J. Taylor Scott J’Vonnah Maryman - Community Psychology _ Maryman - Social... · 2016-03-10 ·...

Using Social Media as a Tool to Complement Advocacy Efforts

J. Taylor Scott J’Vonnah Maryman University of North Carolina

at Charlotte Wichita State University

Keywords: Advocacy; Communication; Empowerment; Social Media

Author Biographies: J. Taylor Scott is a Community Psychology doctoral student in the Health Psychology Program at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. She consults on the communication strategies for the National Prevention Science Coalition to Improve Lives and is a member of the Society for Community Research and Action’s Public Policy Committee. Her interests include child success and well-being, prevention of "rotten outcomes", and public policy and advocacy. J’Vonnah Maryman is a doctoral candidate in the Community Psychology Program at Wichita State University and holds a Masters of Public Health from the University of Kansas. She is a member of the Society for Community Research and Action’s Public Policy Committee. Her interests include connecting public health and community psychology strategies to address health disparities, program planning, and public policy and advocacy.

Recommended Citation: Scott, J.T., Maryman, J. (2016). Using Social Media as a Tool to Complement Advocacy Efforts. Global Journal of Community Psychology Practice, 7(1S), pages 1-22. Retrieved Day/Month/Year, from (http://www.gjcpp.org/).

Global Journal of Community Psychology Practice Volume 7, Issue 1S February 20166

Global Journal of Community Psychology Practice, http://www.gjcpp.org/

UsingSocialMediaasaTooltoComplementAdvocacyEffortsAbstract

Community practitioners must leverage a variety of tools in order to promote andadvocate for social change. Socialmedia are relatively innovative tools for informingandmobilizingcommunitiesinanadvocacyeffort.Aspartofacoordinatedeffort,socialmediaalignwellwiththeprinciplesofcommunitypsychologybyenablingindividualsto contribute to participatory dialogue about social issues, collaborate on changeefforts, and establish a sense of community. These tools can enhance supporters’advocacyengagementandcanhelpsustaineffortsinthemidstofinevitablechallenges.However,socialmediaalonearenotsufficientforpromotingsocialchange,butshouldbe used to enhance traditional organizing strategies. In addition to synthesizingliteratureacrossempiricalandpractitioner(e.g.,communicationconsultants)sources,real-worldexamplesareprovidedtoillustratehowsocialmediacanenhanceadvocacyefforts.Thisarticlepresentsfindingsfromanextensiveliteraturereviewtoserveasaresourceforcommunitypractitionersonwaystoenhanceadvocacyeffortswithsocialmedia.

Introduction

Communitypsychologistsengageinprocessestotransformandinfluencedecisionswithinpolitical,economic,andsocialsystems.Traditionaladvocacyapproachesincludeestablishingrelationshipswithlegislators,creatinganddisseminatingresearchsyntheses(e.g.,whitepapers),developingpolicypositionstatementsorfactsheets,andsharinginformationthroughmediaoutlets(e.g.,opinioneditorials,pressreleases;Maton,Humprheys,Jason,&Shinn,inpress).Whilethesestrategieshavedemonstratedeffectivenessonlocal,stateandnationallevelsandindifferentpolicydomains,thereisnotrueblueprinttomovingsocialpolicyforward.Publicpoliciescontinuetobeinfluencedbymultiplefactors(Bogenschneider&Corbett,2010),whichmayvarydependingontemporalcontext.Forexample,thewidespreaduseoftheinternethasgivenrisetothe“connectedage,”associetyhasincreasedrelianceonsocialmediatocommunicateandbuildrelationshipswithoneanother(Fine,2006).Communitypsychologistsmustadapttotheevolvingcommunicationpatternsofsocietyandadjusttheirstrategiesaccordingtothecommunicationneedsofsociety.Agilityand

flexibilityareessentialbecauseastagnantorganizingstrategywillresultintepidsupport(Fine,2006;Kanter&Paine,2012;Satariano&Wong,2012).

