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Status of Military Psychology in India: A Review

Swati Mukherjee, Updesh Kumar, and Manas K. MandalDefence Institute of Psychological Research, Delhi

A review of research in the field of Military Psychology and an appraisal of therecent trends indicate an ever increasing interaction of the sub-discipline with otherapplied fields of psychology and the discipline of psychology in general. However,a distinct lack of scientific reporting of the studies in Indian context is evident. Thepresent paper is an attempt to overview Military Psychology and traces its growthover the years in India. It discusses the challenges of research in Military Psychologyand the unique opportunities that the field provides. Recent researches beingconducted in the discipline world over are reviewed in the context of currentendeavours in the country, and a perspective for the future is proposed. A need forenhancing interaction with the academia and popularising the sub-discipline isunderlined.

Military Psychology is a unique sub-disciplineof Psychology that determines its boundariesnot by subject content or methods ofconducting research, but by the requirementsof the user (the armed forces). A review of theavailable literature reveals the abundance ofresearch being carried out the world over,although there is a marked lack of suchpublished research in the Indian context. Thepresent paper attempts to fill this void byproviding an overview of the developments inthe field of Military Psychology in India fromits origin till date. this paper emphasises theuniqueness of Military Psychology researchand highlights its prospects in India andchallenges it presents. In view of rapidlychanging world scenario and modernisationof warfare the scope of psychological researchspecific to the military is discussed in thecontext of similar research developments theworld over.

Military Psychology is defined by theapplication of psychological principles andtheories to the military context (Mangelsdorff& Gal, 1991). It is a broad, complex, andspecialised field where knowledge gainedfrom various other branches of psychology (for

example, experimental, social, clinical,organisational, and personality) converges.Military Psychology includes a vast array ofactivities in psychological research,assessment, and treatment. Concerns that arerelevant for industrial-organisationalpsychology and the issues of assessment,diagnosis and treatment as understoodthrough clinical psychology form importantaspects of Military Psychology endeavours,since developments in these research areasdirectly help the military in managing the hugemanpower inherent in it. Yet, MilitaryPsychology, by virtue of its vastness andvariedness, goes much beyond these andexplores specific and special concerns uniqueto the military environment. Although largelyguided by the users requirements, MilitaryPsychology does not restrict its researchdomain to applied fields; it providesresearchers with ample opportunity toinvestigate basic issues of science and to testtheir application on ground. It is, therefore, aunique opportunity that Military Psychologyoffers to a researcher to be able to explorethe domains of basic as well as appliedresearch at the same time.

Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied PsychologyJuly 2009, Vol. 35, No. 2, 181-194.

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Military Psychology has a vibrant bilateralrelationship with the discipline of Psychology.The two grow together in tandem-developments and advancements made inone being reflected beautifully in the other.Mangelsdorff and Gal (1991) and morerecently Kennedy and McNeil (2006) havetraced the growth of Military Psychology in theU.S.A., and the significant contributions it hasmade to the various other fields of Psychology.Military Psychology: A Brief Review ofRecent Research Trends

Military Psychology issues and concernsare such that each nation needs to develop itsown solutions. However, an appraisal of theresearch trends in other countries might wellserve the purpose of updating knowledge andhelp keep one abreast. A brief review of recentresearch reveals the heterogeneity in the areaof Military Psychology and allied disciplines.Ensuring psychological wellbeing of the troopsand providing clinical intervention in times ofcrisis has always been a priority. Efforts arecontinuously being made in adapting clinicalapproaches to the military requirement. TheU. K. Royal Navy, for example, has developedan intensive psycho-educational managementstrategy for dealing with posttraumatic stressdisorder based on peer group risk assessment(Gould, Greenberg, & Hetherton, 2007). Thecrisis theory (Bar Eli & Tenebaum, 1989) andrelated approaches are being used fordetermining individual affect relatedperformance zones (Kamata, Tenebaum, &Hanin, 2002). The crisis theory delineates theuniqueness of each individuals ability toappraise stressful conditions as functional ordysfunctional to his performance, andincorporates self-regulatory behaviours andcoping strategies used during the encounterwith situations, which vary in stress appraisal.This approach has been found to havepractical utility for military jobs that invariablyinvolve functioning in high stress situations(Tenebaum, Edmonds, & Eccles, 2008).

