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Jared Diamond, Yali's Question (Prologue to Guns, Germs, and Steel, 1997)* * *

WE ALL KNOW THAT HISTORY HAS PROCEEDED VERY differently for peoplesfro different p!rts of t"e #lo$e% In t"e &'())) ye!rs sine t"e end of t"e l!st Ie A#e( soep!rts of t"e +orld de,eloped liter!te ind-stri!l soieties +it" et!l tools( ot"er p!rtsde,eloped only nonliter!te f!rin# soieties( !nd still ot"ers ret!ined soieties of "-nter.#!t"erers +it" stone tools% T"ose "istori!l ine/-!lities "!,e !st lon# s"!do+s on t"eodern +orld( $e!-se t"e liter!te soieties +it" et!l tools "!,e on/-ered ore0terin!ted t"e ot"er soieties% W"ile t"ose differenes onstit-te t"e ost $!si f!t of

+orld "istory( t"e re!sons for t"e re!in -nert!in !nd ontro,ersi!l% T"is p-11lin#/-estion of t"eir ori#ins +!s posed to e 23 ye!rs !#o in ! siple( person!l for%

In 4-ly &562 I +!s +!l7in# !lon# ! $e!" on t"e tropi!l isl!nd of Ne+ 8-ine!( +"ere !s !$iolo#ist I st-dy $ird e,ol-tion% I "!d !lre!dy "e!rd !$o-t ! re!r7!$le lo!l politii!nn!ed Y!li( +"o +!s to-rin# t"e distrit t"en% 9y "!ne( Y!li !nd I +ere +!l7in# in t"es!e diretion on t"!t d!y( !nd "e o,ertoo7 e% We +!l7ed to#et"er for !n "o-r( t!l7in#d-rin# t"e +"ole tie%

Y!li r!di!ted "!ris! !nd ener#y% His eyes fl!s"ed in ! eseri1in# +!y% He t!l7edonfidently !$o-t "iself( $-t "e !lso !s7ed lots of pro$in# /-estions !nd listened intently%O-r on,ers!tion $e#!n +it" ! s-$:et t"en on e,ery Ne+ 8-ine!n;s indor inst!ne( +"y +eren;t N!ti,e Aeri!ns( Afri!ns( !nd A$ori#in!l A-str!li!ns t"e ones+"o dei!ted( s-$:-#!ted( or e0terin!ted E-rope!ns !nd Asi!ns

We !n e!sily p-s" t"is /-estion $!7 one step% As of t"e ye!r A%D% &3))( +"en E-rope;s+orld+ide oloni!l e0p!nsion +!s :-st $e#innin#( peoples on different ontinents !lre!dydiffered #re!tly in te"nolo#y !nd politi!l or#!ni1!tion% -" of E-rope( Asi!( !nd Nort"

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Afri! +!s t"e site of et!l.e/-ipped st!tes or epires( soe of t"e on t"e t"res"old ofind-stri!li1!tion% T+o N!ti,e Aeri!n peoples( t"e A1tes !nd t"e In!s( r-led o,erepires +it" stone tools% P!rts of s-$.S!"!r!n Afri! +ere di,ided !on# s!ll st!tes or"iefdos +it" iron tools% ost ot"er peoplesor inst!ne( t"e !ss prod-tion of $ron1etools( +"i" +!s :-st $e#innin# in t"e So-t" Aeri!n Andes in t"e ent-ries $efore A%D%

&3))( +!s !lre!dy est!$lis"ed in p!rts of E-r!si! o,er F())) ye!rs e!rlier% T"e stonete"nolo#y of t"e T!s!ni!ns( +"en first eno-ntered $y E-rope!n e0plorers in A%D% &GF2(+!s sipler t"!n t"!t pre,!lent in p!rts of =pper P!leolit"i E-rope tens of t"o-s!nds ofye!rs e!rlier%

T"-s( +e !n fin!lly rep"r!se t"e /-estion !$o-t t"e odern +orld;s ine/-!lities !sfollo+s +"y did "-!n de,elopent proeed !t s-" different r!tes on differentontinents T"ose disp!r!te r!tes onstit-te "istory;s $ro!dest p!ttern !nd y $oo7;ss-$:et%

