission

further recommended that senior secondary course be­

ginning in class XI should provide special ized studies

in different subjects. At present, at senior secondary

level , we have three main academic streams. Arts, Sci­

ence and Commerce. This is a crucial s tage for the

students who are supposed to make decisions for their

life at the age of 17 + . There is a large number of

factors which may inf luence a student's dec i s ion to

make a prudent choice of educa t iona l s t ream. Knowl­

edge of these factors may provide a valuable a s s i s t ance

in educational and voca t iona l gu idance .

The bas ic ques t ion to be answered in the

proposed study may be s ta ted as : what are the factors

which determine the choice of s tudents for going into

different academic s t reams of educat ion at sen ior sec-

70

ondary level? The inves t iga to r p roposes to make an

a t tempt th rough this s tudy to pa r t i a l l y answer th is

ques t ion . The precise s ta tement of the problem is as

follows :

"Personal Values, Career Asp i r a t ions , Aca­

demic Achievement and Soc io-economic Status as de­

terminants of Educational Choice at Senior Secondary level".

2.3 CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS :

Before conduc t ing the ac tual i nves t iga t ion , it

was cons idered necessa ry to expla in the meanings and

in te rp re ta t ions of the te rms used by the inves t iga to r .

It was decided that all the var iab les and concepts under

study be defined in opera t iona l t e rms . In view of th is

r equ i rement , the inves t iga to r has a t tempted to p rov ide

opera t iona l def in i t ions of the terms used in the s t a t e ­

ment of his p rob lem. The s ta tement of the problem

involves five key te rms , namely, personal va lues , ca­

reer asp i ra t ions , academic achievement , soc io -econom­

ic s tatus and educat ional choice . These terms are defined

by the investigator as follows :

71

(i) Personal Values :

There is no formal def in i t ion available in the

dictionary or in encyclopaedia for the term "personal val­

ues" However, the investigator has tried to provide an

operational definition of the term as used in the present

study. The personal values are those values which have

relevance to the indigenous social milieu. Here the term

value means, as C. Kluckhohn (1951) defines, a conception,

explicit or implicit, distinctive of an individual or charac­

teristic of a group, of the desirable which influences the

selection from available modes, means and ends of action.

T. Parsons (1951) holds that "an element of a shared sym­

bolic system which serves as a criterion or standard for

selection among the alternatives of orientation which are

intrinsically open in a situation. The term "personal" is a

qualifying adjective that is used in combination with various

substantive concepts or with one or several possible pre­

fixes or suffixes. The 'values' are simply a special class

of methods of operation, namely that class of methods that

directs the flow of behaviour at any time. These directive

means are properly thought of as plans for overcoming a

problem. They are not thought of properly except in the

72

context of that problem. They retain this special qualif i­

cation of directiveness only temporarily until they are

modified or replaced. For the present study, ten types of

values are selected out of innumerable human values. These

values are (Sherey and Verma, 1973) :

1. Religious Value

2. Social Value

3. Democratic Value

4. Aesthetic Value

5. Economic Value

6. Knowledge Value

7. Hedonistic Value

8. Power Value

9. Family Prestige Value

10. Health Value

/ . Religious Value :

This value is defined in-terms of faith in God,

attempt to understand him, fear of divine wrath, and acting

according to the ethical codes prescribed in the rel igious

books. The outward acts of behaviour expressive of this

value are going on pilgrimage, living a simple life, having

faith in the religious books and leaders, worshipping God

and speaking the truth.

73

2. Social Value :

This value is defined in terms of charity, kind­

ness, love and sympathy for the people, efforts to serve

God through the service of man kind, sacrificing personal

comforts and gains to relieve the needy and the affected

of their misery.

i . Democratic value :

This value is characterized by respect for indi­

viduality, absence of discrimination among persons on the

bases of sex, language, religion, caste, colour, race and

family status, ensuring equal, social, political and religious

rights to all, impartiality and social justice and respect for

the democratic institutions.

4. Aesthetic Value :

Aesthetic value is characterized by appreciation

of beauty, form proportion and harmony, love for fine arts,

drawing and painting, music, dance, sculpture, poetry and

architecture, love for l i terature, love for decoration of the

home and the surroundings, neatness and system in the

arrangement of the things.

74

5. Economic Value :

This value stands for desire for money and material

gain. A man with high economic value is guided by con­

siderations of money and material gains in the choice of

his job . His attitude towards the rich persons and the

industrialists is favourable and he considers them helpful

for the progress of the country.

6. Knowledge Value :

This value stands for love of knowledge of the­

oretical principles of any activity and love of discovery of

truth. A man with knowledge value considers a knowledge

of theoretical principles underlying a work essential for

success in it. He values hardwork in studies, only if it helps

develop ability to find out new facts and relationships and

aspires to be known as the seeker of knowledge.

7. Hedonistic Value :

This value, is as defined here, is the conception

of the desirability of loving pleasure and avoiding pain. For

the hedonist the present is more important than the future.

A man with hedonistic value indulges in pleasures of senses

and avoids pains.

75

8. Power Value :

The power value is defined as the conception of

desirability of ruling over others and also of leading others.

The characteristics of a person of high power value are that

he prefers a job where he gets opportunity to exercise

authority over others, that he prefers to rule in a small place

rather than serve in a big place, that the fear of law of

the country rather than the fear of God deters him from

having recourse to unapproved means for making money,

that he is deeply status-conscious and can even tell a lie

for maintaining the prestige of his position.

9. Family Prestige Value :

As defined here it is the conception of the desirability

of such items of behaviour, roles, functions and relation­

ships as would become one's family status. It implies

respect for roles which are traditionally characteristic of

different castes of the Indian society. It also implies the

maintenance of the purity of family blood by avoiding

intercaste marriages. It is respect for the conservative

outlook as enshrined in the traditional institution of family.

76

10, Health Value :

Health value is the consideration for keeping the

body in a fit state for carrying out one's normal duties and

functions. It also implies the consideration for self pres­

ervation. A man with high health value feels uneasy if

through some act of negligence he impairs his health. He

considers good physical health essential for the develop­

ment and use of his abilities.

(ii) Career Aspirations :

The term career occurs frequently in sociological

and psychological literature and following popular usage,

is virtually a synonym for occupation or profession carry­

ing, usually, the implication of a high degree of job stability,

a life's work. A more detailed definition, following usage

in the literature would define career and the related term

career pattern as follows. A career or career pattern is a

series of adjustments made to the inst i tut ions, formal

organization, and informal social relationships involved in

the occupation, or sequence of occupations which make up

the work history of a person or group of persons. The level

of career aspiration has been defined as orientation towards

77

occupational goal (Haller & Miller, 1963). The level of

career aspiration is considered as a concept which is log­

ically a special instance of the concept 'level of aspiration'.

Its special nature consists only in the continuum of diffi­

culty. This continuum of difficulty is the occupational

hierarchy.

(iii) Academic Achievement :

There are so many terms such as academic at­

tainment, achievement, academic aspiration etc. which are

used to represent the phenomenon of academic achieve­

ment. By academic achievement, we mean the performance

of a learner after a course of instruction and measure it

in terms of marks or grades obtained in a given area of

knowledge as the level of knowledge or skills acquired after

undergoing a programme of instruction, may also be as­

sessed with the help of the standardized achievement tests

available in the market.

(iv) Socio-economic Status :

The history of socio-economic status scale is

more than half a centuH^old. The importance of this scale

78

has been realised by the research workers in the field of

psychology, education, sociology, social work and other

allied disciplines. But, there is no formal definition avail­

able in the dictionary or in any encyclopaedia for the term

S.E.S. However, the investigator has tried to provide an

operational definition of the term as used in the present

study. Socio-economic status is operationally defined as a

social class membership and social acceptability (i.e. the

reward value) of the given occupation to the young persons

and to the peers to maintain their own status in a society.

(v) Educational Choice :

According to the traditional viewpoint, the 'choice'

is a decision which the individual makes at a given moment

in time. Choice as defined by Crites (1969. p. 164) is the

individual'.s statement of the occupation (or curriculum) he

intends to enter. Choice is simply not as reality based

earlier as it is later in his development. Educational choice

is operationally defined as the process of choosing the elec­

tive subject group which the boys and girls have taken up

in their eleventh class of senior secondary schools.

79

2.4 OBJECTIVES :

The present study is aimed at achieving the

following objectives :

1. To study the relationship among personal values, career

aspirations, socio-economic status, academic achieve­

ment and educational choice.

2. To determine the relative contribution of personal

values, career aspirations, socio-economic status and

academic achievement to educational choice at senior

secondary stage.

3. To develop a statistical model to predict the educa­

tional choice of children on the basis of their personal

values, career aspirations socio-economic status and

academic achievement.

2.5 H Y P O T H E S E S :

Kerlinger (1973) has rightly pointed out that a

scientific investigation is systematic and controlled effort

in the direction of solving a human problem. It is defined

as an empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical

propositions about the presumed relations among natural

80

phenomena. After defining the problem conceptually, an

investigator may formulate a tentative proposition about the

relationship between two or more variables under investi­

gation. Such a tentative proposition is known as hypothesis.

Since, the present study involves several independent vari­

ables, there are several research hypotheses formulated by

the investigator which are given below :

1. There are significant correlations among the variables

personal values, socio-economic status, academic achieve­

ment, career aspirations and educational choice.

2. Personal values, career aspirations, socio-econonic

status and academic achievement, make a significant

contribution to educational choice.

3. It is possible to predict the educational choice of

students by the knowledge of their personal values,

career aspirations, socio-economic status and academ­

ic achievements.

2.6 DELIMITATIONS :

The Present study has the following delimitations.

1. There is a large number of variables influencing the

81

educational choice of the students and a single study

can not exhaust the list. Therefore, only four main

predictors have been studied.