Military performance of a troop dependslargely on the nature of its leadership.Psychological research on leadership hasdealt mainly with the influence of leadershipas an independent variable (Bass, 1990).Motivation to Lead (MTL) is a recent constructintroduced by Chan (1999) that incorporatesthree factors: affective MTL, social-normativeMTL, and calculative MTL. MTL has beenexamined and expanded as a leadershipmodel for the Israel Defense Forces (Amit,Lisak, Popper, & Gal, 2007). Decision makingis a critical task for any leader, more so for amilitary leader since dependent on a militaryleaders decision are the security of the nationand the lives of his men. Operationalpsychology is an emerging sub-discipline ofMilitary Psychology that enhances militaryscombat capabilities by making use ofpsychological principles and skills to improvea commanders decision making (Stephenson& Staal, 2007).

Military Psychology derives its strengthfrom its multi disciplinary nature and character.Often parallels are drawn between the subjectmatter and methods of Military Psychology andSports and Police Psychology. Police andMilitary Psychology both address thecognitive, perceptual, emotional, andbehavioural aspects performance in extremeconditions. Operational and clinical challengeslike crisis intervention and stress managementremain the same for both, and hence can crosscontribute to each other (Miller, 2008). Thereis a recent emphasis on finding the potentialways of adopting methods and concepts fromthe disciplines that contribute to MilitaryPsychology. The study of expert performanceis one such area where a plethora of researchhas been conducted in Sports Psychology.Identification of factors responsible for expertperformance and designing appropriatetraining modules and support mechanisms isof vital importance for performance both insports and the military (Williams, Ericsson,Ward, & Eccles, 2008). Technological and

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methodological advancement have led tophysiological assessments of expertise insports psychology. Innovations linkingphysiology, basic cognitive processes, andperformance have led to a finer understandingof factors behind learning and performanceat exceptional levels. Applicability of theseissues in the military context is being exploredand confirmed (Janelle & Hatfield, 2008).

With the changing nature of warfare, therole of military psychologists has expandedmanifold. It now extends beyond the traditionalareas of expertise like counselling andconsultation, and testing and assessment.Preparing for multiple-role relationships whilebeing deployed as an embedded member witha military unit (Johnson, Ralph, & Johnson,2005), managing the ethical considerations bymaintaining a balance between professionalcommitment and organisational requirementswhile dealing with mental health issues andclinical consultation within the military unit(McCauley, Hughes, & Liebling, 2008), andproviding services to a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural force that has to function effectively invaried environments, with various people theworld over (Kennedy, Jones, & Arita, 2007) aresome of the challenges for which militarypsychologists have to prepare themselves.Military Psychology in India

Military Psychology is a relatively recentdevelopment in the context of India.Psychology as a modern scientific disciplinebegan in India with the establishment of thedepartment of psychology in CalcuttaUniversity in the year 1915, closely followedby Mysore (1924) and Patna (1946) (seePandey, 2001). It was around the time of theSecond World War that Military Psychologyfound its beginnings in India, though on a verylow key basis, it was mainly concerned withthe selection of personnel for the military. Abrief chronology of events that shaped the fieldof Military Psychology in India is given in Table1.

Table 1: A brief chronology of events shapingthe field of Military Psychology in India

Year Event1942 Recruitment of Armed Forces Officers

integrated at Directorate of Recruitingin the Adjutant Generals Branch at theGeneral Headquarters.

1943 War Officer Selection Boardestablished at Dehradun to applyscientific (Psychological) method ofselection.

1943 Selection of Personnel Directoratecreated at the Recruiting Directorateto deal with research regarding newtechnique of selection.

1944 Psychological method of selection ofOther Ranks applied on experimentalbasis.

1945 Psychological method of selection ofOther Ranks applied on functionalbasis.

1949 Ghosh Committee Reportrecommended removal of psychiatricinterview for officers selection andestablishment of PsychologicalResearch Wing.

1949 Psychological Research Wing (PRW)established at Delhi.

1950 Identification of 39 Qualities (groupedinto five factors) for selection of officers.

1950 Standardisation of Interview Technique.1950 Pilot Aptitude Battery Test implemented

for testing flying aptitude.1952 Standardisation of G. T. O. Technique.1956 Naval Psychological Research Unit

(NPRU) established at Cochin.1962 PRW renamed Directorate of

Psychological Research (DPR).1962 Applied Psychological Laboratory

dedicated to psychomotor research andhuman engineering established as alower formation under DPR.