W"ile t"is $oo7 is t"-s -lti!tely !$o-t "istory !nd pre"istory( its s-$:et is not of :-st!!dei interest $-t !lso of o,er+"elin# pr!ti!l !nd politi!l iport!ne% T"e "istoryof inter!tions !on# disp!r!te peoples is +"!t s"!ped t"e odern +orld t"ro-#"

on/-est( epideis( !nd #enoide% T"ose ollisions re!ted re,er$er!tions t"!t "!,e stillnot died do+n !fter !ny ent-ries( !nd t"!t !re !ti,ely ontin-in# in soe of t"e +orld;sost tro-$led !re!s tod!y%

>or e0!ple( -" of Afri! is still str-##lin# +it" its le#!ies fro reent oloni!lis% Inot"er re#ions

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"istori!lly t"e !:or !-se of de!t"( +"ile -rders +ere rel!ti,ely -noon !nd ! st!teof +!r +!s t"e e0eption r!t"er t"!n t"e r-le% ost E-rope!ns +"o es!ped f!t!l infetions!lso es!ped ot"er potenti!l !-ses of de!t" !nd proeeded to p!ss on t"eir #enes% Tod!y(ost li,e.$orn Western inf!nts s-r,i,e f!t!l infetions !s +ell !nd reprod-e t"esel,es(re#!rdless of t"eir intelli#ene !nd t"e #enes t"ey $e!r% In ontr!st( Ne+ 8-ine!ns "!,e$een li,in# in soieties +"ere "-!n n-$ers +ere too lo+ for epidei dise!ses of densepop-l!tions to e,ol,e% Inste!d( tr!dition!l Ne+ 8-ine!ns s-ffered "i#" ort!lity fro-rder( "roni tri$!l +!rf!re( !idents( !nd pro$les in pro-rin# food%

Intelli#ent people !re li7elier t"!n less intelli#ent ones to es!pe t"ose !-ses of "i#"

ort!lity in tr!dition!l Ne+ 8-ine! soieties% Ho+e,er( t"e differenti!l ort!lity froepidei dise!ses in tr!dition!l E-rope!n soieties "!d little to do +it" intelli#ene( !ndinste!d in,ol,ed #eneti resist!ne dependent on det!ils of $ody "eistry% >or e0!ple(people +it" $lood #ro-p 9 or O "!,e ! #re!ter resist!ne to s!llpo0 t"!n do people +it"$lood #ro-p A% T"!t is( n!t-r!l seletion prootin# #enes for intelli#ene "!s pro$!$ly$een f!r ore r-t"less in Ne+ 8-ine! t"!n in ore densely pop-l!ted( politi!lly ople0soieties( +"ere n!t-r!l seletion for $ody "eistry +!s inste!d ore potent%

9esides t"is #eneti re!son( t"ere is !lso ! seond re!son +"y Ne+ 8-ine!ns !y "!,eoe to $e s!rter t"!n Westerners% odern E-rope!n !nd Aeri!n "ildren spend -"of t"eir tie $ein# p!ssi,ely entert!ined $y tele,ision( r!dio( !nd o,ies% In t"e !,er!#eAeri!n "o-se"old( t"e TV set is on for se,en "o-rs per d!y% In ontr!st( tr!dition!l Ne+8-ine! "ildren "!,e ,irt-!lly no s-" opport-nities for p!ssi,e entert!inent !nd inste!dspend !lost !ll of t"eir +!7in# "o-rs !ti,ely doin# soet"in#( s-" !s t!l7in# or pl!yin#+it" ot"er "ildren or !d-lts% Alost !ll st-dies of "ild de,elopent ep"!si1e t"e role of"ild"ood sti-l!tion !nd !ti,ity in prootin# ent!l de,elopent( !nd stress t"eirre,ersi$le ent!l st-ntin# !ssoi!ted +it" red-ed "ild"ood sti-l!tion% T"is effets-rely ontri$-tes ! non.#eneti oponent to t"e s-perior !,er!#e ent!l f-ntiondispl!yed $y Ne+ 8-ine!ns%

T"!t is( in ent!l !$ility Ne+ 8-ine!ns !re pro$!$ly #eneti!lly s-perior to Westerners(!nd t"ey s-rely !re s-perior in es!pin# t"e de,!st!tin# de,elopent!l dis!d,!nt!#es -nder+"i" ost "ildren in ind-stri!li1ed soieties no+ #ro+ -p% Cert!inly( t"ere is no "int !t!ll of !ny intellet-!l diss!d,!nt!#e of Ne+ 8-ine!ns t"!t o-ld ser,e to !ns+er Y!li;s/-estion%