2. The study is limited to the senior secondary stage, and

the findings can not be generalized to the university

students and students of vocational stream. The sample

has been selected from class XI only.

3. A 'statistical adjustment' approach has been followed to

control the potential extraneous variables affecting the

Educational choice. The cluster sampling technique and

multivariate statistical analysis have been assumed to have

taken care of this fact.

82

DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

In addition to the significance, relevance and

researchability of the problem selected for investigation,

the methodology followed is also equally important for

determining the dependability, usefulness, and generalizability

of the findings. Even if the problem has been properly

defined and the tools have been carefully selected, inad­

equate methodology followed may lead to misleading re­

sults. In the previous two chapters a detailed discussion of

the theoretical background and research review has been

presented. The basic terms and concepts used in the state­

ment of the problem have also been defined operationally.

This chapter is devoted to the detailed discussion of the

methodology followed in conducting this investigation.

Methodology of investigation includes identify­

ing and defining the nature of the population, techniques

used to select a representative sample from that population,

tools used for data collection, research design and the sta­

tistical techniques used in data analysis. These steps re­

quire immense care and expertise on the part of the re­

searcher. The main aim of the present study is to determine

83

the role of personal values, academic achievement, socio

economic status and vocational aspirations in selecting the

educational stream at senior secondary level. In addition

to this, the investigator also intends to study the relative

contribution of personal values, career aspirations, socio

economic status and academic achievement to educational

choice at senior secondary stage. The investigator also in­

tends to develop a statistical model to predict the educa­

tional choice of children on the basis of their personal

values, career aspirations, socio economic status and aca­

demic achievement.

3.1 POPULATION AND SAMPLE :

Research is basically a process of drawing infer­

ences about a large aggregate of subjects of a certain kind

on the basis of the study of a small section of that aggregate

or population. A population is also called a universe. The

population, in statistical investigations, is always arbitrari­

ly defined (Guilford and Fruchter. 1978) by naming its

unique properties. However, in social science research the

term "population" is used in a broader sense to include all

sets of individuals, objects or reactions that can be de­

scribed as having a unique combination of qualities. The

84

statistical indices computed by using the entire population

(if possible) are called "parameters" and those based on

samples are termed as "statistics". In this way, a statistical

inquiry is a process of estimating parameters from statis­

tics.

The present investigation is based on a popula­

tion of class XI students, more specifically, the new entrants

into different educational streams. So, the aggregate of all

the students who have passed high school classes (IX and X)

and have entered into the senior secondary classes (XI and

XII) in different colleges, schools and universities consti­

tuted the population of the study. The sample consisted of

500 students selected from different senior secondary schools.

The "incidental sampling" technique being the most feasi­

ble, was used to select the sample. Out of these 500 stu­

dents, 250 were female and 250 were male. The sample

covered a wide geographical area of Uttar Pradesh and

Delhi. The major institutions contacted were: Senior Sec­

ondary School, A.M.U., Aligarh (Boys' and Girls' Sections),

R.B.S. Inter College Agra. Jamia Millialslamia Senior Secondary

School. New Delhi. Khurja Inter College Khurja. H. B. Inter

College, Aligarh. Kirori Mai Jain Inter College Sasni,

85

Maheswari Inter College, Aligarh. D. S. Inter College, Aligarh.

and Baikunthi Devi Inter College, Agra.

The following table provides the details of the sample.

TABLE 3.1 : DETAILS OF THE SAMPLE

S.No. Name of the College No. of Students

responded

1. Senior Secondary School, AMU, Aligarh (Boys) 90

2. Senior Secondary School, AMU, Aligarh (Girls) 90

3. R.B.S. Inter College Agra, (Boys) 40

4. Baikunthi Devi Inter College Agra (Girls) 40

5. Jamia Millia Islamic, New Delhi, (Boys) 40

6. Khurja Inter College (Girls), Khurja 40

7. H.B. Inter College Aligarh (Boys) 40

8. Kirori Mai Jain Inter College Aligarh (Girls) 40

9. Maheswari Inter College Aligarh (Girls) 40

10. D.S. Inter College Aligarh (Boys) 40

Total No. of Students 500

3.2 RESEARCH TOOLS USED :

In order to obtain required information needed

for the study, three research tools were employed: (i) Personal

Values Questionnaire (PVQ) (ii) Personal Data Sheet (PDS)

86

and (iii) Occupational Aspiration Scale. The details about these

tools are presented below,

3.2.1 Perisonal Value Questionnaire : -

For measuring personal values of the students'

the Personal Values Questionnaire (PVQ) was used which

is a standardized instrument developed by Sherry (1973) and

has been published by National Psychological Corporation,

Agra. This instrument measures ten personal values of the

respondents. The format of (PVQ) is that of a forced choice

type items with multiple choice statements. A question con­

sisted of two parts (i) a stem and (ii) 3 responses. In the

stem of the question a criterion situation for seeking the

value preferences was depicted. The options depict the values

for which the respondent had to express his comparative

preference under forced choices, the stimulus of the criterion

situation. The Personal Values Questionnaire contains 40

items. Each value has an equal number of items and there

are 12 items for each value. This PVQ was administered

individually as per procedure given in its manual. First, the

respondents filled up the personal data blank printed on the

front page. The investigator read out the instructions print­

ed on page I of the PVQ loudly and clearly and became sure

87

that students have understood the mode of recording their

responses. The respondents were supposed to put a tick mark

at the best answer of their choice. A copy of the inventory

has been attached at the end of this report.

3.2.2 Occupational Aspiration Scale :

For measuring the occupational aspirations of

the subjects, the Occupational Aspiration Scale (OAS) was

used in the present study which is a standardized scale

developed by J.S. Grewal (1984) and has been published

by National Psychological Corporation. Agra. This inven­

tory measures the occupational aspirations of students after

the completion of their schooling. This inventory consists

of 8 items with ten alternatives response categories in each.

The respondents were supposed to place a tick mark on the

best answer of their choice in the parentheses provided for

the purpose along with each item. A copy of the inventory

has been attached in the Appendix.

3.2.3 Personal Data Sheet :

In order to gather certain personal information

about the respondents a Personal Data Sheet (PDS) was

developed by the investigator himself. Personal Data Sheet

88

was a kind of information blanlc which sought to obtain

informations regarding the following variables related to

the subjects included in the sample: sex, academic quali­

fication, age, income of the family, number of dependents

in the family, occupation (father), and place of living. Each

student was requested to supply these informations by fill­

ing in the blank spaces provided for the purpose. A copy

of the PDS has also been attached in the Appendix at the

end of this report.

3.3 COLLECTION OF DATA :

The data were collected by the investigator him­

self. The investigator requested the principals or heads of

the institutions to accord permission to collect data from class

XI students of their insti tutes. After receiving the permis­

sion of the heads of the institutions, the investigator con­

tacted the concerned classes of students and administered

to them all the three tools during the same sitting. During

this process the investigator assured the students that the

informations given in the sheets were for the purpose of

research work only and would be kept strictly confidential.

It is a matter of great pleasure that this assurance alongwith

the importance of this research work was highly convincing

89

and proved to be very useful in obtaining relevant and

genuine data. The investigator administered all the three

tools, the personal data sheet, the personal values question­

naire and the occupational aspiration scale, to the students

one by one after giving necessary instructions.

3.4 SCORING PROCEDURE :

(a) Personal Value Questionnaire :

The policy of scoring was formulated in view of

the requirements laid down in the objectives of the study.

The scoring of personal values questionnaire, occupational

aspiration scale and personal data sheet was done according

to the instructions provided in the respective manuals. In

scoring the Personal Values Questionnaire, the responses

were scored as follows :

(i) A weightage of '2' points was assigned to the most pre­

ferred value under each item.

(ii) A score of '0' for a cross (x) showing the least preferred

value under the stem.

(iii) A score '1 'for the blank ( ) or unmarked item showing

the intermediate preference for the value.

90

Sometimes the respondents left some questions

unanswered. If the number of such questions were 4 or less,

each item of the unanswered question was scored as 1. If

their number was more than 4 the script was rejected. In all

the cases the scores were recorded beside the corresponding

bracket and the total for each value ( ^ to H ) was written

in the cage given at the foot of the page. The correctness

of scoring and recording of the totals for all the values is

checked by summing the total for all of them on each page

separately. If the grand total was 24, the scoring was con­

sidered correct, provided that compensating errors have not

been committed. Finally, the entries in the cage at the foot

of each page were brought to the bigger cage on the first

page of the PVQ. The total of each column was noted down

in the bottom row. These totals denote the scores of the

respondents on the corresponding values given at the top

of the column. In this questionnaire

(i) cf> stands for religious value

(ii) T ,, ., social value

(iii) ^ ., ,, democratic value

(iv) tT . . ,, aesthetic value

(v) xj ,, ,, economic value

91

(vi) w

(vii) vil

(viii)?i

(ix) s

(X) s

, knowledge value

, hedonistic value

, power value

, family prestige value

, health value

(b) Occupational Aspiration Scale :

In the occupational aspiration scale, there were

ten alternative response categories. The scores were attrib­

uted to each category according to its prestige.

Table : Weightage Scheme for Occupational Aspiration

Order of Presentation 1

Score 7

2

4

3

8

4

2

5

9

6 7 8

0 6 3

9 10

5 1

Later on, the sum of the scores of all the eight

questions gave the vocational preference score of a subject.

(c) Personal Data Sheet :

The academic achievement of the respondents was

obtained in terms of the percentage of marks obtained by them

in institutional examinations and were taken from school records.

The socio-economic variables were also included in Personal

92

Data Sheet. It contains the following items with their scor­

ing weightage. The variable 'geographical location' of the

residence contains two items village/town and city.

Table : Weightage Scheme for Rural/Urban Residence

Place of Living City Town Rural Area/Village

Weightage 05 03 00

The variable 'education' contains nine categories

of the items which relate to the parental education. Scores

allotted to each category are given below.

