January 31st, 2012

Extremely Difficult.

Suetonius and Cassius Dio our fullest source; Broad agreement.

Tacitus’ account of Caligula’s reign missing.

Philo, In Flaccum and Legatio ad Gaium.

Universally despised by all sources; a balanced view impossible.

Description fits the caricature typically applied to tyrants in Greco-Roman lit.

Very brief reign (37-41 CE). Wildly popular in the very beginning. Quickly degenerates into cruelty and depravity.

Ways of Approaching Caligula in the Sources:

Take the accounts at face value (i.e. Caligula was insane).

More critical scrutiny (i.e. Hated because he admitted that the role of Princeps was that of a monarch and behaved accordingly; An inexperienced young man with a deplorable family history suddenly given absolute power); Reputation blackened further by ascribing stereotypical features of the tyrant.

No question that Caligula’s reign had an impact that exceeded its brevity.

B. Aug 31st, 12 CE in Antium to Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder.

Accompanied father on campaigns; paraded as “mascot” in military uniform and caliga (military boots).

19 CE – Father Germanicus dead.27 CE – Sent to live with Livia (i.e. Wife of

Augustus; Great-grandmother).29 CE – Livia dead; Caligula sent to live with

grandmother Antonia.31-37 CE – Residing on Capri with Tiberius;

honorary quaestorship (33 CE).

“There was no appearance of the triumphant general about Germanicus, and he seemed to be in a conquered city rather than in his own camp, while groans and wailings attracted the ears and looks even of the soldiers. They came out of their tents, asking "what was that mournful sound? What meant the sad sight? Here were ladies of rank, not a centurion to escort them, not a soldier, no sign of a prince's wife, none of the usual retinue. Could they be going to the Treveri, to be subjects of the foreigner?" Then they felt shame and pity, and remembered his father Agrippa, her grandfather Augustus, her father-in-law Drusus, her own glory as a mother of children, her noble purity. And there was her little child too, born in the camp, brought up amid the tents of the legions, whom they used to call in soldiers' fashion, Caligula, because he often wore the shoe so called, to win the men's goodwill.”

(Translated by Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb

http://classics.mit.edu/Tacitus/annals.1.i.html)

37 CE – Tiberius dead; Caligula and Tiberius Gemellus named co-emperors; Caligula orders Gemellus’ death; received full support of Praetorian Prefect (Q. Sutorius Macro); donativum paid to Praetorian guard; ended the treason inquiries of Tiberius; recalled exiles; holds consulship with Claudius.

38 CE – Death and deification of sister (Drusilla); sparks riots between Jews and non-Jews in Alexandria; Macro forced to commit suicide.

39-40 CE – Confiscations and excessive taxation; Conspiracy of Lepidus and Gaetulicus; mass arrests and executions; sisters sent into exile; “Campaigns” vs. Britons and Germans.

41 CE – Praetorian guard conspires to assassinate Caligula; Support from Senate and Imperial Freedmen; Praetorian tribune, Cassius Chaerea kills Caligula; Senate discusses restoration of Republic; Praetorian guard hails Claudius as emperor.

Greatly shaped by his “madness.”

Autocratic tyrant.

Abusive toward the political elite.

Prodigal.

Megalomaniac but not engaged/interested in the work of Princeps.

Political and Military inertia.

Senate , people, and family history partly to blame.

“Caligula’s accession seemed to the Roman people – one might almost say, to the whole world – like a dream come true. The memory of Germanicus and compassion for a family that had been practically wiped out by successive murders, made most provincials and soldiers, many of whom had known him as a child, and the entire population of Rome as well, show extravagant joy that he was now Emperor. When he escorted Tiberius’ catafalque from Misenum to Rome he was, of course, dressed in mourning, but a dense crowd greeted him uproariously with altars, sacrifices, torches, and such endearments as ‘star’, ‘chicken’, ‘baby’, and ‘pet.’ On his arrival in the City the Senate (and a mob of commoners who had forced their way into the House) immediately and unanimously conferred absolute power on him. They set aside Tiberius’ will – which made his other grandson, then still a child, joint-heir with Caligula – and so splendid were the celebrations that 160,000 victims were publically sacrificed during the next three months, or perhaps even a shorter period.” (Suet. Gaius, 13-14. Trans. R. Graves, 1957)

“As fellow Consul he chose his uncle Claudius, who had hitherto been a mere knight….The names of Caligula’s sisters were now included in the official oath which everyone had to take, and which ran: ‘…I will not value my life or that of my children less highly than I do the safety of the Emperor Gaius and his sisters!’ – and in the Consular motions, as follows: ‘Good fortune attend the Emperor Gaius and his sisters!’”