T"e s!e t+o #eneti !nd "ild"ood de,elopent!l f!tors !re li7ely to distin#-is" notonly Ne+ 8-ine!ns fro Westerners( $-t !lso "-nter.#!t"erers !nd ot"er e$ers ofte"nolo#i!lly priiti,e soieties fro e$ers of te"nolo#i!lly !d,!ned soieties in#ener!l% T"-s( t"e -s-!l r!ist !ss-ption "!s to $e t-rned on its "e!d% W"y is it t"!tE-rope!ns( despite t"eir li7ely #eneti dis!d,!nt!#e !nd ?in odern ties@ t"eir -ndo-$tedde,elopent!l dis!d,!nt!#e( ended -p +it" -" ore of t"e !r#o W"y did Ne+8-ine!ns +ind -p te"nolo#i!lly priiti,e( despite +"!t I $elie,e to $e t"eir s-periorintelli#ene

A #eneti e0pl!n!tion isn;t t"e only possi$le !ns+er to Y!li;s /-estion% Anot"er one( pop-l!r+it" in"!$it!nts of nort"ern E-rope( in,o7es t"e s-pposed sti-l!tory effets of t"eir"oel!nd;s old li!te !nd t"e in"i$itory effets of "ot( "-id( tropi!l li!tes on"-!n re!ti,ity !nd ener#y% Per"!ps t"e se!son!lly ,!ri!$le li!te !t "i#" l!tit-des posesore di,erse "!llen#es t"!n does ! se!son!lly onst!nt tropi!l li!te% Per"!ps oldli!tes re/-ire one to $e ore te"nolo#i!lly in,enti,e to s-r,i,e( $e!-se one -st$-ild ! +!r "oe !nd !7e +!r lot"in#( +"ere!s one !n s-r,i,e in t"e tropis +it"sipler "o-sin# !nd no lot"in#% Or t"e !r#-ent !n $e re,ersed to re!" t"e s!eonl-sion t"e lon# +inters !t "i#" l!tit-des le!,e people +it" -" tie in +"i" to sitindoors !nd in,ent%

Alt"o-#" forerly pop-l!r( t"is type of e0pl!n!tion( too( f!ils to s-r,i,e sr-tiny% As +es"!ll see( t"e peoples of nort"ern E-rope ontri$-ted not"in# of f-nd!ent!l iport!ne toE-r!si!n i,ili1!tion -ntil t"e l!st t"o-s!nd ye!rs t"ey siply "!d t"e #ood l-7 to li,e !t !#eo#r!p"i lo!tion +"ere t"ey +ere li7ely to reei,e !d,!nes ?s-" !s !#ri-lt-re(+"eels( +ritin#( !nd et!ll-r#y@ de,eloped in +!rer p!rts of E-r!si!% In t"e Ne+ Worldt"e old re#ions !t "i#" l!tit-de +ere e,en ore of ! "-!n $!7+!ter% T"e sole N!ti,eAeri!n soieties to de,elop +ritin# !rose in e0io so-t" of t"e Tropi of C!ner t"eoldest Ne+ World pottery oes fro ne!r t"e e/-!tor in tropi!l So-t" Aeri! !nd t"eNe+ World soiety #ener!lly onsidered t"e ost !d,!ned in !rt( !stronoy( !nd ot"errespets +!s t"e Cl!ssi !y! soiety of t"e tropi!l Y-!t!n !nd 8-!te!l! in t"e firstillenni- A%D%

Still ! t"ird type of !ns+er to Y!li in,o7es t"e s-pposed iport!ne of lo+l!nd ri,er,!lleys in dry li!tes( +"ere "i#"ly prod-ti,e !#ri-lt-re depended on l!r#e.s!leirri#!tion systes t"!t in t-rn re/-ired entr!li1ed $-re!-r!ies% T"is e0pl!n!tion +!ss-##ested $y t"e -ndo-$ted f!t t"!t t"e e!rliest 7no+n epires !nd +ritin# systes !rosein t"e Ti#ris !nd E-p"r!tes V!lleys of t"e >ertile Cresent !nd in t"e Nile V!lley of E#ypt%W!ter ontrol systes !lso !ppe!r to "!,e $een !ssoi!ted +it" entr!li1ed politi!lor#!ni1!tion in soe ot"er !re!s of t"e +orld( inl-din# t"e Ind-s V!lley of t"e Indi!ns-$ontinent( t"e Yello+ !nd Y!n#t1e V!lleys of C"in!( t"e !y! lo+l!nds ofeso!eri!( !nd t"e o!st!l desert of Per-%