Table : Weightage Scheme for Parent Education

Lfvtl of

Education

Wfijhis

111 Iterate

0

Up to

Sth Class

1

Middle

School

^

High

School

4

Interme­

diate

5

Graduato

Degrco

6

PG/Ti^hnical

Profo«ional

7

Ph.D

8

The var iab le 'family p rofess ion ' re la ted to the

pr imary educat ion of the parent or head of the family.

There are six ca tegor ies of i tems within this va r i ab l e .

Scores al loted to each ca tegory from a to f respectively

are given below.

93

Table : Weightage Scheme for Family Profession

rrorc».iionil Tuchtr SCKHOI Teacher Slillcil

Pniftssiiin Diplnmat Doctor, Engineer, College/ Cleric Worker Farmer

Lawyer & Equivalent Unircrsilv Inspector

Weightage 12 10 8 6 4 .'

In income variable there are five categories of

income groups. Within this variable, income categories with

the scores alloted to them are given below.

Table : Weightage Scheme for income of the family

Income 1000 Rs. 1001 to 2501to 4001 to 6000

or below 2500 4000 Rs. 6000 onwards

Weightage 1 2 3 4 5

In the variable, "no of dependent in the family"

there are five categories. Within this variable, the scores

alloted to them are given below.

Table : Weightage Scheme for Number of Dependents in the family

No. of dependent 9 & 1 0 7 & 8 5 & 6 3 & 4 1 & 2

Weightage 1 2 3 4 5

94

3.5 STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES USED :

(a) Descriptive Analysis :

Data Analysis is a very important step in re­

search. If the techniques used in data analysis are good and

relevant, the investigator cannot be misguided. On the other

hand, if the techniques used in data analysis are poor or

irrelevant, even the efforts put in while collecting data

would be wasted. Generally, three kinds of statistical tech­

niques are used in analyzing research data : measures of

central tendency, measures of dispersion, and measures of

association. The measures of central tendency indicate the

overall performance level of the group. The higher the

measures of central tendency, the better the performance

of the group as a whole. The measures of dispersion assess

the homogeneity of the group being tested. The larger the

measure of the dispersion, the more heterogeneous the group.

Similarly, in order to examine relationship between two or

more variables, the measures of association are used, and

the degree of correlation between two variables is required to

be computed. Which technique to use depends on the nature

of data and the purpose of the study. After scoring the

personal values questionnaire, the occupational aspiration

95

scale and the personal data sheet, we obtained a set of raw

scores on 14 variables involved in the study. All the scores

were tabulated in the form of a matrix with columns rep­

resenting the variables and rows representing the students

of different streams. If one looks at these raw scores, one

can not have any direction regarding conclusion to be drawn

from these scores. Therefore, in order to make meaningful

interpretation and draw conclusion, it is necessary to re­

organize and summarize raw scores in a meaningful way.

Only summarized form of data may be used for the purpose

of communication and interpretation. In the present study the

mean, standard deviation and product moment correlation co­

efficient were used as descriptive measures of statistics.

(b) Discriminant Analysis :

This study involves fourteen variables including

one dependent variable (educational choice) and thirteen

independent variables. There are ten personal values which

have separate scores on each. Each unit of the sample has

fourteen scores. So, the investigator applied a multivariate

approach to the data analysis. Multivariate analysis is a

general term used to describe a group of mathematical and

statistical methods whose purpose is to analyse multiple

96

measures of an individual. In the present investigation,

multiple discriminant analysis has been used which has answered

the basic statistical question, "how can individuals best be

assigned to groups on the basis of several variables?" and,

which is based on a regression equation known as "discrim­

inant function" which discriminates members of the differ­

ent groups and tells us to which group each member prob­

ably belongs (Kerlinger 1973). A discriminant function is

a regression equation with a dependent variable that rep­

resents group membership. The function minimally discrim­

inates the members of the groups and tells us to which

groups each member probably belongs.

Discriminant analysis is employed when groups

of persons are defined a prior and the purpose of analysis

is to distinguish the groups from one another on the basis

of their score profiles. Examples of groups are : different

types of mental patients, different vocational groups, and

college sections measuring in different fields. From a math­

ematical point of view, there is no limit to the types of

variables that can be employed.

There are three related problems in discrimina­

tory analysis : (i) determining whether differences in score

97

profiles for two or more groups are statistically significant,

(2) maximizing the discrimination among groups by com­

bining the variables in some manner, and (3) establishing

rules for the placement of new individuals into one of the

groups. If there are N persons and K variables, the profile

for any person can be represented by a point in a K-dimen-

sional space. Each axis of the space consists of one of the

variables, and the variables are depicted as orthogonal to

one another. In discriminatory analysis, it is useful to think

of the region of that space occupied by a particular group.

If discriminatory analysis is to provide useful information,

it is necessary for the members of each group not to be

scattered randomly over the space, but it is necessary for

the members of different groups to occupy somewhat dif­

ferent parts of the space of variables. To the extent that the

individuals in each group are tightly clustered in a partic­

ular region of the K-space. and to the extent that there is

little overlap between the regions occupied by the different

groups, discriminatory analysis can provide useful information.

A simplified example of a space for two groups

on two variables is shown in Fig. (a). The groups are males

and females, and X, and X^ are raw scores on two physi-

98

ological indices of reaction to stress. The profile point for each

male is represented by an M, and likewise the point for each

female is represented by an F. It can be seen that the two groups

tend to occupy different regions of the space (Nunnally 1969).

Males tend to be high on X, and low on Xj , and vice versa for

females; however, there is a moderate amount of overlap between

the two groups on both the variables.

In Fig. (a), C^ and Cj. represent the centroids for

males and females respectively. A centroid is simply the point

representing the average profile of a group. The average score

for the group is obtained for each variable, and the resulting

means are plotted as though they were scores for an individual.

The centroid is the point about which the points for individuals

in a group balance in all directions. If groups are well discrim­

inated, centroids are far apart, and the members of each group

hover near their centroids.

X.

F

F F

F

F

F F

F C,

F F

F

M M

F F

M

F F F

M M

F F

M M

m

M M M M

M

M

M

M M M

M M

Females

Males

Fig. (a) Fig. (b)

99

Instead of depicting a point for each person in

each group, it is more convenient to depict only regions of

scatter for the groups. This is done in Fig. (b) [p. 455, Jum

C.Nunnally, 1981] for the profile points depicted in Fig. (a) .

The amount of overlap between the contours of scatter

diagram indicates the extent to which the two groups are not

discriminated by the two variables.

Figs, (a) and (b) would be some means of com­

bining the information from the two variables so as to

discriminate the members of the two groups as well as

possible. Potentially this could be done with a number of

types of functions of the variables, but a simple linear

function has been used most often. Such function is referred

to as a linear discriminant function :

Y = a,X, + a^X,

where Y = scores on discriminant function

X,, X, = raw scores on independent variables

a,, a, = weights for independent variables

Weights a, and a, are applied to raw scores on variables

100

X , and Xj. The same set of weights is applied to the scores

of each person in each group. This results in a new score

for each person. Y, which combines the information from

X, and Xj regarding discrimination of the groups.

Females

Males

Fig. (c)

Females Males

Fig. (d)

101

When the weights are applied, a new line can be drawn

in the space Y and the scores of all persons can be projected

on that line. This is done in Fig. (c) . Whereas there is

considerable overlap between the two groups on each of

variables X, and X^ there is less overlap on Y. The scores

of persons on Y can be taken out of the space for the

variables and depicted separately as a frequency distribu­

tion, which is shown in Fig. (d). There it can be seen that

the means for the two groups are far apart and there is little

overlap between the two distr ibutions. Then, Y serves to

condense the discriminatory information in the two vari­

ables.

As is true in all situations where optimum weights

are sought, the method for obtaining the weights depends

on a rule for optimization. In the linear discriminant func­

tion, the weights are obtained so as to maximize the fol­

lowing ratio :

Variance between means on Y F =

Variance within groups on Y

After any set of weights is employed, the discriminant function

Y is obtained and each person has a score on Y. Then one

can find the quantities required for the numerator and

102

denominator of the above ratio. Thus, it is seen that the rule

of optimization with the linear discriminant function is to

obtain weights so as to maximize the F ratio between means

variance to within groups var iance. This rule was proposed

by Fisher (1936) and has been the basis of most work in

discriminatory analysis since that t ime. (Nunnally, 1969).

After rule for optimization is proposed, one resorts

to calculus to see if a mathematical solution is obtainable.

It turns out that there is a solution, which results in a set

of computational procedures for deriving the weights for

linear discriminant functions.

In most research problems there are more than

two groups. Then it is possible, and usually desirable, to

derive more than one linear discriminant function, and for

this we employ the multiple discriminant function (MDF).