(Suet. Gaius, 15. Trans. R. Graves, 1957)

“Nor was he any more respectful or considerate in his dealings with the Senate, but made some of the highest officials run for miles beside his chariot, dressed in their gowns; or wait in short linen tunics at the head or foot of his dining couch. Often he would send for men he had secretly killed, as though they were still alive, and remark offhandedly a few days later that they must have committed suicide. When two Consuls forgot to announce his birthday, he dismissed them and left the country for three days without officers of state. One of his quaestors was charged with conspiracy; Caligula had his clothes stripped off and spread on the ground, to give the soldiers who flogged him a firmer foothold.”

(Suet. Gaius, 26. Trans. R. Graves, 1957)

Insisted on divine honors while living:

“And he nearly assumed a royal diadem then and there, doing away with the pretense that he was merely the chief executive of a republic. However, after his courtiers reminded him that he already outranked any king or tribal chieftain, he insisted on being treated as a god – sending for the most revered or artistically famous statues of the Greek deities (including that of Jupiter at Olympia), and having their heads replaced by his own.” (Suet. Gaius. 22. Trans. R. Graves, 1957)

Tension with Jews in Alexandria and Jerusalem.

Squandered money on lavish spectacles (Gladiatorial shows; Chariot races; Theatrical productions; Distributions; Private Luxury).

“No parallel can be found for Caligula’s far-fetched extravagances. He invented new kinds of baths, and the most unnatural dishes and drinks – bathing in hot and cold perfumes, drinking valuable pearls dissolved in vinegar, and providing his guests with golden bread and meat….” (Suet. Gaius. 37. Trans. R. Graves, 1957).

Bankrupted the imperial treasury. “…in less than a year he squandered Tiberius’ entire fortune of 27 million

gold pieces, and an enormous amount of other treasure beside.” (Suet. Gaius. 37. Trans. R. Graves, 1957)

Recovered expenses by plundering the state. “When bankrupt and in need of funds, Caligula concentrated on wickedly

ingenious methods of raising funds by false accusations, auctions and taxes.” (Suet. Gaius. 38. Trans. R. Graves, 1957)

Undertook no military activies.

Desired a military reputation.

Bogus campaigns v. Germans and Britains.

Bogus triumph.

“In the end he drew up his army in battle array facing the Channel and moved the siege engines into position as though he intended to bring the campaign to a close. No one had the least notion what was in his mind when, suddenly, he gave the order: ‘Gather sea-shells!” He referred to the shells as “plunder from the sea, due to the Capitol and the Palace,’ and made the troops fill their helmets and tunic-laps with them; commemorating this victory by the erection of a tall lighthouse….Then he promised every soldier a bounty of four gold pieces, and told them: ‘Go rich, go happy!’ as though he had been excessively generous.”

(Suet. Gaius. 46. Trans. R. Graves, 1957)

Quite clearly insane.

Cowardly.

Egomaniac.

Sadistic.

Sexual Pervert.

“I am convinced that his brain-sickness accounted for his two contradictory vices – over-confidence and timorousness….Despite his fearful threats against the barbarians, he showed so little courage after he crossed the Rhine and gone riding in a chariot through a defile, that when someone happened to remark: ‘What a panic there would be if the enemy suddenly appeared!’ he leaped on a horse and galloped backed to the bridges. These were crowded with army transports, but he had himself passed hand to hand over his men’s heads, in his haste to regain the farther bank.”

(Suet. Gaius. 51. Trans. R. Graves, 1957)

“Caligula practised many other arts, most enthusiastically too. He made appearances as a Thracian gladiator, as a singer, as a dancer, fought with real weapons, and drove chariots in many regional circuses. Indeed, he was so proud of his voice and deportment that he could not resist the temptation of supporting the tragic actors at public performances; and would repeat their gestures by way of praise or criticism.”

(Suet. Gaius. 54. Trans. R. Graves, 1957)

“Because of his baldness and hairiness he announced that it was a capital offence for anyone to look down on him as he passed or to mention goats in any context.”