Ho+e,er( det!iled !r"!eolo#i!l st-dies "!,e s"o+n t"!t ople0 irri#!tion systes didnot !op!ny t"e rise of entr!li1ed $-re!-r!ies $-t follo+ed !fter ! onsider!$le l!#%T"!t is( politi!l entr!li1!tion !rose for soe ot"er re!son !nd t"en peritted onstr-tionof ople0 irri#!tion systes% None of t"e r-i!l de,elopents preedin# politi!lentr!li1!tion in t"ose s!e p!rts of t"e +orld +ere !ssoi!ted +it" ri,er ,!lleys or +it"ople0 irri#!tion systes% >or e0!ple( in t"e >ertile Cresent food prod-tion !nd,ill!#e life ori#in!ted in "ills !nd o-nt!ins( not in lo+l!nd ri,er ,!lleys% T"e Nile V!lleyre!ined ! -lt-r!l $!7+!ter for !$o-t '())) ye!rs !fter ,ill!#e food prod-tion $e#!n toflo-ris" in t"e "ills of t"e >ertile Cresent% Ri,er ,!lleys of t"e so-t"+estern =nited St!tese,ent-!lly !e to s-pport irri#!tion !#ri-lt-re !nd ople0 soieties( $-t only !fter!ny of t"e de,elopents on +"i" t"ose soieties rested "!d $een iported fro e0io%

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T"e ri,er ,!lleys of so-t"e!stern A-str!li! re!ined o-pied $y tri$!l soieties +it"o-t!#ri-lt-re%

Yet !not"er type of e0pl!n!tion lists t"e iedi!te f!tors t"!t en!$led E-rope!ns to 7ill oron/-er ot"er peoplesort"is $oo7( "ere is s-" ! sentene History follo+ed different o-rses for different peoples$e!-se of differenes !on# peoples; en,ironents( not $e!-se of $iolo#i!l differenes!on# peoples t"esel,es%B

N!t-r!lly( t"e notion t"!t en,ironent!l #eo#r!p"y !nd $io#eo#r!p"y infl-ened soiet!lde,elopent is !n old ide!% No+!d!ys( t"o-#"( t"e ,ie+ is not "eld in estee $y "istori!ns

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it is onsidered +ron# or siplisti( or it is !ri!t-red !s en,ironent!l deterinis !nddisissed( or else t"e +"ole s-$:et of tryin# to -nderst!nd +orld+ide differenes iss"el,ed !s too diffi-lt% Yet #eo#r!p"y o$,io-sly "!s soe effet on "istory t"e open/-estion onerns "o+ -" effet( !nd +"et"er #eo#r!p"y !n !o-nt for "istory;s $ro!dp!ttern%

T"e tie is no+ ripe for ! fres" loo7 !t t"ese /-estions( $e!-se of ne+ infor!tion frosientifi disiplines seein#ly reote fro "-!n "istory% T"ose disiplines inl-de(!$o,e !ll( #enetis( ole-l!r $iolo#y( !nd $io#eo#r!p"y !s !pplied to rops !nd t"eir +ild!nestors t"e s!e disiplines pl-s $e"!,ior!l eolo#y( !s !pplied to doesti !ni!ls !nd

t"eir +ild !nestors ole-l!r $iolo#y of "-!n #ers !nd rel!ted #ers of !ni!lsepideiolo#y of "-!n dise!ses "-!n #enetis lin#-istis !r"!eolo#i!l st-dies on !llontinents !nd !:or isl!nds !nd st-dies of t"e "istories of te"nolo#y( +ritin#( !ndpoliti!l or#!ni1!tion%