1962 Psychological method of selection re-introduced on experimental basis forinfantry soldiers.

1982 DPR renamed Defence Institute ofPsychological Research

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Psychology found a place in the militaryefforts in the form of application of scientificprinciples to the selection of military personnel.Although the importance of psychologicalapplications in the military was realised duringWorld War I, it was firmly established by theSecond World War. Many countries createdbehaviour science research groups during thisperiod. The focus of research in these initialyears remained on psychological screening,selection and recruitment.

The pioneers of Military Psychology inIndia faced many unique challenges.Selection of officers and men for the armedforces was one of the major responsibilitiesof military psychologists. The first problem wasof deciding upon the qualities to be assessedbefore beginning the actual selection process.Job analyses were conducted for the officersand the Other Ranks (Ors) of all the services.Assessors were trained to effectively apply thepsychological technique of selection. Thepsychological tests used for personnelselection were validated on Indian samplesbefore being used. Besides ascertaining thevalidity and reliability of the selection tools, itwas also felt essential that these tests mustbe adapted as per the needs of the Indiancandidates. Many unique and noveladaptations of the original tests weredeveloped and tried. Job profiles were drawnon the basis of job analyses, the impact oftraining on performance was assessed, theprocedure of officers selection wasstandardised, qualities of an average officerwere delineated, officer quality rating scalewas developed, accessibility of the officer likequalities by different techniques wasinvestigated, and job summaries for differentjobs were prepared. The three techniquesemployed for officers selection- the interviewtechnique, group testing technique, andpsychological technique- were graduallyrefined. Significant research was conductedin the area of intelligence and personalitymeasurement, especially through projective

techniques. Thorough follow-up studies werecarried out and selection results werecompared with training results to ensure thepredictive validity of selection methods.Training modules were also developed fordifferent trades and ranks.

Soon researchers began to venturebeyond selection and assessment and tookup projects to examine issues that have directrelevance and applicability to the problemsfaced by the armed forces, like thepsychological effect of extreme conditions,factors causing maladjustment to activeservice conditions, applicability of techniquesof social psychology, factors leading militarypersonnel to suicide, etc. Basic techniques forpsychological warfare were developed. Somebasic research was also conducted, likeinvestigation of the effect of closed in spaceson mental ability, psychological study of flyinghazards, effect of distracting noises on visualefficiency, psycho-physiological mechanism inrelation to flying, relationship between age andintelligence, factor analysis of the intelligencetests.

Summarily, the initial era in MilitaryPsychology in India encompassed a widespectrum- from selection, trade allocation,organisational behaviour to man-machineinterface and ideology. Importance ofleadership qualities in the armed forcesofficers was realised and various researchprojects focused on exploring the issuesinvolved in assessment of leadership andtraining for leadership qualities wereundertaken. A framework for training ofleadership in the army was developed.Concerns regarding the mental health andpsychological well-being of the soldiers beganto emerge. Precipitating factors of psychiatricillness in the military were explored.Psychological aspects of sexual deprivationand isolation in the military context wereinvestigated. The problems faced by disabledsoldiers and issues pertaining to maintainingtheir morale were explored.

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Concerns regarding the scientificselection of officers and other ranks thatemerged as early as the Second World War,and the efforts made to ensure the same,ultimately led to the establishment of aninstitute dedicated to military personnelselection. The research endeavours of thisinstitute however are not confined to personnelselection. It has now emerged as the first andonly premier agency in the country leading thedevelopments in Military Psychology.DIPR: Dedicated to Military Psychology

Defence Institute of PsychologicalResearch (DIPR) is the nodal agency andtechnical headquarters for the selection ofofficers for the armed forces. DIPR is the onlyinstitute in the country that provides technicalassistance to the armed forces in ensuringperson-job fit. In the recent years, the role andresearch interests of the institute haveexpanded manifold, as has the scope forMilitary Psychology in the country. As thepremier institution in the country dealing withbasic and applied research in the field ofMilitary Psychology, the focus of research inthe institute is on finding optimum solutions toproblems pertaining to the selection of officers,placement and categorisation of men, with aview to optimise the efficiency of the armedforces and to devise suitable standardisedtests for personality, intelligence and aptitudeassessment. The institute also providestechnical training to assessors who man theService Selection Boards performingselection duties, and monitors and evaluatesthe selection system, vis--vis training andperformance of the selected personnel duringservice career. Another focus area of researchis on refining the techniques of psychologicalwarfare, ideological convictions, motivation,attitude, morale, leadership behaviour, jobsatisfaction and organisational climate.Developing a better understanding of humanfactors in man-machine systems and studyingthe effects of extreme environmentalconditions on the psychological adjustment,

efficiency, and well-being of service personnelforms the essence of many research studiesundertaken by the institute. Optimisingmanpower planning with particular emphasison personnel policy researches in variousorganisations of Defence, and providing helpto service headquarters and other civilianorganisations on problems pertaining tohuman behaviour and selection of personneladds to the value of the institute.