Broadlydefined,socialmediaareasetofinteractivedigitaltoolsthatconnectgroupsofindividualsinterestedindialogueorinformation(Lovejoy&Sexton,2012).Whenusedforadvocacy,thesetoolshelptobuildanetworkofsupporters(seeFine,2006;Lovejoy&Saxton,2012).SocialmediaarealsoreferredtoasWeb2.0becauseoftheirinteractivecapacity,andshouldnotbemistakenfortheWorldWideWeb,whichdoesnotenableinteractions(Edwards&Hoeffer,2010).Therearenumeroussocialmediatools,includingblogs,videos,andsocialnetworks(Brunson&Valentine,2010;Edwards&Hoeffer,2010;Kanter&Paine,2012).Eachtoolhasuniquefeaturesthathavethepotentialtoexpandthereachofinformationacrossindividuals,organizations,andcommunities,ascommunicationscanspreadquicklyamongavastgroupofpeople(Bakshy,Rosenn,Marlow&Adamic,2012;Fine,2006;Kanter&Paine,2012;Satariano&Wong,2012).Furthermore,socialmediaexpandthereachandinclusivityofanadvocacycampaignbyenablingsupportersto



joinacauseregardlessofgeographiclocation,timing,ordisability(Satariano&Wong,2012).

Althoughsocialmediausehasapparentbenefits,manycommunitypractitionersareuneasyabouthowandwhentoleveragethesetoolsintheirwork(Brunson&Valentine,2010).Communitypractitioners’abilitiestointegratesocialmediainsocialchangeeffortsmayrelatetothesprawloftheliteraturebaseacrossdisciplinesandbetweenempiricalandpractitioner(e.g.,consultant)recommendations.Inanefforttoimprovecommunitypsychologists’familiarityandcomfortwithsocialmedia,thefollowingpaperreviewsdiversesourcesacrossdisciplinestodescribehowsocialmediacancomplementtraditionaladvocacyandsocialchangeefforts.Thepresentreviewinformedthedevelopmentofaconceptualframeworktodescribehowadvocacy-relatedgoalsandcommunitypsychologyvaluescanbesupportedbysocialmedia.

Thepaperintegratesexamplesofsocialmediauseinsocialchangemovements,largelyfocusingontheUnitedStates(U.S.)becauseoftheavailabilityofresearchandpracticerecommendationsgeneratedinthiscountry.Itisimportanttonotethatpolicyprocessesandcivicengagementnormsvarytremendouslyamongpoliticalclimates(e.g.,socialmediauseisconstrainedbygovernmentlawsinmanyArabcountries;Ghannam,2011),whichmayhaveanimpactontheeffectivenessofsocialmediaandadvocacystrategies.Assuch,aneffortwasmadetoincludeexamplesofworkacrossinternationalboundaries;however,muchmoreempiricalworkisneededtounderstandhowsocio-culturalandpoliticalcontextsmayplayaroleinshapingthesuccessfuluseofsocialmediainsocialchangeefforts.

SocialMediaandAdvocacy

Effortsthatusesocialmediainisolationarenotlikelytobesuccessful;however,socialmediacanaugmentorganizers’existingstrategiesforcommunicatingaboutpublic

issues,buildingrelationshipsandcollaborationswithsupporters,andencouraginggreaterinvolvementamongsupporters(Fine,2006;Kanter&Fine,2010).Moreover,socialmediamaysupplementarangeofofflinetactics(e.g.,eventsorprotests;face-to-facecommunitybuilding;Brunson&Valentine,2010;Satariano&Wong,2012).Offlinestrategiesmaybeparticularlyimportantforengagingsegmentsofthepopulationwhoprefertraditionalmethodsofcommunication(e.g.cellphone);however,traditionalcontactinformation(e.g.,phonenumber,address)maybesubjecttochange,andsocialmediahelpovercomethatchallengebyincreasingthenumberofavailablechannelsforcommunication(Thackeray&Hunter,2010).

Overall,offlineandonlineapproachesshouldbeusedincombinationtoenhancetheeffectivenessofasocialchangeeffort.Previousresearchhasnotedthatthecombineduseofsocialmediaandtraditionalorganizingapproachescreatea“hybriditybetweenphysicalandvirtualspace”(Penney&Dadas,2014,p.80).ThiswasexemplifiedintheOccupyWallStreet(OWS)movement,whichutilizedTwitter,amicro-bloggingsocialnetworksiteusedforinformationsharing,tosolicitdonationsforon-the-groundneeds,extendthereachofinformationsharedduringmeetings,andallowparticipationamongthosenotabletoattendevents(Penney&Dadas,2014).TheneedtoincorporatebothonlineandofflineapproacheswasalsodemonstratedinaninternationaleffortaimingtocreatesocialchangearoundtheglobalyouthHIV/Aidsepidemic(Vijaykumaretal.,2014).Similartohybridonline/offlineorganizing,socialmediablursboundarieswithtraditionalmedia(e.g.,newspapers)asitsupplementsconventionalchannelsbywidelydisseminatingtraditionalmediaandexpandinginformationwithcommentsandalternativeperspectives(Liangetal.,2014;Penney&Dadas,2014).