T"is di,ersity of disiplines poses pro$les for +o-ld.$e !-t"ors of ! $oo7 !ied !t!ns+erin# Y!li;s /-estion% T"e !-t"or -st possess ! r!n#e of e0pertise sp!nnin# t"e !$o,edisiplines( so t"!t rele,!nt !d,!nes !n $e synt"esi1ed% T"e "istory !nd pre"istory ofe!" ontinent -st $e siil!rly synt"esi1ed% T"e $oo7;s s-$:et !tter is "istory( $-t t"e!ppro!" is t"!t of sieneor t"e l!st '' ye!rs y field+or7 !s !n e,ol-tion!ry $iolo#ist "!s $ro-#"t e into loseont!t +it" ! +ide r!n#e of "-!n soieties% y spei!lty is $ird e,ol-tion( +"i" I "!,est-died in So-t" Aeri!( so-t"ern Afri!( Indonesi!( A-str!li!( !nd espei!lly Ne+8-ine!% T"ro-#" li,in# +it" n!ti,e peoples of t"ese !re!s( I "!,e $eoe f!ili!r +it"!ny te"nolo#i!lly priiti,e "-!n soieties( fro t"ose of "-nter.#!t"erers to t"ose oftri$!l f!rers !nd fis"in# peoples +"o depended -ntil reently on stone tools% T"-s( +"!t

ost liter!te people +o-ld onsider str!n#e lifestyles of reote pre"istory !re for e t"eost ,i,id p!rt of y life% Ne+ 8-ine!( t"o-#" it !o-nts for only ! s!ll fr!tion of t"e+orld;s l!nd !re!( enop!sses ! disproportion!te fr!tion of its "-!n di,ersity% Of t"eodern +orld;s G())) l!n#-!#es( &())) !re onfined to Ne+ 8-ine!% In t"e o-rse of y+or7 on Ne+ 8-ine! $irds( y interests in l!n#-!#e +ere re7indled( $y t"e need to eliitlists of lo!l n!es of $ird speies in ne!rly &)) of t"ose Ne+ 8-ine! l!n#-!#es%

O-t of !ll t"ose interests #re+ y ost reent $oo7( ! nonte"ni!l !o-nt of "-!ne,ol-tion entitled T"e T"ird C"ip!n1ee% Its C"!pter &F( !lled Aident!l Con/-erors(Bso-#"t to -nderst!nd t"e o-toe of t"e eno-nter $et+een E-rope!ns !nd N!ti,eAeri!ns% After I "!d opleted t"!t $oo7( I re!li1ed t"!t ot"er odern( !s +ell !spre"istori( eno-nters $et+een peoples r!ised siil!r /-estions% I s!+ t"!t t"e /-estion+it" +"i" I "!d +restled in t"!t C"!pter &F +!s in essene t"e /-estion Y!li "!d !s7ed ein &562( erely tr!nsferred to ! different p!rt of t"e +orld% And so !t l!st( +it" t"e "elp of!ny friends( I s"!ll !ttept to s!tisfy Y!li;s -riosity

T"is $oo7;s "!pters !re di,ided into fo-r p!rts% P!rt &( entitled >ro Eden to C!:!!r!(Bonsists of t"ree "!pters% C"!pter & pro,ides ! +"irl+ind to-r of "-!n e,ol-tion !nd"istory( e0tendin# fro o-r di,er#ene fro !pes( !ro-nd 6 illion ye!rs !#o( -ntil t"e endof t"e l!st Ie A#e( !ro-nd &'())) ye!rs !#o% We s"!ll tr!e t"e spre!d of !nestr!l "-!ns(fro o-r ori#ins in Afri! to t"e ot"er ontinents( in order to -nderst!nd t"e st!te of t"e+orld :-st $efore t"e e,ents often l-ped into t"e ter rise of i,ili1!tionB $e#!n% It t-rnso-t t"!t "-!n de,elopent on soe ontinents #ot ! "e!d st!rt in tie o,er de,elopentson ot"ers%

C"!pter 2 prep!res -s for e0plorin# effets of ontinent!l en,ironents on "istory o,er t"e

p!st &'())) ye!rs( $y $riefly e0!inin# effets of isl!nd en,ironents on "istory o,ers!ller tie s!les !nd !re!s% W"en !nestr!l Polynesi!ns spre!d into t"e P!ifi !ro-nd'(2)) ye!rs !#o( t"ey eno-ntered isl!nds differin# #re!tly in t"eir en,ironents% Wit"in !fe+ illenni! t"!t sin#le !nestr!l Polynesi!n soiety "!d sp!+ned on t"ose di,erse isl!nds! r!n#e of di,erse d!-#"ter soieties( fro "-nter.#!t"erer tri$es to proto.epires% T"!tr!di!tion !n ser,e !s ! odel for t"e lon#er( l!r#er.s!le( !nd less -nderstood r!di!tion ofsoieties on different ontinents sine t"e end of t"e l!st Ie A#e( to $eoe ,!rio-sly"-nter.#!t"erer tri$es !nd epires%