The institute functions with a vision toemerge as a Centre of Excellence in MilitaryPsychology. The mission is to excel inpsychological research related to personnelselection and training of assessors for thesame, enhancement of leadershipeffectiveness, motivation and morale foroperational efficiency of the forces, and humanfactors. The Institute has developed three corecompetence areas in Military Psychology-personnel selection, organisational behaviour,and human factors.Building the Human Capital: PersonnelSelection

The most frequent application ofpsychology in the military has been reportedin the domain of personnel measurement(Steege & Fritscher, 1991). A parallel can bedrawn between military personnel selectionand personnel selection decisions for variousother organisations, though an unbiasedexamination of the situation reveals theuniqueness of military personnel selection.The enormous size of the organisationnecessitating recruitment practically aroundthe year itself presents an issue. The variednature of duties that military personnel arerequired to perform and the variedenvironmental conditions under whichoptimum performance is expected of themmake it pertinent that the personnel selectiondecisions are based on robustly validmeasures that have firm theoretical bases.The ultimate criterion of battle efficiency furtheradds to the uniqueness of the situation andposes a challenge to the psychologists to

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ensure valid selection. Personnel selectionresearch involves development,standardisation, and validation of personality,intelligence, and aptitude tests, as well asdesign, development and evaluation ofcomprehensive personnel selection system.Training of assessors in personnel selection,and validation and evaluation of the selectionsystem by conducting regular follow-upstudies also form a part of personnel selectionresearch.

The introduction of a scientific selectionsystem for the Armed Forces furtheredtheevolution of Military Psychology in India.Candidates appearing for selection as officersare assessed for their cognitive abilities andpersonality qualities. Intelligence, aptitude,and personality tests have been developedand standardised for use in selection and taskallocation of officers and other ranks of theArmy, Navy, and Air Force. Although thetechnique employed for the selection ofofficers has remained largely unchangedthrough the years, various up-gradations,modifications and validations from time-to-time have ensured a selection system that hasproved its worth through the years by givingthe country efficient and effective officers whohave done the nation proud during the warsthat the country has faced sinceindependence.

Besides development and adaptation ofprojective tests for the selection of officers,various test batteries with different formatshave been developed for specific selectionrequirements, such as a non-verbal mentalability test (that consists of items related toodd man out, analogies, series andmatrices), a language aptitude test(consisting of spelling clues test, memory -immediate recall & retention, andtranslation), and a test battery comprising ofverbal intelligence test, English languageproficiency test, teaching aptitude scale, andassessment of personality for the selection ofinstructors.

Keeping pace with the developments inthe discipline, certain recent improvementsthat have been introduced in the area ofpersonnel selection recently are replacingintelligence testing with comprehensivecognitive profiling of the candidates appearingfor officers selection, development of anobjective personality measure for initialscreening, and development of a selectionbattery for other ranks selection. An armedforces officer needs to perform in a versatilemanner in varied circumstances. A test thatmerely measures the candidates reasoningability or academic intelligence can not beutilised as a screening criterion. Hence, aComprehensive Battery of Cognitive Abilities(CBCA) has been developed for the selectionof officers in the armed forces (DefenceInstitute of Psychological Research [DIPR],2007a). The existing intelligence tests havebeen reviewed and a new model has beendeveloped that assesses different factors ofcognition, namely concept formation,attention, decision making, memory, reasoningability, imagery, and problem solving. Basedon the PASS (planning, Attention-Arousal,Successive and Simultaneous) Model by Das,Naglieri, & Kirby (1994), the CBCA assessesan individuals competence at three levels ofcognitive functioning- registration, processing,and higher order processing.

The armed forces receive thousands ofapplications of young men and womendesirous of recruitment as officers. A practicalneed is to device a scientific method ofscreening that would effectively shortlist thepotential candidates, since it is not possibleto put all the candidates through the five daytedious selection schedule currently in use,due to resource crunch and paucity of time.Any conventional intelligence or personalitytest that is commercially available does notprovide a viable option for the purpose asmaintaining the secrecy and sanctity of the testmaterial is an essential requirement. Thescreening method needs to be effective and

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efficient at short-listing the candidates, at thesame time ensuring objectivity and minimisingambiguity in responses and assessment. Suchmethods (DIPR, 2007b) have been developedand standardised to simplify the decisionmaking process and to provide a morefocused approach in assessment.

