Stress and CopingJose L. Jarry, Ph.D., C.Psych.Health Psychology, psy333Department of PsychologyUniversity of TorontoOctober 28, 2002

Definition (1)Aldwin (1994)Quality of experience, produced through a person-environment transaction, that through over- or under-arousal, results in psychological or physiological distressHans SelyeThe non-specific result of any demand upon the body, be the effect mental or somaticEustress is a positive stressful experience, a state of physical and psychological well-being that is associated with increased motivation and the acceptance of a challenge. What is essential to well-being is a balance to produce an optimal level of arousalToo little stress can be as harmful as too muchStress can result from being over- or under-stimulated

Definition (2)Lazarus & Folkman (1984)A relationship between a person and the environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his/her well-beingThis definition introduces the important notion of subjective appraisalWalter CanonIntroduced the concept of homeostasis: bodys attempt at maintaining a stable internal stateStress challenges homeostasisFight or Flight responseComplex ANS reaction in preparation for emergencies

Definition (3)Rice, P. R. (1999)Stressors External, environmental demands placed on us that cause us to feel stressedSubjective responseInterpretive mental state of the individualAllows one to diminish, augment, or distort the impact of external eventsBodys physical response to stressPhysiological challenges which, if prolonged, can result in a negative state, or alternatively, an improved capacity to cope physiologically

The Physiology of Stress2 major components to the physical response to stress:

Nervous system

Endocrine system

Structure of the Nervous SystemCentral nervous system is made of:BrainSpinal cordPeripheral nervous system is made of:Somatic nervous systemReceives information from the sensory organsControls movements of the skeletal musclesAutonomic nervous system (ANS)Primarily serves internal organsHas 2 divisions:SympatheticParasympathetic

Sympathetic Response to StressHypothalamus causes:Increases arousal in the sympathetic nervous systemIncreased heart rate & blood pressureConstriction of peripheral blood vesselsRespiration rates increaseBronchial tubes dilate Pupils dilate Digestive processes decreaseSympathetic activation prepares the body for intense motor activity

Parasympathetic response to stressServes regenerative, growth-promoting, energy-conserving functionsIts effects include the opposite of the effect of the sympathetic nervous systemFunctions under normal, non-stressful conditionsAlso activated by the hypothalamusre-establishes homeostasis in the systemreconstructive process following stressful experienceslows the heart rate & decreases blood pressuredecreases muscle tensionslows respirationneutralizes fight or flight response

Structure of the Endocrine SystemThe endocrine system consists of ductless glands distributed throughout the bodyThe neuroendocrine system is made of those endocrine glands that are controlled by the nervous systemGlands of the endocrine and neuroendocrine systems secrete chemicals called hormonesHormones move into the blood stream to be carried throughout the bodySpecialized receptors on target tissues or organs allow hormones to have specific effects even though they circulate throughout the body

Endocrine Responses to StressHypothalamus causes:The pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) that stimulates the adrenal cortexSympathetic fibers to directly activate the adrenal medullaThe adrenal glands are located on top of each kidneyEach gland is composed of: an outer covering: the adrenal cortexan inner part: the adrenal medullaBoth secrete hormones that are important in the stress response

Adrenomedullary Response - SAMOccurs through the activation of the sympathetic-adrenal medulla (SAM) complex:Perception of stress causes the hypothalamus (via nervous connection) to activate sympathetic fibersSympathetic fibers activate the adrenal medullaAdrenal medulla secretes the catecholamines: epinephrine & norepinephrine This causes:Increased heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate & blood glucose levelsShuts down digestive systemRapid, short-lived response to stress

Adrenocortical Response - HPAOccurs through the activation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) cortex complex:Perception of stress causes the hypothalamus to release ACTH releasing hormoneThis causes the anterior pituitary to secrete ACTHACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoidsGlucocorticoidsProtein and fat get metabolized into glucoseReduce inflammation, suppress immune cellsMineralocorticoids Blood volume and pressure increase

Sympathetic and Endocrine Responses to StressStress perception causes a chain reaction:SAMrapid, short-term stress reactionthe sympathetic NS stimulates the adrenal medullathe adrenal medulla produces epinephrine and norepinephrineHPAslower but longer-lasting responsethe pituitary releases ACTHACTH causes the adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids

Brain Response to StressLimbic SystemAdds an element of emotion to the experience of stressUsually negative emotions: fear, anger, anxiety, painReticular formationCommunication network that filters messages to the bodyReceives input from all the sensory systems and determines which sensory information is processed or blockedThis allows us to selectively attend to specific tasks while ignoring irrelevant information

The General Adaptation Syndrome (1)Defined by Selye in 1956. Comprises 3 stages:Stage I: AlarmThe bodys defences against stressors are mobilized through activation of the sympathetic nervous systemActivation of the SAM complexArousal of the sympathetic nervous system releases hormones (adrenaline) that help prepare the body to meet stress and dangerHighly adaptive short term response to an emergency situation

The General Adaptation Syndrome (2)Stage II: ResistanceThe body enters this stage if the stress is prolongedActivation of the HPA complexArousal is lowerBut the body continues to draw on internal resources at an above normal rateOutwards appearance seems normalPhysiologically, the bodys internal functioning is not normalSets the stage for diseases of adaptation (e.g., peptic ulcers, ulcerative colitis)

The General Adaptation Syndrome (3)Stage III: ExhaustionContinued exposure to the same stressor drains the body furtherThe capacity to resist is depletedIllness resultsThis stage is characterized by activation of the parasympathetic division of the ANSBut at an abnormally low level In severe cases, results in death

Cognitive - Transactional ModelLazarus & Folkman (1984)Propose that the interpretation of stressful events is more important than the events themselvesIt is neither the environmental event nor the persons response that defines stressIt is the individuals perception of the psychological situation that defines stressStress is a function of the persons feeling of threat, vulnerability, and ability to cope rather than a function of the stressorDistinguish three kinds of appraisal

Primary appraisalInitial evaluation of a situation3 possible outcomes:Irrelevantthe event has no implication for the individuals well-beingBenign-positivethe event may increase well-beingStressfulthe situation is perceived as harmful, threatening, or challenging

Primary appraisal (2)Harm/lossinvolves actual significant physical or psychological losspsychological damage that has already been doneThreatthe anticipation of harm or lossallows to anticipate and prepare for the futureChallengethe event is perceived as stressfulthe focus is on positive excitementrefers to the persons confidence in overcoming difficult demands

Secondary AppraisalConcerned with a persons evaluation of his/her ability to cope with the situationThe individual asks 3 questions:which coping options are available?the likelihood that one can apply the strategythe likelihood that any given options will work: will it reduce stress?Reappraisalcontinuous reappraisal on the basis of new informationidentical to the initial processmay lead to more stress

Coping (1)Lazarus and Folkman (1984)Constantly changing cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage specific internal and/or external demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person Several important elements of the definition:Coping is a process of constant evaluation of the success of ones strategiesCoping is learned as one encounters situationsCoping requires effortCoping is an effort to manage. Success is not contingent on mastery, just good enough

Coping (2)Health & energyPositive beliefthe ability to cope is enhanced when people believe they can successfully bring about desired consequencesProblem-solving skillshaving specific knowledge or abilities related to specific problemSocial skillability to get other people to cooperateSocial supportfeeling of being accepted, loved, or prized by othersMaterial Resources

Coping (3)Problem Focussed Copingconsists of changing the situationredefining the problemlooking at alternative solutionsevaluating the implications of the alternativeschoosing the best one to act onEmotion-focussed copingconsists of controlling and possibly changing the emotional response to an eventcognitive responses such as avoidance or minimizationthe goal is to decrease emotional distressoften used when the individual feels that nothing can be done about the situation

Stress and ControlStephen Weiss (1968, 1971)Study 1reliable escape response reduces development of ulcers Study 2predictable stressors produced fewer ulcerstrue even in the absence of an escape response optionStudy 3feedback about effectiveness of response results in fewer ulcersConclusionthe physiological effects of stress can be greatly reduced if the organism can engage in controlling behaviourgetting feedback that ones behaviour is effective can further reduce the physiological effects of stress