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T"e t"ird "!pter introd-es -s to ollisions $et+een peoples fro different ontinents( $yretellin# t"ro-#" ontepor!ry eye+itness !o-nts t"e ost dr!!ti s-" eno-nter in"istory t"e !pt-re of t"e l!st independent In! eperor( At!"-!llp!( in t"e presene of "is+"ole !ry( $y >r!niso Pi1!rro !nd "is tiny $!nd of on/-ist!dores( !t t"e Per-,i!n ityof C!:!!r!% We !n identify t"e "!in of pro0i!te f!tors t"!t en!$led Pi1!rro to!pt-re At!"-!llp!( !nd t"!t oper!ted in E-rope!n on/-ests of ot"er N!ti,e Aeri!nsoieties !s +ell% T"ose f!tors inl-ded Sp!nis" #ers( "orses( liter!y( politi!lor#!ni1!tion( !nd te"nolo#y ?espei!lly s"ips !nd +e!pons@% T"!t !n!lysis of pro0i!te!-ses is t"e e!sy p!rt of t"is $oo7 t"e "!rd p!rt is to identify t"e -lti!te !-ses le!din#to t"e !nd to t"e !t-!l o-toe( r!t"er t"!n to t"e opposite possi$le o-toe ofAt!"-!llp!;s oin# to !drid !nd !pt-rin# Kin# C"!rles I of Sp!in%

P!rt 2( entitled T"e Rise !nd Spre!d of >ood Prod-tionB !nd onsistin# of C"!pters F.&)(is de,oted to +"!t I $elie,e to $e t"e ost iport!nt onstell!tion of -lti!te !-ses%C"!pter F s7et"es "o+ food prod-tion

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t"e A-stronesi!n e0p!nsion( siil!rly repl!ed t"e indi#eno-s "-nter.#!t"erers of t"eP"ilippines !nd Indonesi! !nd spre!d o-t to t"e ost reote isl!nds of Polynesi!( $-t +!s-n!$le to oloni1e A-str!li! !nd ost of Ne+ 8-ine!% To t"e st-dent of +orld "istory( !llt"ose ollisions !on# E!st Asi!n !nd P!ifi peoples !re do-$ly iport!nt t"ey foredt"e o-ntries +"ere one.t"ird of t"e odern +orld;s pop-l!tion li,es( !nd in +"i"eonoi po+er is inre!sin#ly $eoin# onentr!ted !nd t"ey f-rnis" espei!lly le!rodels for -nderst!ndin# t"e "istories of peoples else+"ere in t"e +orld%

C"!pter & ret-rns to t"e pro$le introd-ed in C"!pter '( t"e ollision $et+een E-rope!n!nd N!ti,e Aeri!n peoples% A s-!ry of t"e l!st &'())) ye!rs of Ne+ World !nd+estern E-r!si!n "istory !7es le!r "o+ E-rope;s on/-est of t"e Aeri!s +!s erelyt"e -lin!tion of t+o lon# !nd ostly sep!r!te "istori!l tr!:etories% T"e differenes$et+een t"ose tr!:etories +ere st!ped $y ontinent!l differenes in doesti!$le pl!nts!nd !ni!ls( #ers( ties of settleent( orient!tion of ontinent!l !0es( !nd eolo#i!l$!rriers%

>in!lly( t"e "istory of s-$.S!"!r!n Afri! ?C"!pter &5@ offers stri7in# siil!rities !s +ell !sontr!sts +it" Ne+ World "istory% T"e s!e f!tors t"!t olded E-rope!ns; eno-nters+it" Afri!ns olded t"eir eno-nters +it" N!ti,e Aeri!ns !s +ell% 9-t Afri! !lsodiffered fro t"e Aeri!s in !ll t"ese f!tors% As ! res-lt( E-rope!n on/-est did notre!te +idespre!d or l!stin# E-rope!n settleent of s-$.S!"!r!n Afri!( e0ept in t"e f!rso-t"% Of ore l!stin# si#nifi!ne +!s ! l!r#e.s!le pop-l!tion s"ift +it"in Afri! itself(t"e 9!nt- e0p!nsion% It pro,es to "!,e $een tri##ered $y !ny of t"e s!e !-ses t"!tpl!yed t"esel,es o-t !t C!:!!r!( in E!st Asi!( on P!ifi isl!nds( !nd in A-str!li! !ndNe+ 8-ine!%