The first discriminant function derived is that linear com­

bination of the variables which maximizes the ratio of the

between means variance to the within groups variance. Next,

a second discriminant functions is derived which serves as

the second best explainer of variance. In any problem, it

is possible to obtain as many discriminant functions as

variables, or one less than the number of groups whichever

103

is less. This leads to a family of linear discriminant func­

tions, as follows :

Y, = a,X, + a.X^ + + a,X,

Y, = b,X, + b ,X, + + b ,X,

Y3 = c,X, + c^X^ + + c ,X,

Yh = h,X, + h.X^ + h ,X ,

The solution to finding a first discriminant func­

tion (DF) consists of obtaining a set of k weights by which

scores on the variables can be multiplied to maximize the

criteria of variance explained. The set of weights with k

elements can be referred to as a vector of weights, and the

first such vector V^ is mathematically equivalent to the first

characteristic vector derived in PC analysis . A first vector

of weights Vg is sought in such a way that sum of squares

within groups is as large as possible. Both of these sums

of squares can be cast in the form of matrices symbolized

as B and W respectively. Then one seeks V, , such that it

fulfills the following requirements :

104

BV^

wv = a maximum a

A set of weights V^ is obtained such that when it is applied

to B and W, the ratio of the weighted sums of elements in

the two matrices is as large as possible. The above expres­

sion can be simplified by multiplying the numerator by the

inverse of the denominator. In this case one multiplies B

by the inverse of W, which is symbolized in matrix algebra

terminology as W"'. Once the inverse is obtained for W,

then the problem of finding the normalized vector of weights

of the first DF can be stated as follows :

W ' BV = a maximum a

AV„ = a maximum a

The product of W and B can be referred to as the matrix

A. This then puts the problem in exactly the same form as

that for PC anaylsis. One can derive V^ by applying the

iterative procedure. After the iteration coverages, the pro­

cedure will produce the first vector of discriminant weights

V and a corresponding characteristic root I . The charac-a ' ^ a

teristic root equals the amount of total variance explained

by the first DF.

105

In obta in ing Y, there are as many we igh t s in V^

as the re are var iab les , a l though some of them may be

near ze ro . When these weights are accumula t ive ly mul­

t iplied by the standardized var iables , this produces scores

for all people on the first DF, Y. As by p roduc t s of

these computa t ions , one can obta in mean scores on the

discr iminate for each group, s tandard deviat ions of scores

of sub jec t s within each group, and a test of s ta t i s t i ca l

s ign i f i cance regarding mean d i f fe rences of the groups

on the DF.

After the first DF is ob ta ined and the related

s t a t i s t i c s are computed, one can seek a second DF, Y,

by ob ta in ing a second normal ized vec tor of weights V^.

This is done by operat ing off a res idua l mat r ix A. After

t r ial vec to rs converge , then V , can be used to ca lcu la te

the second DF, Y and the resultant DFs unt i l (1) a

s ign i f i cance test fails to lend suppor t to a funct ion, (2)

success ive discr iminant functions explain only t iny por­

t ions of the original var iance (as ev idenced in their

cha rac t e r i s t i c roots ) , or (3) the expe r imen te r d iscon­

t inues the der ivat ion of d i s c r im inan t s because addi­

t ional ones would be of ne i the r t heo re t i ca l nor prac­

t ical impor tance .

106

The main statistical approach followed in the

present study is 'Multiple Discriminant Analysis ' which has

been discussed briefly in the preceding paragraphs. Since

the computations involved in the use of these technique are

complex, only computer can perform these computations

effectively and accurately. For this purpose, the computer

centre of the Council for social development, New Delhi

was approached. The results of the analysis and their in­

terpretations have been given in Chapter IV.

igDijaptev ^

= \

PRESENT A TION ANALYSIS AND

INTEHPRETA TION OF DATA

107

P R E S E N T A T I O N A N A L Y S I S A N D

I N T E R P R E T A T I O N O F D A T A

Besides the adequacy and t ru s twor th ines s of

r esea rch ins t ruments selected or cons t ruc ted by the in­

ves t i ga to r , the dependabi l i ty of r esea rch f indings has

a s t rong re la t ionship with the s ta t i s t ica l techniques used

in data ana lys i s . Sta t is t ics are basic to research ac t iv­

i t i e s . These days, it is hard to find any research study

of note which does not involve the use of s ta t is t ics to

some deg ree . Stat is t ics permit most exact kind of de­

sc r ip t ion of informations and force us to be def ini te in

our t h ink ing and other p rocedures of ana lys i s . It is

ce r t a in ly t rue that use of good and complex s ta t i s t i ca l

t e chn iques can not compensa te for def iciencies in the

research design and inefficiency of data collection devices,

but the use of poor and i r re levant s ta t i s t i ca l methods

in resea rch can cer ta inly undo the ach ievement s of a

well p lanned design. Therefore , the se lec t ion of appro­

pr ia te s ta t i s t ica l techniques to be used for ana lys i s of

data is as important as the se lec t ion of good too l s . The

inves t iga to r has taken due care to see that efficient and

re levan t s ta t i s t ica l t echniques are used for data anal -

108

ysis in the present s tudy. Keeping in view the na ture

of data and the constraints of time and other r e sou rce s ,

most of the computa t ional work was accompl i shed by

using the services of e lec t ronic computer . The Council

for Social Development (C.S.D.) s i tua ted at New Delhi

was approached for this purpose . As ment ioned in the

previous chapter the major technique used for data analysis

was "mult iple discr iminant analys is" accompan ied by

other desc r ip t ive s ta t i s t ics such as measures of cent ra l

t endency& dispersion. This was done because the na ture

of va r i ab l e s involved and the objec t ives of the study

demanded it. It is r ight ly said that the dependab i l i t y

and genera l i zab i l i ty of the findings of a research s tudy ,

to a large extent , are determined by the t echn iques used

for ana lys i s and in terpre ta t ion of data .

4.1 STUDY OF RAW-SCORE DISTRIBUTIONS :

One of the important uses of s t a t i s t i ca l meth­

ods is to reduce a large body of quan t i t a t i ve informa­

t ions into a few meaningful and in te rp re tab le ind ices ,

commonly known as s tat is t ical averages . Genera l ly , the

raw data in a research s tudy, which may or may not be

in numer ica l form, are so huge and unmanageab le that

109

no meaningful conclusions can be drawn r ega rd ing their

na ture and relationship they exhibi t . So, as a first s tep ,

it was cons ide red worthwhile to summar ize data in terms

of s t a t i s t i ca l quant i t ies that were easi ly unde r s t andab le

and i n t e r p r e t a b l e . McNemar (1962) has r igh t ly men­

t ioned that the reduction of a batch of data to a few

desc r ip t ive measures is a part of s t a t i s t i ca l analys is

which should lead to overall bet ter comprehens ion of

the data . In the present s tudy, three main desc r ip t ive

measures were used to summarize the raw score d i s t r i ­

bu t ions , name ly , mean, s tandard dev ia t ion , and cor re­

lat ion coef f ic ien t . These s ta t i s t ics were fur ther used to

carry out more complex statistical analysis using multiple

discriminant funct ions . These s ta t i s t i cs were computed

for each group separately and also for the combined

sample . The study involves fourteen va r i ab le s in al l ,

ten of which are related to Personal Value Quest ion­

naire. The remaining fourvariables are Academic Achieve­

ment, Educa t iona l Choice, Occupat ional Aspira t ions and

Soc io-economic Status. The educat ional choice is the

dependent var iab le and the remaining th i r t een var iables

are independent variables. For the purpose of data analysis

no

the computer programmer assigned certain codes to these

v a r i a b l e s to fac i l i ta te computa t iona l p roces s in the

compu te r system. The deta i ls of the coding system are

g iven in Table 4 . 1 .

TABLE 4.1

Coding System for Computer Serv ices

S.No. Var iable Name Computer Code

1. Educat ional Choice

2. Academic Achievement

3 . Socio-economic Status

4. Rel ig ious Value

5. Social Value

6. Democra t ic Value

7. Aesthet ic Value

8. Economic Value

9. Knowledge Value

10. Hedonis t ic Value

1 1. Power Value

12. Family Prest ige Value

13. Health Value

14. Occupat ional Aspira t ion

V5

v,,

V , :

V , 3

V , 4

Ill

The summary s ta t i s t i c s , as ment ioned in the

p rev ious chapter , consisted of means and standard devi­

a t ions of different groups . The combined sample of 500

cases consisted of three sub-groups, namely. Arts , Science

and Commerce s tudents number ing 1 9 5 , 2 2 0 and 85 re­

spec t ive ly . The data were analyzed separa te ly for each

group as well as for combined sample . The summary

s ta t i s t i cs (means and standard dev i a t i ons ) are given in

Table 4.2 for each sub-sample and also for combined

sample .

Table 4.2 : SUMMARY STATISTICS

Varia­

ble (V)

V2

V3

V4

V5

\

V7

Vs

V9

V,o

Vn

V,2

V,3

V,4

N-

M

53.559

14.805

14.620

15.312

14.605

10.466

10.353

13.433

9.702

9.343

11.087

10.784

51.328

195

CT

8.150

4.752

3.195

2.841

2.747

2.995

3.187

3.372

2.807

3.142

3.712

2.950

10.051

N-220

M

67.741

19.495

13.904

14.990

14.322

10.572

10.581

14.718

10.077

8.440

10.572

11.281

56.986

a

9.506

5.422

4.062

3.185

2.807

3.103

3.534

3.246

3.347

2.854

3.433

2.987

7.949

N = 85

M

57.729

18.576

14.258

14.411

12.952

11.164

10.929

12.894

10.305

9.517

11.305

10.211

54.952

a

8.721

5.317

3.833

2.892

3.654

3.283

3.534

3.635

2.988

2.913

4.290

3.188

7.947

Total

M

60.508

17.510

14.244

15.018

14.200

10.632

10.552

13.908

9.970

8.976

10.898

10.906

54.434

a

11.024

5.601

3.713

3.015

2.996

3.097

3.402

3.438

3.088

3.012

3.703

3.027

9.183

112

When we inspect the t ab le , we can get c lues

to cer ta in resul ts to be jus t i f i ed or refuted by further

more complex s ta t i s t ica l ana lys i s . The var iab les aca­

demic achievements (Vj), socio-economic status (V, ) ,

democratic value (V^), knowledge value (V^), health value

(Vjj), and occupational aspirations (V,^), appear to exhibit

significant variat ion from one group to another The science

group (Gj) seems to have the h ighes t average academic

ach ievement followed by commerce group (G^) and arts

group ( G , ) . On the socio-economic s tatus also the same

trend is observed indicat ing a s t rong re la t ionsh ip be­

tween these two variables. The t rend that mean score on

democrat ic value (V^) of commerce Group is lower than

those of arts group and science group is r evea l ing . On

knowledge value (Vg) also the mean score of sc ience

group is highest followed by the arts and commerce

groups in that order . On health value (V,^) the mean

score of science group is h igher than that of arts and

commerce g roups . The d i f f e rences on o c c u p a t i o n a l

aspiration appear to be sharper , the mean score of sc ience

group being the highest , fol lowed by that of commerce

and arts groups in that order .