Candidates applying for selection asofficers are assessed for different personalityqualities. The method of assessment cannotrely on objective measures as controllingsocial desirability would be difficult. This hugetask of development of projective tests withvarious parallel sets and their standardisationon appropriate sample has been successfullyundertaken by the defence scientists. Theprocess doesnt end with test development butcontinues in the form of efforts to ensureuniformity and objectivity in assessment sincethe projective techniques rely heavily onsubjective evaluation by individual assessors.Accurate operational definitions of thedimensions of assessment and variousshades of behavioural manifestations withineach dimension are absolutely essential.

The Indian armed forces have been usingprojective personality testing for selection ofofficers since long. Although the personnelbelow the officer rank (PBOR) constitute alarge and integral part of the armed forces,their selection has been largely based on non-psychological techniques, probably due toconstraints of time and expenditure. Also,since it is not feasible to use projectivemeasures, due to their inherent limitations, aneed was felt to develop a separate measuresuited for the purpose. With the aim ofensuring minimum wastage of non-financialand financial inputs incurred on selection andtraining of soldiers, enhancing their motivationto work, and ensuring effective measures toscreen out individuals with potential negativetendencies, it was planned to introducepsychological screening of the other rankapplicants before recruitment and allocationof a specific trade.

A selection battery comprising of acognitive and a personality test has beendeveloped for the selection of the Other Ranksin the Indian Army (DIPR, 2008a). Thecognitive test has been developed in non-verbal format using matrices type itemskeeping in view the educational level anddiversity of applicant population. Assessmentof personality provides the basic data toassess the applicant to ensure person-job fit,that is, suitability of the individual to perform agiven task, his willingness and ability to learnand get trained, acquire and upgrade his skills.The personality measure for other ranksselection has been developed in the situationjudgement format in a bilingual form (Hindiand English).The selection battery has beenvalidated and is in the process of beingimplemented.

Personnel selection decisions for theIndian military have direct involvement ofpsychologists. The defence psychologist notonly functions as a test constructor andresearcher but also as an active observer ofthe applicants, interpreting their behaviour andsignificantly contributing to recruitmentdecisions based on prediction of traits.Besides, a defence psychologist also has theopportunity to conduct research into theeffectiveness of selection procedure byvalidating his/her selection decisions againstactual performance criteria. Further, anopportunity also exists to delve into basicresearch regarding selection and placementissues and develop new technologies or to findapplication of emerging technologies in themilitary. The area of military personnelselection is dynamic and is constantly growingin the wake of the new research findingsacross various domains of Psychology. Noother organisation but the military presentssuch a vibrant field where the psychologist hasto make positive use of emerging technologyand knowledge in Psychology and fit it fruitfullyin the context of existing socio-politicalstructures and organisational requirements.

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Enhancing the Human Capital:Behavioural Issues in the Organisation

The ultimate aim of the militaryorganisation is to achieve maximum defenceeffectiveness. This can not be achieved merelyby ensuring induction of effective and efficientmanpower. Ensuring satisfaction of individualneeds has become as important as attainmentof organisational goals in the face of changingsocial milieu and resultant societaltransformation. Ensuring optimum satisfactionfor the incumbent is an invariable requirementfor ensuring person-job fit. Catering forindividual needs without compromising onorganisational goals is a challenge that militarypsychologists face; they mitigate it by activelyinfluencing the decision makers in order toshape the organisational policies and ethosbased on empirical research findings.Maintaining and enhancing the human capitalis one of the major tasks performed by militarypsychologists.

Military is a very big and complexorganisation characterised by a complexstructure, several sub-units, diverse functionsand activities, many job routes, and manyemployees (Katz & Kahn, 1978; Kilmann,Pondy & Slevin, 1976). Optimal utilisation ofthe human capital in such an organisation isdefinitely a challenging task. The sheer sizeof the military and the control it has on itspersonnel makes it mandatory to define andco-ordinate manpower policymaking, to payattention to organisational values andstructure, and to optimise the utility andplacement in manpower allocations. Like anyother organisation, the military also facesissues and problems relating to morale,motivation, job-satisfaction, job-stress,leadership behaviour, organisational climate,beliefs, attitudes, value systems, training,communication, conflict and negotiation.Various doctrines have been developed for theenhancement of motivation and morale of thetroops. Studies in the area of motivation haveinvestigated the role of different motivational