I "!r$or no ill-sions t"!t t"ese "!pters "!,e s-eeded in e0pl!inin# t"e "istories of !ll t"eontinents for t"e p!st &'())) ye!rs% O$,io-sly( t"!t +o-ld $e ipossi$le to !oplis" in! sin#le $oo7 e,en if +e did -nderst!nd !ll t"e !ns+ers( +"i" +e don;t% At $est( t"is $oo7identifies se,er!l onstell!tions of en,ironent!l f!tors t"!t I $elie,e pro,ide ! l!r#e p!rtof t"e !ns+er to Y!li;s /-estion% Reo#nition of t"ose f!tors ep"!si1es t"e -ne0pl!inedresid-e( +"ose -nderst!ndin# +ill $e ! t!s7 for t"e f-t-re%

T"e Epilo#-e( entitled T"e >-t-re of H-!n History !s ! Siene(B l!ys o-t soe pieesof t"e resid-e( inl-din# t"e pro$le of t"e differenes $et+een different p!rts of E-r!si!(t"e role of -lt-r!l f!tors -nrel!ted to en,ironent( !nd t"e role of indi,id-!ls% Per"!ps

t"e $i##est of t"ese -nsol,ed pro$les is to est!$lis" "-!n "istory !s ! "istori!l siene(on ! p!r +it" reo#ni1ed "istori!l sienes s-" !s e,ol-tion!ry $iolo#y( #eolo#y( !ndli!tolo#y% T"e st-dy of "-!n "istory does pose re!l diffi-lties( $-t t"ose reo#ni1ed

"istori!l sienes eno-nter soe of t"e s!e "!llen#es% Hene t"e et"ods de,eloped insoe of t"ese ot"er fields !y !lso pro,e -sef-l in t"e field of "-!n "istory%

Alre!dy( t"o-#"( I "ope to "!,e on,ined yo-( t"e re!der( t"!t "istory is not :-st oned!n f!t !fter !not"er(B !s ! yni p-t it% T"ere re!lly !re $ro!d p!tterns to "istory( !nd t"ese!r" for t"eir e0pl!n!tion is !s prod-ti,e !s it is f!sin!tin#%

Reading Questions&% W"!t is Y!lis /-estion W"y does Di!ond s-##est t"!t t"e /-estion "!s o,er+"elin#pr!ti!l !nd politi!l iport!neB W"!t do yo- t"in7 "e e!ns +"en "e s!ys t"!t t"e

/-estion in,ol,es t"e $ro!dest p!ttern of "istoryB

2% Di!ond s!ys on p!#e 2( MTe"nolo#i!l !nd politi!l differenes !s of A%D% &3))+ere t"e iedi!te !-se of t"e +orlds odern ine/-!lities%B Do yo- !#ree Wo-ld yo-!dd or "!n#e !nyt"in# !$o-t t"!t st!teent

'% W"!t !re t"ree oon o$:etions !de to+!rd !nyone +"o tries to !ns+er Y!lis/-estion !nd "o+ does Di!ond respond to t"ose o$:etions

F% Ho+ does Di!ond tre!t t"e end-rin# $elief t"!t r!i!l differenes !o-nt for t"e $ro!dp!tterns in "istory Or t"!t li!te differenes !y $e t"e so-re of differene

3% Y!lis /-estion le!ds -s to !s7 +"y E-rope!ns ended -p +it" +ritin#( politi!l systes(#-ns( infetio-s dise!ses( steel tools( !nd !n-f!t-red prod-tsB $efore ot"er peoples%W"!t is Di!onds t"esis !nd +"!t does "e t"in7 is t"e +!y to !ns+er t"!t /-estion

G% W"!t !re t"e positi,e !nd ne#!ti,e sides of !pplyin# sientifi rese!r" et"ods to t"e st-dyof "istory W"!t ot"er disiplines o-ld $e !pplied to t"e st-dy of "istory W"!t !re t"e!d,!nt!#es !nd dis!d,!nt!#es of doin# so

6% On t"e l!st p!#e Di!ond -ses t"e p"r!se se,er!l onstell!tions of en,ironent!l f!torsBto desri$e "is !ns+er to Y!lis /-estion% W"!t do yo- t"in7 "e e!ns

% Ho+ +o-ld yo- desri$e Di!ond;s +ritin# style S-pport yo-r !ns+er +it" speifip!ss!#es( p"r!ses( or sentenes fro t"e re!din#%