113

4.2 STUDY OF INTERCORRELATIONS :

It was thought necessary and relevant to study

the interrelationship among all the independent vari­

ables that are supposed to function as predictors of

educational choice at +2 level. Since, the subsequent

statistical analysis largely depends on correlat ion, it is

necessary to examine some of the characterist ics and

assumptions underlying the use of correlation coeffi­

cient. The nature of data allows the use of product

moment correlation coefficient. Theoretically, there are

three main assumptions which should be met before

product moment method is used. First, there should be

a linear trend of relationship between the two variables

to be correlated. Second, each of the two variables be

normally distributed. Third, the spread of scores about

the best fitting regression line should be approximately

the same at all levels of the scale of measurement. This

property is known as homoscedasticity. However, it has

been observed by researchers that in practical situa­

tions, it is hardly possible to achieve perfect linearity

and normality in the distribution of scores based on

empirical observations in social sciences. Therefore,

social scientists generally agree that even if these as­

sumptions are approximately met, the results are not

]14

inf luenced much by e r ro r s . There has been a lot of

controversy over the ques t ion whether these three as­

sumpt ions must be s t r ic t ly fol lowed or not . Nunnal ly

(1978) has stated that unless one of the assumpt ions is

ser ious ly violated these a s sumpt ions do not pose a great

p rob lem. Also, if there is some evidence of marked

depar tu re from the a s s u m p t i o n s , a safe procedure is to

use a higher level of s ign i f i cance . Genera l ly , in cor­

re la t iona l researches in soc ia l sc iences 0.05 level and

.01 level of s ignif icance are accepted by inves t iga to r s .

Therefore , to be on the safe s ide , the present inves t i ­

gator has used .01 & .05 leve ls of s ignif icance while

interpret ing the resul ts . Nunnally (1978) has further stated

that there is noth ing wrong in using product moment

cor re la t ions if one of the distributions is markedly differ­

ent from the other in shape, the re la t ionship is far from

l inear i ty , and the spread of po in ts is different at dif­

ferent places a long the r eg re s s ion l ine . No real problem

in in terpre ta t ion is involved unless these assumpt ions

are ser iously violated. Keep ing in view the above ar­

guments and the nature of va r iab les involved in the

study, the inves t iga tor was fully sat isf ied with the use

of product moment cor re la t ion coefficient along with

higher level of s ign i f i cance .

115

4.2.1 Correlation Matrix for the Combined Sample :

The Table 4.3 p resen t s the in te rcor re la t ions

among the 14 ( four teen) va r i ab le s for the sample of 500

s tuden ts . The study of co r r e l a t ion Table 4.3 gives inter­

es t ing resul ts . All the co r re l a t ion coeff icients greater

than or equal to 0.1 15 were s igni f icant at .05 level . The

Academic Achievement (Vj) corre la ted significantly at

0.01 level with SES (V3), knowledge value (V^), Power value

(V , , ) and occupat ional Asp i r a t i on (V,^). However , the

correlation with power value was negative. This shows that

high academic ach ievement goes with high SES, high

knowledge value, high occupa t iona l aspi ra t ion , but with

low power va lue . The va r i ab le soc io-economic s ta tus

also has high but nega t ive cor re la t ion with social value

(Vj) and democratic value showing that people with high

SES tend to be less social and less democratic. Expectedly,

SES has posi t ive and s igni f icant (.05 level) cor re la t ion

with economic value. The high rel igious value (V4)

tends to be associated with low democratic, aesthetic, economic,

knowledge and h e a l t h v a l u e s . H igh soc i a l va lue (V^)

goes with low S E S . low economic value, low hedonistic

value, low power value and low family pres t ige va lue , but

116

high democratic and icnowiedge va lues . High democratic

value also goes with low economic , hedonis t ic , power

and family pres t ige va lues , but high knowledge and

health va lues . S imi la r ly , high aes thet ic value is asso­

ciated with low knowledge, hedonis t ic , power, and family

pres t ige va lues . High economic va lue also goes with

high power value and low knowledge and health va lues .

High knowledge value tends to be assoc ia ted with low

hedon i s t i c , power and family p re s t ige va lues , and with

high heal th value and occupa t iona l aspi ra t ions . High

hedon i s t i c value is cor re la ted nega t ive ly with family

pres t ige va lue . High power value is s igni f icant ly cor­

rela ted with low health va lue . High health value is

posi t ively and significantly corre la ted with occupat ional

asp i ra t ion .

The above d i scuss ion ind ica tes that high ac­

ademic achievement is associa ted with high knowledge

value but low power value. High SES is associated with

high economic value but low socia l and democrat ic

va lues . Similar ly high occupat ional aspi ra t ions are as­

sociated with high knowledge value and high health value.

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118

4.2.2 Correlation Matrix for Arts Group :

When correlation mat r ix for Arts group (N =

195) was examined (Table 4.4), it was found that Aca­

demic Achievement (Vj) cor re la ted s ign i f ican t ly with

SES (V3) and occupat ional asp i ra t ion (V,^), the re la­

t ionsh ip be ing pos i t ive . However , SES did not cor re ­

late s ign i f ican t ly with any other va r iab le except occu­

pa t iona l aspi ra t ion. The re l ig ious value (Vj) was found

to be assoc ia ted negat ive ly with aes thet ic value (V^) ,

economic value (Vg), knowledge value (V^) and health

value (V,^) . The high social value (V^) was found to

be a s soc ia t ed with high democra t i c value (V^) but low

hedonis t ic ( V , Q ) and power va lues ( V , , ) . The democrat­

ic value was also found to be nega t ive ly corre la ted with

economic , hedonis t ic and power va lues . High aesthet ic

value goes with low knowledge value and family pres­

tige va lue , and occupat ional a sp i ra t ion . In addi t ion to

the above , the economic va lue was found to have sig­

n i f icant ly negat ive corre la t ion with health value but

pos i t ive with power va lue . L ikewi se , high knowledge

value tends to be associa ted .with low hedonist ic and

power va lues but high hea l th value and occupat iona l

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120

aspirat ions. The hedonis t ic value was found to have

s igni f ican t ly nega t ive cor re la t ion with family p r e s t i g e

va lue . In the same way, high power value goes wi th low

heal th va lue , and high heal th value goes wi th h igh

occupa t iona l asp i ra t ions .

It is c lear from the above d i scuss ion tha t the

pat tern of cor re la t ion in this case is also s imi la r to the

one obta ined in the case of combined sample .

4.2.3 Correlation Matrix for Science Group :

The cor re la t ion matrix (Table 4.5), based on

Science group (N=220) also provided cer ta in i n t e r e s t i n g

resu l t s . The academic achievement (Vj) co r r e l a t ed s ig­

nif icant ly with SES and democratic value but in o p p o ­

site d i r e c t i o n similarly, High SES goes with high econom­

ic value but low knowledge va lue . The high r e l i g ious

value tends to be assoc ia ted with low democra t i c , aes­

the t ic , economic knowledge and health values. The high social

value tends to go with low economic, hedonis t ic , p o w e r ,

family prestiges and health values but high k n o w l e d g e

va lue . S imi lar ly , high democrat ic value seems to be as ­

sociated with low economic hedonist ic , power and fam-

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122

ily p r e s t i g e va lues . High aesthetic value is a s s o c i a t e d

with low hedonistic ^nd family pres t ige va lues and a l so

low occupa t i ona l a sp i r a t i ons . High economic va lue goes

with low knowledge and health va lues . In the same way ,

high k n o w l e d g e va lue is associated with high h e d o n i s ­

tic va lue but low power and family p re s t ige v a l u e s .

High h e d o n i s t i c va lue goes with low family p re s t i ge

va lue , h igh power va lue goes with low hea l th va lue but

high occupa t iona l aspi ra t ion . High Family pres t ige va lue

goes wi th low hea l th va lue .

The overa l l discussion shows that whi le ac­

ademic ach ievement is related to knowledge va lue , SES

is unco r r ec t ed with any of the values for science g r o u p .

The o c c u p a t i o n a l asp i ra t ion is, however , negatively co r ­

re la ted wi th socia l value and power (value).

4.2.4 Correlation Matrix for Commerce Group :

The correlation matrix (Table 4.6) for commerce

group (N = 85) had relatively fewer significant correlations

than the other two matrices. The examination of the table

revealed that academic achievement (V,) is positively and

significantly correlated only with knowledge value (V,) . The

123

SES showed no significant correlations with low Democrat­

ic and economic value. Similarly high social value goes with low

power and family prestige values but high occupational

aspirations. Likewise, High democratic value is associated

with low economic value and high knowledge value. Low

knowledge and power value go with high aesthetic value High

economic value is associated with low knowledge value. High

hedonistic value goes with high power value. High power

value goes with low Occupational Aspiration for commerce

students.

When the results for three groups are compared

some interesting trends are revealed. In the case of arts and

science groups academic achievements (Vj) is correlated sig­

nificantly with SES, but in the case of commerce group

these variables are uncorrelated. In the case of arts group

(N=195) academic achievement is significantly and posit ively

correlated with Occupational Aspirations but in the other two

groups such a correlation does not exist. The SES has sig­

nificant correlation with economic and knowledge values

for science group (N = 220) while in the other two groups

SES and values are uncorre la ted . Surpr i s ing , SES in

uncorrelated with vocation preferences in all the three groups.