Whenusedtoaugmentadvocacyefforts,socialmediacanbolsteroutreacheffortsby



spreadinginformationaboutacause,reinforcingrelationshipsamongsupporters,promotingparticipatorydialoguebetweengroupleadersandsupporters,andstrengtheningcollectiveactionthroughincreasedspeedofcollaborativecommunication.Moreover,thesetoolsarehighlycost-effective,allowingadvocacyorganizationstodomoreforless(Brunson&Valentine,2010;Orbar,Zube,&Lampe,2012).Inthepast,communicationbetweenconstituentsandpoliticianswaslimitedtoletters,phonecalls,orface-to-facemeetings.Inthedigitalage,socialmediaexpandcommunicationchannelswithpublicofficials,manyofwhommaintainFacebookandTwitteraccounts,byallowingconstituentstosendbriefmessagesandshareinformationaboutpublicconcerns.Furthermore,researchsuggeststhatthewidespreaduseofsocialmediaamongU.S.citizensprovidesanoutletforcivicengagement.Forexample,astudyconductedbythePewInstitutefoundthat60%ofAmericansusesocialnetworksites,and60%ofthoseindividuals(39%ofallAmericanadults)reportusingsocialmediatoengageinatleastonecivicorpoliticalactivity,suchasfollowingelectedofficials,joiningpoliticalorsocialissuegroups,encouragingotherstotakeaction,orpostingcontentoropinionsaboutsocio-politicalissues(Rainie,Smith,Schlozman,Brady,&Verba,2012).

SocialMediaAdvocacyFramework

Whilesocialmediatechnologieshavethepotentialtoincreasecommunicationwithadvocates(Guo&Saxton,2013),effectivesocialchangeeffortsrequireconsiderableengagementandactionamongsupporters(Fine,2006).Engagementoccursincrementally,andsocialmediaoffera“footinthedoor”byrecruitingnewsupportersandprovidingopportunitiestobuildrelationshipsovertimetograduallyincreasesupporters’engagement(Fine,2006).Forexample,supportersmaybecomeawareofapublicissueviasocialmedia,butorganizersmuststrivetoconvertthisawarenessintoactions

thatsupportthecause.ThisincrementalstrategyalignswellwithwhatKanterandPaine(2012)characterizeasa“ladderofengagement,”whichdepictsengagementasacontinuumrangingintypeandintensity.Low-levelengagementbehaviorsinclude“clicking”andsharing;moderatebehaviorsincludeparticipatinginelectroniccallstoaction(e.g.,emailingarepresentative,signingapetition);andhigh-levelengagementbehaviorsextendbeyondthedigitalplatform(e.g.,volunteering,donations)andreflecttheactionsthatsocialmovementsmoststrivetopromoteamongtheirsupporters.Socialmovementorganizersmustbuildrelationshipswithsupportersovertimetoincreasinglyfosterindividuals’contributions(Fine,2006;Kanter&Paine,2012).

Itisimportanttonotethatparticipationinanonlineadvocacynetworkcanexpandandcontract,andindividualsvaryinthedegreetowhichtheyparticipate.Themostpassionatememberscarryaheavyburdenofoperationaltasks,whereaslessengagedmembersarecriticalforsharinginformationwidelywiththeirownsocialconnections(Fine,2006).Lessengagedmembersarealsoessentialfordevelopingnewadvocatesbecausetheseindividualsareripeforpotentialengagementinfutureefforts.Moreover,alllevelsofparticipationareessential(Kanter&Paine,2012).Thedegreetowhichorganizersareabletoincrementallymovesupportersfromawarenesstoactionmaybeaffectedbyanumberoffactors,manyofwhichareunknownbecauseofalackofresearchonimplementingaqualitysocialmediacampaign.