(Suet. Gaius. 50. Trans. R. Graves, 1957)

Too many acts of cruelty to enumerate: “So much for Caligula the Emperor; the rest of this history must needs deal with Caligula the monster.” (Suet. Gaius. 22. Trans. R. Graves, 1957)

(25) – Slept with senator’s wives (even on their wedding nights).

(27) – Forced parents to attend the execution of their own children.

(32) – Was present for all trials conducted under torture.

“The method of execution he preferred was to inflict numerous small wounds, avoiding the prisoner’s vital organs; and his familiar order: ‘Make him feel that he’s dying!’ soon became proverbial.” (Suet. Gaius. 30. Trans. R. Graves, 1957)

“It was his habit to commit incest with each of his three sisters in turn and, at large banquets, when his wife reclined above him, placed them all in turn below him….Later he took Drusilla from her husband, the ex-Consul Lucius Cassius Longinus, treating her quite unashamedly as his wife….” (Suet. Gaius. 24. Trans. R. Graves, 1957)

“It would be hard to say whether the way he got married, the way he dissolved his marriages, or the way he behaved as a husband was the most disgraceful. He attended the wedding ceremony of Gaius Piso and Livia Orestilla, but had the bride carried off to his own home.” (Suet. Gaius. 25. Trans. R. Graves, 1957)

“Caesonia was neither young nor beautiful, and three daughters by a former husband, besides being recklessly extravagant and utterly promiscuous; yet he loved her with a passionate faithfulness and often, when reviewing the troops, used to take her out riding in helmet, cloak, and shield. For his friends, he even paraded her naked….” (Suet. Gaius. 25. Trans. R. Graves, 1957)

Dysfunctional Family Life? “He named the child Julia Drusilla; and he carried her around the temples of all the goddesses in turn before finally entrusting her, whom he called upon to supervise his daughter’s growth and education. What finally convinced him of his own paternity was her violent temper; while still an infant she would try to scratch out her little playmates’ eyes.” (Suet. Gaius. 25 Trans. R. Graves, 1957)

Ultimately motivated by a personal conflict with Cassius Chaerea.

Charea’s dislike for Caligula broadly shared.

Evidence for earlier attempts (i.e. Lepidus and Gaetulicus plot).

Brewing revolt on the Rhine.

“Before leaving Gaul he planned, in a sudden access of cruelty, to massacre the legionaries who, at the news of Augustus’ death, had mutinously besieged his father Germanicus’s headquarters; he had been there himself as a little child. His friends barely restrained him from carrying this plan out, and he could not be dissuaded from ordering the execution of every tenth man; for which reason they had to parade without swords or javelins, and surrounded by armed horsemen. But when he noticed that an number of legionaries, scenting trouble, were slipping away to fetch their weapons, he hurriedly absconded and headed straight for Rome.” (Suet. Gaius. 25 Trans. R. Graves, 1957)

“Such frantic and reckless behaviour roused murderous thoughts in certain minds. One or two plots for his assassination were discovered; others were still maturing, when two Guards colonels put their heads together and succeeded in killing him, thanks to the cooperation of his most powerful freedmen and some other Guards officers. Both of these colonels had been accused of being implicated in a previous plot and, although innocent, realized that Caligula hated and feared them. Once, in fact, he had subjected them to public shame and suspicion, taking them aside and announcing, as he waved a sword, that he would gladly kill himself if they thought him deserving of death. After this he accused them again and again, each to the other, and tried to make bad blood between them. At last they decided to kill him about noon at the conclusion of the Palatine Games, the principal part in this drama of blood being claimed by Cassius Chaerea. Caligula had persistently teased Cassius, who was no longer young, for his supposed effeminacy. Whenever he demanded the watchword, Caligula used to give him ‘Priapus,’ or ‘Venus’; and if he came to acknowledge a favour, always stuck out his middle finger to kiss, and waggled it obscenely.”

(Suet. Gaius. 56 Trans. R. Graves, 1957)

Is Suetonius’ account of Caligula’s depravity mere sensationalism or do you think that it rings true? Explain.

What do you think is the cause(s) behind Caligula’s erratic behavior.

Is it possible that the salacious details of Caligula’s life have made a balanced account impossible?

What secrets about the Principate did Caligula’s reign reveal?