However in the case of combined sample (N=500) the

SES shows significant positive correlative with vocational

preferences.

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4.3 DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS :

The major purpose of discriminant analysis is to

predict group membership on the basis of variety of predic­

tor variables. It answers the question : What is the best

combination of predictor variables to maximize differences

among the groups ? Such a combination may be termed as

'dimension' for simplicity. With more than two groups, the

best discrimination between the groups may require more

than a single dimension. In this situation, a mathematical

model is setup so that the first discriminant function maximally

separates groups. Then, a second dimension, orthogonal to

the first, is found that best separates groups on the basis

of information not accounted for by the first discriminant

function. This procedure of finding successive orthogonal

functions continues until all possible dimensions are eval­

uated. The total number of possible dimensions (discrim­

inant functions) is either one fewer than the number of

groups or equal to the number of predictor variables, whichever

is the smaller. For three groups (streams) of students in the

present investigation, two discriminant functions are pos­

sible, and a hypothesis is to be tested for each function.

126

The first function or dimension, is always the

most powerful with succeeding ones becoming successively

less powerful. The tests of significance have been used to

indicate which discriminant functions (or dimensions) re­

liably discriminate among groups, and which provide no

additional information. When there are only two groups, the

coefficients of significant function can be used to predict

group membership. However, when there are more than two

groups, a classification function is developed for each group

on the basis of the within groups variance-covariance matrix

and the group means. Cases are then classified into the

group for which they have the highest classification score.

The degree of relationship between group mem­

bership on the one hand, and the set of predictor variables

on the other is assessed through canonical correlation. For

each discriminant function (canonical variable), one canon­

ical correlation is found, which when squared, indicates the

proportion of variance shared between grouping variables,

and predictor variables on that dimension. If the discriminating

components or factors are rotated, these canonical corre­

lations will change.

127

In the present study, the step-wise discriminant

analysis was used as the researcher had no a prior reason

for ordering the entry of variables into the discriminating

equations. Statistical criteria are available for determining

the order of entry. The detailed results of discriminant

analysis conducted in the present study, and their interpre­

tations are given below :

4.3.1 Number of Significant Discriminant Functions :

The analysis of data was carried out on the com­

puter by using step-wise method. The analysis was complet­

ed in seven steps. The summary statistics are given in the

following table.

Table 4.7: Summary Statistics for Discriminant Analysis

Step Var. entered Total No. Wilks' Significance

of Variables Lambda

entered

1

2

4

5

6

7

v^

V3

V6

V,4

V.

V7

v..

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

0.64416

0.60578

0.58554

0.56966

0.55707

0.55291

0.54996

0.0000

0.0000

0.0000

0.0000

0.0000

0.0000

0.0000

128

The step-wise discriminant function analysis

was performed using thirteen predictor variables, as al­

ready said, to predict the membership in three groups, namely.

Arts, Science and Commerce Group. The analysis yielded

two significant discriminant functions.

The statistical significance of discriminant func­

tions was evaluated by using Wilk's Lambda. The details

of results are presented in the following table :

Table 4.8 : Details of Discriminant Analysis Results

Fen Eigenvalue Pet of Cum Canonical After Wilks' Chisquare DF Sig.

Variance Pet Corr. Fen Lambda

0 0.5500 295.370 14 0.0000

1* 0.6749 88.74 88.74 0.6348 1 0.9211 40.598 6 0.0000

2* 0.0857 11.26 100.00 0.2809

* Marks the 2 canonical discriminant functions remaining in the analysis.

As indicated in the Table 4.8, two discriminant

functions were calculated which gave a combined chi-square

value of 295.37 (df = 14) significant at 0.01 level. After

removal of the first discriminant function, there was still

highly (p < 0.01) significant chi-square of 40.598 (df = 6).

The two discriminant functions accounted respectively for

129

88.74% and 11.26% of the between group variance. This

shows that both the functions have significant discriminat­

ing power.

As shown in Figure (4.1) , the first discriminant

function maximally discriminates between Group 1 (Arts

Group) and Group 2 (Science Group), and Group 3 (Com­

merce group) falls between these two groups. The second

discriminant function discriminates Group 3 (Commerce

Group) from the other two groups (Arts and Science groups).

The matrix of pooled within groups correlat ions

between discriminating variables and canonical discrimi­

nant functions (Table 4.9) suggested that the significant primary

variables (predictors) using a loading of 0.30 and above are

: Academic achievements (Vj), occupational aspirations (V,^),

and Socio Economic Status (V3). The results indicate that

Art group has smaller (Table 4.2) academic achievement

(mean = 53.56) than science group (mean = 67.94), lower

occupational aspiration (mean 51.33) than science group

(mean 56.95) and also lower socio economic status (mean

= 14.80) as compared to the science group (mean = 19.49).

130

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132

For the second discriminant function separating arts

and science groups from the third group (commerce group), the

primary predictors are : Democratic value (V^), Socio Economic

Status (V3), Knowledge value (V^) and health value (Vjj). The

results show that Group 3 (commerce group) has lower deriio-

cratic value (mean = 12.95) as compared to Arts (mean = 14.60)

and Science (mean = 14.32) groups. The commerce group also

has lower knowledge value (mean = 12.89).

The relative size of eigenvalues associated with the

two discriminant functions indicate the relative proportion of

between group variance contributed by each function. As indi­

cated in the Table 4.8, 88.74% of the between groups variance

is attributed to the first linear combination function, and 11.26%

to the second linear combination of variables.

4.3.2 Interpretation of Discriminant Functions :

In order to interpret the functions, individual plots of

group centroids on both the significant discriminant functions

were formed. The centroids are the means of the discriminant

scores for each group on each dimension. Since there were only

two discriminant functions, only one plot for each group was

required. The plots of the two functions on the same frame of

reference are shown in the Figures 4.2, 4.3 and 4,4 respectively.

A combined plot is also shown in Fig. 4.5.

133

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X -X Out

P i g . 4 . 2 . S c a t t e r P l o t f o r Group I .

Out X

2.0 + m ! 3 ' o ! 3

M

134

Group 2 * indicates a group centroid Canonical Discriminant Function 1

Out -2.0 -1.0 .0 1.0 2.0 Out y + <. + <- + X

>"? r>

t o 2 2 2 2 2 • 0) " o '->''>

I 2 2 2 2 2 22 2 2 2 2 1 .0 + K 2 2 2 2 2 2

' O ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ M O O T ? O O O T O T O

! §• 2 2 O ' 7 ' ! ? O O ' ^ O O

- 1 . 0 + ^ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2

F i g . 4 . 3 . S c a t t e r P l o t f o r Group I I ,

'. g 2 2 2 2 2 22 22 2 22 2 ! Q) 2 2 2 2 2 2 * 2 222 22 2

, 0 + ^ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 + 22 2 2222 2222 2 2

222 2 22 2 22 2 2 2 2 22 2 2 2 2 2

;+ 2 2 22 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 O 2 2 2 22 22 22

I 22 2 22 2 2 I ^

- 2 . 0 + 2 2 2+

Out X X X : + + + + + X

Out - 2 . 0 - 1 . 0 . 0 1 . 0 2 . 0 Out

135

Group

Out X-

Out X

o o

2.0 + §

! ^ » o

i.0 +

.0 +

^

O

3

a

3 O e+

• 1 . 0 •«•

-2.0 i

S Out X

* indicates a group centroid Canonical Discriminant Function 1

-2.0 -1.0 .0 1.0 2.0 + + + + +-

3-

3 3 3

3 3 3 3 3 3 3

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 33 3 3

3 33 3 3 3 3*3 3

3 3

si

3

^ ,5,:=. 33

3

3 3 3

o o o

' 3

3 3

Fig. 4.4. Scatter Plot for Group III.

136

Out X-

Out X

2.0 +

en o H H-3

1.0 + 3 a>

O Q] 3 O

2. o H

,0 H-O 3

M

-1.0 +

-2.0 +

Out X X-

Out

All-groups Scatterplot - * indicates a group centroid Canonical Discriminant Function 1

-2.0 -1.&1 .0 1,0 2.0 ^ ^ H + ^

1 1

1

22 z o. 2 2 :

3 2 2 2 21 1 1 2

"7"?

2 3 "^ 11 2 211 2

1 11 11 1 1

1 111 1 2 : 11 13

2 1 1 211 1 12 1 1 2 2 2 1 3 1 1 3 12 22 2 2

m i l 11 11 nil 212 322 2 221 23 2 2 : 1311 1 1 12 3 1221 1 2 32 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 111 31 1 113 2 22 3 322 2 22 2

11 11 1 1 11* 213 2 2 32 22*2 222 22 2 1 1 11 11 11 2 311 1 1112 12 12122 222222 2 1 1 1 1 113122 1 1 32 1 22221 2222 2

1 1 31 3 1222 31 22 2 22123 2 111 1 1 1 12 21231 233 1 2 2 2 2

11 3 312 13 3*3 223 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 313 1 1 1 11 3 13 3 2 22 22 22

1 1 3 321 3 32 2 2 3 1 1 - ^ 2 3 2 2 2 2

3 1 3 1 2 3 1 3 2 2 1 133 1 12 1

22 2 2

3 1 3

Out -X X

2+

-+-!.0

+--1.0

—+-.0

+-1.0

+-2.0

X -X Out

Fig. 4.5 All Group Scatter Plot.

137

An examination of the plots shows that on the

first discriminant function Art Group (N=195) is clearly

distinguished from Science Group (N = 220). However, ,

Commerce Group (N=85) lies between these two groups.

The second discriminant function clearly distinguishes between

Commerce Group (N = 85) on the one hand and Arts and

Science Group on the other. This function however does not

discriminate significantly between Arts and Science streams.

This shows that first function discriminates between Arts

and Science streams, and second function discriminants

commerce stream from the other two. On the basis of both

the discriminant functions the differences among the three

groups are significant and clear.