Tohelpillustratehowsocialmediacancomplementadvocacyeffortsandcontributetoshiftingpolicypriorities,Figure1wasdevelopedbytheauthorstohighlightkeypointsfoundintheexisting,albeitlimited,researchonimplementingqualitysocialmediacampaigns.Theframeworkwaslargelyinformedbyempowermentandorganizingtheories(Kloos,Hill,Thomas,Wandersman,Elias,&Dalton,2012)andsocialmedia



consultantpublications(Fine,2006;Kanter&Paine,2012).Itassertsthatsocialmediacampaignsmustbeimplementedwithqualitytocontributetoincreasingcriticalawarenessaboutanissue,buildingrelationshipswith

diversesupporters,andmobilizingthemformeaningfulaction(e.g.,advocacy),whichultimatelyisexpectedtocontributetoshiftingpolicypriorities.

Figure1:SocialMediaTheoryofAdvocacyandPolicyChange

Theseobjectivesalignwithempowermenttheorybyemphasizingprocessesandinteractionsthatelicitcriticalawareness,opportunitiesformeaningfulparticipation,aplaceforsupporterstoengagewithoneanotherinsolidarity,andsettingsthatenablegenuineinclusivityincollectiveaction(Kloosetal.,2012).Informationaboutthequalitiesthatcontributetoasuccessfulsocialmediacampaignisprovidedthroughoutthispaper,beginningwithdigitalstrategiestoenhancecriticalawarenessaboutasocialissue,andendingwithstrategiestoaddresscommonchallengestosocialmediaengagement.

ItisimportanttonotethatwhiletheconceptualframeworkpresentedinFigure1isintendedtoprovideaschemadescribingmechanismsforshiftingpolicypriorities,processesthatshapepolicyarerarelyaslinearasaconceptualmodelmightimply.Somesocialchangeorganizationsorgroupsmayexperiencemultipleiterationsinprocesses,orobservereciprocalorreversalintherelationshipsamongmodelcomponents.Forinstance,multipleiterationsandrecursivecyclesbetweencriticalawarenessandrelationshipbuildingmayberequiredpriortoengagingmembersinmeaningfulactions.Similarly,manycyclesofmeaningfulactionarelikelyrequiredbeforesocialchangeeffortsareanticipatedtohavemeaningfulimpactonpolicypriorities.

Themodelisfurtherlimitedbyalackofunderstandingaboutcontextualinfluences(e.g.,socialissue,levelofpolicyatwhicheffortstargetchange,orculturalandpoliticalclimate).Ingeneral,thereislimitedresearchtoindicateunderwhichcircumstancesspecificstrategiesforsocialmediaadvocacymaybemosteffective.Despitelimitedresearch,afewstudieshavehighlightedtheimportanceofcontext.Forexample,differentsocialchangeefforts,Proposition8(i.e.,concerningsame-sexmarriageinCalifornia)andOWSexhibiteddifferentpredictorsofsuccessonYouTube.ScriptedProposition8videoswerewatchedmoreoftenthanliveeventsormonologues;whereas,thistrendwasnotapparentforOWSvideos,whichexhibitedrelativelyequaldistributionsofengagement(i.e.,views,ratings,comments)acrossvideotypes(e.g.,borrowedcontent,scriptedversuslivecontent;Vraga,Bode,Wells,Driscoll,&Thorson,2013).AnotherstudyexaminingparticipationinaninternationalHIVsocialchangeeffortidentifiedcontextualfactorsthatinfluencedonlineandofflinesocialmovementparticipation,includinginternetaccessandusage,socialstigma,andinstitutionaltrust(Vijaykumaretal.,2014).

Overall,theconceptualframeworkoversimplifiesprocessesthatshapepolicyprioritiesthroughsocialmediaadvocacybecauseitdoesnotaccountforcontextualinfluencesandproposesalogicalorderthat

Quality Social Media

PresenceCritical

AwarenessRelationship

Building ActionPolicy

Priorities Shift



maynotholdtrueinallcircumstances.Althoughflawed,theconceptualframeworkservestoorganizekeymechanismsfoundtocontributetosocialactionandpolicychange.Thesectionsthatfollowdescribehowprocessespertainingtotheframeworkareexpectedtomobilizeanetworkofadvocates,andadditionallimitationstotheconceptualframeworkarefurtherdiscussed.