variables operating in military environment.These studies indicate upon the strategies tobe adopted for fostering optimum workenvironment and maximising organisationalefficiency. In the same endeavour, studieshave been undertaken to examine the effectiveleadership styles for military environment, todetermine the strategies for boosting themorale of troops under conditions of anxietyand stress, and to improve job satisfactionamong the service personnel. The problemsof indiscipline and the remedial measures toinculcate discipline have also beeninvestigated. Psychosocial correlates of stressand techniques for its effective managementhave been thoroughly studied and self helpguides have been developed for the soldiersas well as officers (KamaRaju & Singh, 2006;Misra, Asnani, & Archana, 2006).

Man power policy making anddevelopment of the human capital is one ofthe core areas which have received direct andsignificant influences from the researchfindings in general psychology. Issues ofleadership assessment and development ofleadership qualities, for example, reflect theimpact of emerging knowledge in the field. Inthe initial years, leadership wasconceptualised as based on innate personalityqualities. Later researches (For example,Bass, 1990) however emphasised thesituational factors, particularly nature of thetask at hand and structure of the group. Aresolution of these approaches has resultedin current emphasis on studying the interactionof personality traits, group structure andsituational factors in assessing leadership. Theemergent paradigms in leadership researchapplied to the unique context of militaryleadership have led to many interestingresearch findings.

Military Psychology ensures the safetyand security of the nation, not only by aidingthe combat efforts, but also in subtler ways.One such effort that continually goes on in warand peace times alike is formulation and

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conduct of psychological operations (Psy-Ops). Psychological warfare is a planned useof various psychological paradigms toinfluence the attitudes and actions of friendly,neutral and enemy populations important tonational objectives. It is a communicativeprogramme to affect others perception,attitudes, and opinions and influence theirbehaviour patterns. The area of psychologicaloperations include studying the need, goals,strength, and weaknesses of the targetpopulation in order to design appropriatepropaganda strategies, and monitoring themedia to eradicate enemys influence andindoctrinate civil and military populations infavour of ones own nation. Processing theinformation received from the intelligenceagencies, and suggesting appropriateoperational methods of communication alsoforms an aspect of psy-ops.

Various researches have been conductedin the field that have led to a betterunderstanding of the psyche of the localpopulation in the border areas, have providedstrategies to mould their opinions favourably,and developed specific action plans for dealingwith the unique social circumstances that arisedue to the multi-religious, multi-ethnic, multi-lingual character of Indian polity. The impactof enemy propaganda and rumors on thetroops and on the local population has beenstudied. The psychological consequences oflong term deployment in insurgency or lowintensity conflict (LIC) areas on the soldiershave also been investigated. Organisationalstrategies and self help techniques to deal withthe negative consequences of prolongeddeployment in these areas have beendelineated in order to optimise operationalefficiency. The recommendations given by arecent study (DIPR, 2007d) that investigatedthe negative behaviours among the troopsharming self or colleagues emphasised onimproving organisational communication,facilitating interpersonal interaction, improvingprovisions for basic facilities, improved pre-

induction screening and better training, andensuring optimum organisational climate thatwould conserve mental health of the soldiersalong with ensuring operational efficiency.

The interrogation system used for gaininginformation from captured and surrenderedinsurgents has been evaluated andimprovements based on psychologicaltechniques have been suggested. Manualsdetailing the techniques of interrogation havealso been developed (Singh, Tripathi, &Asnani, 2007; Patnaik, Dhawalgi, & Mandal,2007).Optimising the Human Capital:Man-Machine-Environment Interface

Human factors engineering is aspecialised area within Military Psychologythat studies the man-machine interface, andstrives to achieve optimum equipment design.It aims to enhance the performance andeffectiveness of the weapon and machinesystems by optimising human performancethrough system design. A specific area ofcultural ergonomics within the realm of humanfactors engineering, deals with the influenceof cultural factors on equipment effectiveness.Studies regarding artificial intelligence alsoform an important aspect of the domain. Areaslike problem solving, planning and informationfusion are the focus of recent researches.Issues of combat and non-combat stressamong the military personnel also become apart of the domain of human engineering whenthe focus is on optimising equipment designin order to reduce stress. The entire researcheffort on human factors engineering aims todevelop tools and techniques for humanperformance assessment and establishhuman-factors engineering design principles,that would result in optimally high systemperformances when applied in the field by thetroops (Chatelier & Alluisi, 1991).