When loadings of predictor variables on the dis­

criminant functions were examined (Table 4.10). these load­

ings helped in naming the factors (canonical variates). Math­

ematically, the loading matrix is the pooled within groups

correlation matrix (Table 4.10) multiplied by the matrix of

standardized discriminant function coefficients (Table 4.11).

138

Table 4.10 : Matrix of correlation between functions and predic­

tors

Variable Function-1 Function-2

14

13

II

10

12

0.90337

0.34793*

-0.02058

0.48351

0.23248

0.10840

0.00578

-0.03558

-0.09127

-0.07944

-0.02913

0.01654

-0.04445

0.13906

-0.22748

0.67093*

-0.51143*

0.38143*

0.31917*

-0.27190*

-0.25338*

0.16559*

-0.14566*

0.13471*

-0.08986*

-0.07226*

139

Table 4.11 : Standardized Canonical Discriminant Function

Coefflcients

Variable

V j

V,

V.

V,

V,

V,3

V H

Function-1

0.80535

0.29464

-0.00704

-0.00288

0.20664

0.04441

0.22138

Function-2

0.30157

-0.47437

0.61112

-0.30155

0.20480

0.24460

-0.29568

The loading matrix shows that the first discrim­

inant function correlates highest (0.90) with academic

achievement (Vj) and then with socio economic status (0.48)

and vocational aspiration (0.35). But, socio economic status

and vocational aspiration are also highly and significantly

correlated with academic achievement. This shows that academic

achievement is an important dimension (representing the

first canonical variate) discriminating among the three groups

(see diagrams). The second discriminant function correlates

highly and significantly (0.67) with democratic value (V^).

-0.51 with socio economic status (V,), 0.38 with knowledge

value (Vg), and 0.32 with health value (Vjj). This shows

140

that this function indicates 'moral factor' or the value system.

The science and arts groups are high on this dimension as

compared to commerce group. This is also indicated by the

mean (Table 4.12) values of these groups on this function.

The socio economic status correlates negatively with the

second function showing that high socio economic status is

associated with lower democratic, knowledge and health

values. The negative score of commerce group on the di­

mension is therefore obviously justified.

Table 4.12 Canonical Discriminant Functions at Centroids

Group Function-1 Function-2

1 -0.89493 0.17753

2 0.88928 0.08938

3 -0.24860 -0.63862

4.4 THE CLASSIFICATION RESULTS :

One of the objectives of the present study is to

develop a mathematical model for classifying new cases

into different groups. The basic question is how we would

best combine (weight) the scores on predictor variables so

as to achieve the most reliable classification results. If

141

there are only two groups or if only the first discriminant

function is statistically significant, the single discriminant

function provides sufficient information for classification.

A case with a discriminant score above zero belongs to one

group, while a case with a score below zero on the discrim­

inant function is predicted to belong to the other group.

However, with more than one significant discriminant function,

information from all functions is necessary for classifica­

tion. For this purpose, classification functions are devel­

oped one for each group, A case is classified into the group

for which it has the highest classification score. Each case

has a classification score for each group. A score on the

classifications function (y) for a given group is found by

first multiplying the raw score on each predictor variable

(Xs) by its associated classification function coefficients

(Cs), adding them together alongwith a constant (k). Thus

a classification score looks like :

y = k + C,X, + C2X2 + C3X3 + ex.

The present study involved three groups and hence,

there are three classification functions, one for each group.

The classification function coefficients are given in the Table

4.13. These are found from the means of the predictor variables

and the pooled within group variance-covariance matrix.

142

Table 4.13 : Classification Function Coefficient

V,

Vj

V3

v« V,

V,

V,3

V,4

Constant

1

0.5554808

0.3324061

1.451068

1.219324

0.9193527

0.7924437

0.5680970

-60.44137

2

0.7145478

0.4422443

1.428517

1.226254

1.023582

0.8116146

0.6157847

-75.98064

3

0.5864281

0.4441935

1.280201

1.298279

0.9093659

0.7356251

0.6116331

-0.64.11437

With these classification coefficients, the three

classification function equations may be written as

y, = O.55V2 + O.33V3 + 1.45V^ + 1.22V, + 0.92 V, +

0.79 V,3 + 0.57 V,4 - 60.44

yj = O.7IV2 + O.44V3 + 1.42V^ + 1.22 V, + 1.02 V, +

0.81V,3 + 0.61V,4 - 75.98

yj = O.58V2 + O.44V3 + 1.28 Vg + 1.29V, + O.9IV5 +

0.73V,3 + 0.61V,4 - 64.11

The application of these equations to each of the

500 cases under study resulted in classification of each case

to one category. Each case has a classification score for each

group. A case is classified to a group for which it has the highest

classification score. The Details of classification of individual

cases is given in Table 4.14.

Table 4.14. Individual classification cases 143

Case Ni5 Number Val

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1(3

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

M. 20

21

22

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24

25

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27

28

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1.7300 3.5220 .3213

-.2125 1.1828 .4268

1.4463 -1.3000 1.6791

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-1.2136 .3912

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-1.8766 -.6839

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-.5445 -.7712 -.4751 -.1404 -.0557

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1.9384 2.3618 .3478

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157

Table 4.15 : Summary of Classification Results

Actual group No. of Predicted Group Membership

Cases 1 2 3

Group 1 195

Group 2 220

Group 3 85

129

66.2%

33

15.0%

2 ]

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26

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152

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19

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40

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45

52.9%

Percent of "grouped" cases correctly classified : 65.20%

The summary of the classification results given

in Table 4.15 shows that from Arts group (N = 195), 129

cases (66.2%) were correctly classified. Similarly, in sci­

ence group (N=220), 152 cases (69.1 %) were correctly classified

and from commerce group (N=85), 45 cases (52.9%) were

correctly classified. If we add up the correctly classified

cases their sum is 326 cases or 65.20% which were correctly

classified. It is also evident that 20.5% of Arts group cases

are misclassified in commerce group and 13.3% in science

group. In the same way science group cases are equally

likely to be classified (15% each) to both Arts and Com­

merce groups. The same thing is true for commerce group.

158

The correct classification Figure of 65.20% siiows

that the classification functions have worked satisfactorily

and can be used for further classification of new cases. The

interrelationship among the variables has been studied in

terms of correlation coefficients. The coefficients of clas­

sification equations indicate the relative contribution of

respective independent variables. The mathematical model

sought to be developed as a major objective of the study

is represented by classification functions. Thus, all the

three objectives of the study have been achieved.

159

FINDINGS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS

The previous four chapters described the detailed

methodology followed by the investigator in conducting the

study. The theoretical and research context of the problem

under investigation was discussed in Chapter 1 and the

research problem was precisely defined in Chapter 2. The

description of characteristics of population, the technique

of sampling and tools used have also been discussed in

Chapter 3. Also, the technique of data analysis which is a

complex one has been discussed. A peculiar characteristic

of this study is that it is based on multivariate analysis

which is very rarely used in behavioural research. The

investigator has used multiple discriminant analysis for

predicting career choice with the help of some academic,

social and personality variables which were used as inde­

pendent variables. After computerization of data the inves­

tigator came out with certain results which are being pre­

sented in this chapter.

5.1 FINDINGS :

This study leads to the following findings :

(i) In general, it was found that academic achievement of

160

science students at senior secondary stage was better

than the commerce students and arts students. How­

ever, the commerce students performed better than the

students of arts stream.

(ii) On the socio-economic status variable also, science

students ranked highest followed by commerce group

and arts group in that order. These results indicate that

there is a strong positive correlation between academ­

ic achievement and socio-economic status which is

generally expected.

(iii) Science students have higher occupational aspirations

than commerce and arts students. These results also

show that occupational aspiration is positively corre­

lated with both academic achievement and socio-eco­

nomic status. The results also show that the commerce

students had lower democratic value than arts and

science groups. This finding is interesting. In the same

way, the commerce group has the lowest knowledge

value and science group has highest knowledge value.

Similarly, on health value the mean score of science

group was higher than those of arts and commerce

groups.

161

(iv) The academic achievement correlated significantly with

socio-economic status, knowledge value, power value

and occupational aspirations. However, its correlation

with power value is negative. This shows that high

academic achievement goes with high socio-economic

status, high knowledge value, high occupational as­

pirations but low power value.

(v) High socio-economic status is associated with high

economic value but low social and democratic values.

Similarly, high occupational aspirations are associat­

ed with high knowledge value and high health value.

(vi) When three groups (Arts, Science and Commerce) were

considered separately, some interesting trends were

revealed. In the case of arts and science groups, ac­

ademic achievement is correlated with socio-econom­

ic status but. in the case of commerce group these

variables are uncorrelated. In the case of arts group,

academic achievement is correlated positively with

occupational aspirations but in the other two groups,

such a correlation does not exit. Similarly, socio-eco­

nomic status has significant correlation with econom­

ic value and knowledge value for science group, while

162

in other two groups such a correlation does not exit.

Surprisingly, socio-economic status is uncorrelated

with vocational preferences in all the three groups taken

separately.

(vii) The step-wise discriminant function analysis resulted

in two significant discriminant functions which reli­

ably discriminated among the three groups. The sta­

tistical significance of discriminant functions was eval­

uated by using Wilks' Lambda (A,). Two discriminant

functions gave a combined x value of 295,37, (degree

of freedom 14) significant at 0.01 level. When the first

discriminant function was removed, there was still

significant % of 40.598 (D.F. = 6). The two discrim­

inant functions accounted for 88.74% and 11.26% of

the between groups variance respectively.

(viii)The first discriminant function maximally discriminat­

ed between arts and science groups with commerce

group falling between the two. On the other hand, the

second discriminant function discriminated commerce

group from arts and science groups.