CriticalAwareness

Engagingsupportersoftenbeginswithawarenessandinterestinacause,andincreasinginterestdrivesthedesiretoactivelycontribute.Forinstance,joiningaFacebookgrouporfollowingaTwitterfeedenablestheindividualtolearnmoreinformationabouttheissueandincreasetheirinterestinsupportingthecause(Kanter&Paine,2012).Furthermore,theinterestofafewcoresupporterscanenhanceinformationdisseminationwhenmessagesaboutthecausearesharedbeyondthereachoftheorganizationandamongpersonalsocialnetworks(e.g.,friends,followers).Informationsharedoutsidetheorganization’snetworkincreasesthelikelihoodthatnewsupportersfindandjointhecause(Satariano&Wong,2012).Additionally,messagesthatengagetheaudienceinreflectingonthesociopoliticalforcesthatunderliecommunityissuescanpromotecriticalawareness,anattributethatmayencouragecitizenparticipationandempowerment(Kloosetal.,2012).

Supporterscanengageinadvocacyeffortsinsmallbutmeaningfulways,includingsharingmessagesthroughdigitalnetworks,whichmaybevaluableforincreasingpublicawarenessandmaintainingpublicattentiontoanissue(Brunson&Valentine,2010;Lovejoy&Saxton,2012).Infact,someactivistsinvolvedintheOWSmovementreportedthatsharingsecond-handinformationonsocialmedia(e.g.,re-tweetingonTwitter)wasanimportantaspectofparticipationbecausetheseactionshelpedtorecruiton-the-groundsupportandcreatean

alternativeinformationnetwork,whichwascriticalduetotheselectivecoverageprovidedbymainstreammedia(Penney&Dadas,2014).

Althoughinformationdisseminationisacriticalcomponentofanorganizedeffort,thisfunctionalonedoesnotpromoteaction.Informationdisseminationinvolvesone-wayinteractionsthatprovideinformation,butoftendonotactivelyencouragesupporterstocontribute(Lovejoy&Saxton,2012).Withthatintent,itmaybedisappointingthatinformationsharingistheprimarypurposeofnonprofitsocialmediacommunications(Guidry,Waters,&Saxton,2014;Lovejoy&Saxton,2012).Nevertheless,information-sharingactivitiesmayinadvertentlypresentopportunitiesforengagingsupporters.Forexample,informationsharingtweetsmaybemorelikelytobeshared(i.e.,retweeted)andgenerateconversations(i.e.,two-waycommunications)thanmessagesaimedatfundraisingoreventpromotion(Guidryetal.,2014).Ratherthanfocusingonengagingsupportersindialogueoraction,informationsharinghasthepotentialtoincreaseawarenessaboutanissue,buildsupportforacause,andexpandadigitalnetworkofsupporters.Forexample,a2010targetedTwittercampaignhasbeencreditedintheeffortsofBahraincitizenswhomobilizedtopushforthereleaseofaninternetbloggeraccusedofconspiringagainstthecountry.TheuseoftheTwittersocialnetworktoraiseawarenessoftheblogger’sarrestledtohisrelease(Ghannam,2011).

Anetworkofsupportersisanessentialcomponentofsocialmediafunctionality,asitbringstogetherindividualsandorganizationsthatmayshareinformationandcollaborateinchangeefforts(Fine,2006).Theefficiencyofnetworksisnotadigitalinnovation–networkshavealwaysbeenessentialtosocialchange(Kanter&Paine,2012).Ultimately,digitalnetworksseektorecruitindividualswhowillengageatsomeleveltosupportthecause.Atraitthatmaybehighlysoughtafterisopinionleadership,thedegreetowhichan



individualenjoyspromotinganddiscussingnewsandinformationamongfriendsandfollowers(Park,2013;Vraga,Anderson,Kotcher,&Maibach,inpress).TheseindividualsreportedlyuseTwittertoexpressopinions,engageinpoliticalconversations,seekandshareinformation,andaimtomobilizefollowers;therefore,theseindividualsmaybecriticaltoengagingindividualsinpublicandpoliticalprocesseswhoareoutsidethereachofanorganization’snetwork(Park,2013).AnotherstudyfoundsimilarpatternsofengagementamongRepublicansseekingtoleadopinionsaboutclimatechangeonFacebook.Opinionleaderstendedtoconsumeandpostmoreinformation,andweremorelikelytorelyonnewssourcesthaninformalsourcescomparedtonon-opinionleaders(Vragaetal.,inpress).Inshort,engagingindividualswhoenjoysharingopinionsaboutnewsandinformationmayincreasethelikelihoodthatmessagesreachindividualsoutsideanorganization’snetwork.