A Computerised Pilot Selection System(DIPR, 2005) has been developed thatassesses various cognitive and psycho-motor

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abilities required by pilot aspirants. The testsincluded in cognitive battery are- verbalreasoning, non-verbal reasoning, numericalability, and spatial ability. The psycho-motortests included are- tracking test (sensory motorapparatus), central velocity test, pursuittracking, dual task, memory, vigilance, speedanticipation, size anticipation, colour namingand dot estimation.

A study has identified the human factors(psychological variables) that predict betterdriver performance (DIPR, 2007c).Computerised tests have been developed toassess the cognitive and psychomotorpredictor variable of driving performance.Specific research studies have beenconducted on the design of arms, fatigue oftank crew, human engineering aspects ofaircrafts and military vehicles. Studies haveinvestigated the human factors involved inoperating naval submarines. Further, effect ofambient noise on the mental performance ofnaval crew and underwater pressure oncognitive abilities of divers has also beeninvestigated. Researches related to humanfactors involved in motor transport accidents,workload of air traffic controllers and dual taskefficiency have led to significant implicationsfor the armed forces. Identification of jobspecifications and operator requirements inIndian Navy for evolving a proper man-machine interface, and configuration of humanfactor demands in high performance aircraftsas compared to earlier vintage aircrafts formfurther instances where human engineeringplays an important role.

The very nature of military duty entailsprobability of deployment in extremeenvironmental conditions and exotic locales.Though technology has aided the soldier byproviding him with sophisticated weaponryand equipments and means for survival in theharshest of conditions, it is the soldiers whohas to maintain optimum effectiveness in orderto reap any benefit of these advancements.Extreme variations of temperature, intense

noise, working in confined spaces, beingexposed to battlefield smoke, highacceleration levels experienced by aviationcrew are some of the factors that negativelyimpact human performance. Human factorsengineering strives to minimise the negativeimpact through equipment design. It alsoinvestigates the psychological impact ofextreme environmental conditions on theoperational efficiency and psychologicaladjustment and well-being of soldiers.

Military psychologists have been workingin collaboration with other sciences. Variousresearch studies have been completed incollaboration with other establishments withinDRDO that investigate human adjustment andperformance in extreme environments andclimatic conditions. Acclimatisation status andeffect of appetisers on energy intake in highaltitude have been investigated. A delegationof military psychologists recently visitedAntarctica to investigate the psycho-physiological changes occurring during thestay there. Several inputs on cognitive andperceptual processes, emotion, andpersonality were derived from the researchfindings that have extensive implications forselection and training of personnel in extreme,isolated and unusual areas (DIPR, 2008b).A Perspective for the Future

As an applied field within the subject ofpsychology, Military Psychology makes use ofand benefits from developments in almost anyand all sub-fields of psychology. Workingprimarily for the benefit of the militaryorganisation, the defence psychologists inIndia face the dilemma of striking a balancebetween indulging in the search of scientifictruth (basic research) and making use ofscience (purported basic research). The effortsin the field are largely need based (applied)rather than idea-driven (basic), through whichsystems, tests, training and operationalmodules are delivered to the users. Driven byproduct oriented preferences the researchers

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in the field also emphasise on intellectualcapability building. The need based productoriented nature of research does not confinethe avenues for technological up-gradationand the latest developments in the science areincorporated into the studies. Contextspecificity of behaviours in the military set upis adequately tapped by evolving specific andparticular methods in each case. Theuniqueness of Military Psychology researchis that it explores non-traditional constructsthrough non-traditional and innovativemethodologies.

A review of the research endeavours inMilitary Psychology highlights this uniquesituation. Psychological assessment forpersonnel selection in the military, for example,has certain specific requirements, and callsfor customised test development formeasuring non-traditional constructs. Thetests developed in such manner have to bevalidated in simulated conditions in manyinstances. Certain special recruiting situationsneed single use non- standardised tests to bedeveloped. Profile based selection is neededfor certain other personnel. Traditional testsand rule bound scoring systems might notserve the specific needs of the military, andhence scoring based on non-specific rulesbased on the unique requirements of thesituation is developed. Similarly, the area ofstrategic behaviour and psychologicaloperations has to deal with critical issues inpropaganda and counter propaganda, conflictresolution in low intensity operations, socialengineering for attitude change in insurgencyaffected areas, strategic negotiation andinterrogation strategies, attribute specificity inmilitary leadership, factors affecting alienationin youth, rumour formation and mass hysteria,social triggers to fratricide/ siblicide, criticalfactors in military morale. The exploration ofcognitive processes involves establishingthreshold of mental workload, loss ofsituational awareness, multitasking andemotional regulation, task-specific cognitive

profiling, camouflage detection, cognitiverestructuring in high altitude, cognitiveengineering for high-tech weapon systems,and cognitive failure in suboptimal conditions.The varied and novel research questions andissues arising out of such domains might nothave any readily available answers, callingupon the scientists involved to explore anddevelop new methodologies. Suchendeavours invariably lead to generation ofan enhanced knowledge base that progressesthe discipline of Military Psychology.