(ix) The primary variables having high loadings on first

163

discriminant function were academic achievement, oc­

cupational aspirations and socio-economic status. Since

all these variables are intercorrelated and the academ­

ic a'chievement has the highest loading, the first discrim­

inant function may be named as "academic factor".

(x) The second discriminant function which separated com­

merce group from arts and science groups had highest

loading on democratic value, socio-economic status,

knowledge value and health value. This indicates that

this discriminant function indicates the "value dimen­

sion".

(xi) Since there are two discriminant functions, classifi­

cation functions were developed, one for each group,

for classifying new cases to various groups. These

classifications equations are given below :

y, = O.SSV, + O.33V3 + 1.45V^ + I.22V7 + 0.92 V^ +

0.79 V,3 + 0.57 V,4 - 60.44

y, = O.7IV2 + 0.44V, + 1.42V^ + 1.22 V^ + 1.02 V, +

0.81V,3 + 0.61V,^ - 75.98

y, = O.58V2 + 0.44V3'+ 1.28 V^ + 1.29V, + O.9IV9 +

0.73V,3 + 0.61V,4 - 64.11

164

(xii) The application of these equations to each of 500 cases

resulted in correct classification of 65.20% cases which

shows that the two functions have been effective in

predicting the group membership.

5.2 I M P L I C A T I O N S :

Every new research has its roots in the previous

research literature in the concerned field, and in turn, has

some important implications for further research. Research

of any kind is directed towards the goal of discovering new

knowledge about nature so that such a knowledge might be

utilized for making the human living more comfortable and

happy. A research study is meaningful if and only if its

findings can be put to a profitable use to solve some prob­

lems of human interest. In the context of education, nearly

all research investigations are directed towards generating

new knowledge about improving teaching-learning practic­

es. All educational efforts must be aimed at improving the

academic performance of students irrespective of their abilities,

social background and motivational levels. A research study

must help in achieving this objective by providing innova­

tive theories and practices. In the present study, the inves­

tigator has made an attempt to study certain selected per-

165

sonal values, occupational aspirations, socio-economic sta­

tus and academic achievement variables as determinants of

educational choice at senior secondary school. The study

has come out with several interesting findings as already

listed.

Although the investigator does not claim to have

made an exhaustive study of the problem in question, yet

it is emphasized that various aspects of the problem have

been examined as extensively and deeply as possible. The

findings of this study have some important implications for

educational practices in general and curriculum planning

and educational and vocational guidance in particular. The

findings also have some implications for further research

in this field. The detailed discussion of these implications

follows.

5.2.1 Educational Implications :

The finding that academic achievement which is

correlated with socio-economic status and vocational pref­

erences, is a deciding factor in educational choice at senior

secondary stage has important implication for education.

The parents teachers and guardians must do everything possible

166

to improve the academic achievements. For this, the school

system has to improve curriculum, teaching methods, in­

structional material and evaluation methods. The career

choice is also highly correlated with socio-economic status.

It has been found that science stream has greater concen­

tration of students belonging to upper socio-economic class.

The children of lower socio-economic groups such as scheduled

caste, scheduled tribes and minorities join arts stream. This

leads to the conclusion that children of SC, ST and other

weaker section should be given special support by way of

coaching classes etc. This will help them improve there

achievement and thus enter into better academic stream.

Vocational aspiration is an important factor having

bearing on career choice or educational choice. Due to certain

social reasons, the children of lower socio-economic classes

including scheduled caste and minorities have developed infe­

riority complex leading to low vocational aspiration. One of the

reasons for this is social segregation. The policy of the govern­

ment to have separate schools and hostels for socially deprived

children has failed to make desired impact, especially, in im­

proving their self-concept and vocational aspiration.

167

Decision regarding the choice of a stream carries

more importance when the scope of vocational guidance is

considered. The school counsellor or the guidance worker

will be in a better position to guide the students if the

general pattern of the electives of the school subjects be

made known to him. No child is likely to accept his short

comings or deficiencies and the same is the case with par­

ents. If the school counsellor informs a parent aboui the

inadequate progress made by his ward and mentions that his

mental level is somewhat lower, the parent will never accept

it and will be displeased with the counsellor as well as

teachers. So, a counsellor has to act in such a way that he

does not displease a parent and at the same time make him

understand the reality.

It is the prime duty of the school counsellor to

place all the relevant, dark and bright, favourable and

unfavourable issues before the student. Information must

be presented in such a way that student may feel at liberty

to take his decision and in no case be forced to follow the

counsellor's advice. Vocational Guidance does not neces­

sarily mean that a student, having a particular personality

and a particular level of scholastic achievement, will come

168

out with flying colours in a particular job. Vocational guidance

indicates the possibility of success in a vocation and there

is every possibility in 2 or 3 (or even more) per cent cases

of failure. But this does not decrease the significance of

vocational guidance. Similarly, time and again the school

counsellor has to suggest alternative jobs to students such

as careers of overseer or compounder/nurse/medical repre­

sentative/veterinary doctor to those students who are aspir­

ing to become engineers or doctors respectively and has to

present the salient features of these vocations effectively

to them. All these efforts enable the student to think ra­

tionally and explore alternative avenues.

The findings of the present study may be helpful

to the school counsellor. It is possible to predict in advance

the academic stream that a child would most likely follow.

The task becomes easier and more scientific if the corre­

lates of academic/educational choice are known. The math­

ematical model in terms of regression equations, which the

investigator has developed, might be extremely useful for

this purpose. If a student'c scores on predictor variables are

known, his likely choice of academic stream may be pre­

dicted. Value orientation has been a question of great sig-

169

nificance to education. The issue of inculcation of moral

values through education has been taken up by University

Education Commission (1948), Secondary Education Com­

mission (1952) and Education Commission (1966). The neglect

of this important aspect of education has resulted into the

present state of affairs where there is complete "exile of

values" from our society. The impact is seen in our day to

day happenings. No wonder that these things happen be­

cause engineers, police officers, bureaucrats are all guided

by economic value. Economic and political values are spreading

at the expense of aesthetic, social and religious values.

Power or political value orientation leads one to choose

defence services as profession. Even the noblest of all profession

i.e. teaching has been preferred by prospective teachers for

material reasons.

Role of education cannot therefore be undeter­

mined. On the one hand criminal neglect of value education

has resulted into this sad state of affairs and on the other

hand education has been contributing towards the perpet­

uation of these values. This calls for urgent need to incor­

porate value-education in education and training of the

personnel for various professions and, secondly, reorient

170

the entire system of education in such a way that it results

in developing positive value orientations viz. social, aes­

thetic, and religious which would also help to eradicate the

menace of fanaticism, fundamentalism, factionalism and

parochialism.

While imparting vocational guidance for educa­

tional choice of the students, the school counsellor should

keep in mind the educational facilities available to the students,

the economic situation of the parents, the personal values,

the scholastic achievement of the students, the personality

traits required for success in the vocation, demand and

supply of the know-how in the market, expansion of edu­

cational facilities and the like.

5.2.2 Implications for Research :

The present study gives, some directions for further

research in this area. Some suggestions for further research

are listed below.

\. A similar study can be carried out in a larger geograph­

ical area including rural and urban population and by

adding more social and personality variables. The present

171

Study has included only some of the relevant independent

variables. There may be other relevant variables also.

2. A series of similar studies can be conducted on the stu­

dents of

A. Public Schools

B. Sanskrit Pathshalas

C. Islamia Schools

D. Tribal and or Backward students

E. Students of either sex.

3 . A longitudinal study of change in educational or vo­

cational choices over stages of education from prima­

ry to college education might provide better insight

into the phenomenon of educational and vocational

choice.

4. A comprehensive study of the role of parents/guard­

ians in the career and educational choice of students

may provide interesting results and serve as basis for

future guidance and counsell ing.

5. The present study has selected only one aspect of

personality, i.e. values, for investigation. Another parallel

172

Study may be planned in which all personality factors

as measured by 16 P.F. Battery might be taken and

their impact on educational choice be studied.

6. One important determinant of vocational choice in

Indian society has been the caste affiliation. In the

past, caste was an important determinant of vocational

choice. Has this situation changed ? Future studies

may provide an answer to this question.

IMf^LlCA TIONS

173

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2. Arbuckle, Dugald S. Integrating occupational mate­

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3. Astin, A.W. Effect of different college environment

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Journal of Counselling Psychology. 1965. 12. pp. 28-

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( 8

PERSONAL DATA SHEET (P D s )

NOTE : Put a (/) tick mark against the category which is in

your case.

Name of the Student Class

College Age

Academic Qualifications :

Class Division Percentage Year Educational Choice

of Marks (Arts, Sc. Comm.)

High School

SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND (S.E.S.) :

1. Geographical Location of the residence :

(a) Village ( ) (b) Town ( ) (c) City (

2. Educational Qualification of Father and Mother.

Father Mother

(a) Illiterate

(b) Upto 5th Class

(c) Upto 8th Class

(d) Upto 10th Class

(e) Upto 12th Class

(f) Graduate

(g) Post-Graduate

(

(

(

(h) Ph.D. (

(i) Technical/Vocational(

Family Profession.

Father

—

—

—

—

- -

- -

—

—

—

- -

- -

Diplomat

Lawyer

Doctor

Engineer

Teacher (College)

Teacher (Univ.)

School Teacher

Clerk

Inspector

Skilled worker

Farmer

(

(

(

(

(

(

(

(

(

(

(

Montly Income of the Family.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

No.

Upto 1000 Rs.

1001 to 2500 Rs.

2501 to 4000 Rs.

4001 to 6000 Rs.

6000 to onwards

of dependents in the

Nos.

(

(

(

(

(

Famih

Mother

(Signature of the Respondent)

C (•) .£ ^ S. o < 3 5 6

<

>

U D < >

< Z o

to

(0

Its'

15

19

Iff

&

fo

15

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= c