Overall,arobustdigitalnetworkefficientlyincreasesthecapacityfordisseminatinginformation(Fine,2006),whichhasthepotentialtoincreasethenumberof“voices”communicatingaboutspecificissues(Guo&Saxton,2013).Issuesandideashavethepotentialforspreadingveryquicklythroughonlinesocialnetworks(Satariano&Wong,2012);thereforeinformation(includingmultimedia)sharedviadigitalnetworkscontributestothephenomenonoftopicsbecoming“viral”orwidelysharedinternetcontent.Informationsharingcanincreasepublicawarenessaboutanissue,andmayreachoutsiderswhomaychoosetoseekadditionalinformationbyconnectingorfollowingthecauseviasocialmedia.Consequently,arelationshipwithanewsupporterisinitiated,whichcanenhancetheadvocacyeffort(Biddix,2010).

RelationshipBuilding

Widelyrecognizedasvaluableassetsforshiftingattitudesandbehaviors(Guidryetal.,

2014),relationshipscontributetoadvancingsupporters’engagement,movingthemfrom“passivebystanderstoactivesupporters,toevangelistsfortheircauses”(Kanter&Paine,2012,p.174).Relationshipscanbeenhancedbytheinterpersonalcapacityofsocialmediaplatforms,whichenablegenuinedialogue(i.e.,two-waycommunication)thathelpstodevelopmutualunderstandingandrelationshipsbetweenstakeholders(Guidryetal.,2014).Duetoincreasingrecognitionofthepotentialforsocialmediatoenhancerelationshipsbetweengovernmentleadersandcitizens,Arableadersoncehesitantaboutsocialmediahavebegunusingsocialmediatoengageintwo-waycommunicationwithcitizensbyparticipatinginquestionandanswersessions(Ghannam,2011).Inadditiontoconversationalcapacity,socialmediacanpromotecollaborationamongindividualsacrossgeographicdistancesandcollectiveactionbymanagingvolunteersandcallingsupporterstoaction(Lovejoy&Saxton,2012).OWSactivistsusedTwittertoconnectwithoneanotheracrossthenation,whichhelpedtodeveloprelationshipsthatwereessentialforcommunicatingaboutprocesses,challenges,planning,andstrategydevelopment(Penney&Dadas,2014).

Asidefrombuildingrelationshipsindigitalspace,socialmediaalsohavethepotentialtobridgeonlineandofflineinteractions.Relationshipsarestrengthenedbyin-personactivities.Socialmediacannotcompletelyreplacethevalueofface-to-face-interactions;however,virtualspacescanaugmentrelationshipsandenablesupporterstoparticipateinorganizingprocessesquicklyandinexpensively(Fine,2006).AmongOWSactivists,therelationshipsestablishedthroughTwitterwerestrengthenedbyface-to-face,on-the-groundinteractionsateventsandmeetings(Penney&Dadas,2014).Thevalueofface-to-faceinteractionsshouldnotbediscounted,thushighlightingtheneedformultifacetedapproachestorelationshipbuilding.



Corroboratingthatneedarenoteworthylimitationsofsocialmediaforbuildingrelationships,ascomparedtoface-to-faceinteractionsthatareknowntohelpdeveloppersonalbondsandrelationships(e.g.,Brady,Young,&McLeod,2015;Christens&Collura,2012;Hara&Huang,2011).Online-onlyorganizingeffortslimitthedegreetowhichsomeindividualscanparticipateassomesupportersmaynotwantorknowhowtoengageindigitalspaces(Bradyetal.,2015).Recognizingtheselimitations,in-personactivitiesmaybeststrengthenrelationshipswithsupportersandprovideopportunitiesforinvolvementtothosewhoarenotdigitallyinclined.Howeversocialmediaplaysarolebyinitiatingrelationshipsthroughinformationdisseminationaboutthecause,bridgescommunicationamongconstituentswhenface-to-faceinteractionsarenotpossible,andencouragesofflineengagementbybroadcastinginvolvementopportunitiesandevents(e.g.,Penney&Dadas,2014).