The perspective planning for the defenceof the nation has brought to focus the issuesof changing nature of warfare. Short, high-techwars along with challenges of dealing withvarious low intensity conflicts are expected tochange the nature of warfare in the future.Need for developing special forces andevolving leadership adaptability to effectivelyoperate in uncertain environments has beenrecognised. Compatibility of the soldier indealing with hi-tech challenges and achievingcomplete integration with the team for goalachievement has to be ensured. Also effectivestrategies are to be evolved for dealing withthe threats posed by Nuclear-Biological-Chemical (NBC) warfare and managing theconsequences of such disasters. Theserequirements have necessitated the changeof focus in Military Psychology from retroactivemanagement to proactive preparedness. Thepreparedness modules have been developedin a gradual and stepwise manner,emphasising on preparing the soldier for non-conventional warfare and LIC management(Step I); preparing soldiers againstpsychological warfare and development of acentre for psychological operations (Step II);and preparing soldiers for extra-territorialwarfare and global missions and selection ofstrategic forces (Step III). These moduleswould guide the future research efforts inMilitary Psychology. The focus of research inMilitary Psychology, in the coming years,therefore is expected to be on upgrading the

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personnel selection system, selection andtraining of troops and civilians forpsychological operations, training of soldiersfor global and network centric operations,preparing programmes for social engineeringand cognitive hacking, designing of tactical-operational- strategic doctrine forpsychological operations, developingcognitive engineering and cognitive retrainingmodules for hi-tech environment, sensorydeprivation and functional impairment.

Military Psychology has unlimitedavenues to grow in this country. The specialgeo-political location of and socio-culturalcircumstances in India give the defencepsychologists ample opportunity to conductresearch studies of basic and applied nature.The nature of problems in Military Psychologyis such that solutions developed by a countryare not usually accessible by other nations,and even if accessible, have a limitedapplicability. There has been no dearth offinancial and intellectual resources for thediscipline of Military Psychology in India. It hasmade much headway since its beginning, yeta lot of challenges remain. Certain specificareas that pose a challenge to the science ofMilitary Psychology can be identified. Thereis a need to enhance the capabilities forproactive preparedness by developing threatdetection systems, prediction and forecastmodels. Expertise needs to be developed formanaging and reducing the ill-effects ofvarious stressors faced by the militarypersonnel. Ways of evolving and trainingeffective leaders who are adept at handlingsuch crises is also a challenge. The expertisedeveloped by Military Psychology in dealingwith and managing the psychological aftereffects of disaster and trauma needs to bebroadened. The benefits of such expertise hasto percolate to the civil populations, not onlyfor managing the disaster post-event, but withthe aim of enhancing the resilience, to betterface the stress and minimise the trauma.

Creating an interface with other scienceslike bio-engineering and computer sciences,developing a research environment to fosteridea-driven concepts and search for theirapplicability to find solution to ground levelproblems, and going beyond pre-fabricatedresearch designs to address new problemsfurther add to the challenges. Also, growth ofthe discipline is possible only in interaction withthe overall happenings in the field ofpsychology. It is very disheartening to knowthat there is not a single University Departmentin India that offers a course in MilitaryPsychology. Military Psychology, though rarelyvisible to the common person in India, iscontinuously striving to enhance its capabilitiesin an effort to do the best in the service of thenation. It is a challenge for the militarypsychologists to find further avenues wherethere can be fruitful interaction with theacademia and researchers working in the fieldof psychology.

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Received: March 07, 2009Revision received: April 21, 2009

Accepted: May 03, 2009

Swati Mukherjee, Scientist C, Defence Institute of Psychological Research,Ministry of Defence, Delhi-54

Updesh Kumar, PhD, Scientist E, Defence Institute of PsychologicalResearch, Ministry of Defence, Delhi-54

Manas K. Mandal , PhD, Scientist G, Defence Institute of PsychologicalResearch, Ministry of Defence, Delhi-54

Military Psychology

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