Digitalrelationshipscertainlydonotsubstitutethosebuiltin-person,butaugmentingthoseface-to-facemeetingswithemails,onlinediscussionlists,conferencecalls,videoconferences,orblogswillallowforagreatdealofinformationtobesharedandinputtobegatheredquicklyandinexpensively(Fine,2006).Thenextsectionsdescribehowsocialmediaadvocacyeffortsseekingtobuildrelationshipswithsupporterscanbeenrichedusingparticipatoryapproachesandbyprocessesthatencouragesenseofcommunity.Theseconceptsalignwellwithcommunitypsychologyvaluesandcanbebolsteredbysocialmedia(Brunson&Valentine,2010;Fine,2006).

ParticipatoryApproaches

Modern-daycommunicationsareoftenantitheticaltoparticipatorymethods,whichfrequentlyresembledictationorinformationsharingratherthandiscussionorconversation.Thesetendenciesmaybeanartifactofthebroadcasteraduringwhich

organizationsbegantoexpectotherstolisten,butwerenotexpectedtolisteninreturn(Fine,2006).Consequently,societyhasbecomeaccustomedtoone-way,unbalanced,inauthenticrelationships.Thestatusquoofcommunicationshascontributedtoa“listeningdeficit”amongorganizations,resultinginlittleornoeffortbeingtakenamongorganizationstolistenandunderstandtheirconstituents.Thiscanbeaseriouspitfallbecauselistening,ratherthanpushingorganizationalmessageandstrategies,aidsinmobilizingsupporterstoaction(Fine,2006).

Organizationslistentoconstituentsbyinvitingandreinforcingdialogue,andrespondingtransparently,whichsignalsthattheorganizationcaresabouttheconstituent’sperceptionsandexperiences.Organizationsthatlistenarebetterabletoidentifythemostsalientissuesformembersofthecommunity,whichallowsresponsivenesstoconstituentsbykeepinga“fingeronthepulseofthecommunity”(Guo&Saxton,2013,p.64).Thisinformationenablesorganizationalstrategicimprovements,andtheprocessofrespondingtosupporters’questions,concerns,orsuggestionshasthepotentialtoenhancesupporters’satisfaction,trust,commitment,andengagementinthecause(Fine,2006;Kanter&Paine,2012).

Socialmediastrengthenthecapacityforinteractive,two-wayconversations(Brunson&Valentine,2010;Guo&Saxton,2013;Fine,2006;Lovejoy&Saxton,2012)thathavethepotentialtoreinforcethegradualincreasesinengagementthatKanter&Paine(2012)suggestarenecessaryforpromotingactionamongsupporters.Forexample,Twittermessagesthataimtodirectlycommunicateandbuildasenseofcommunityamongsupporterstendtobemostsuccessfulatgeneratingconversationscomparedtothosethatmerelydisseminateinformation(Guidryetal.,2014).Thissuggestsinteractionsusingsocialmediamaypromoteamoderatelevelofengagementthatisacriticalantecedenttohigh-levelengagementbehaviors(e.g.,



volunteering,respondingtocallstoaction;Kanter&Paine,2012).

Conversationscanalsobeusedtocreatemeaningfulopportunitiesforparticipation(e.g.,involvementindecidinggoalsandactivities),asopposedtoimpersonalinvitationstojoinacampaignorgiveadonation.Inthisarticle,“meaningfulparticipation”isdefinedascitizeninvolvementindecision-makingandaccesstoresourcesthatinherentlyshiftpowerfromleaderstoconstituents(Kloosetal.,2012).Highlymeaningfulformsofparticipationincludeopportunitiesformemberstocontributetothegroup’sidentity,goals,activities,orotherdecisionsandareessentialforenhancingbuy-inandincreasingenthusiasmtoimplementstrategiestoachievegroupgoals(Brunson&Valentine,2010;Fine,2006).Theseengagementstrategiesalignwithparticipatoryvaluesinempowermentapproachesbydecentralizingdecision-makingandallowinggreaterparticipantcontroloverprocessesthatdefinetheproblem,solutions,andmethodsforachievingsocialchange(Kloosetal.,2012).

Althoughsomeleadersmayfinditcounterintuitivetorelinquishsomeauthority,decentralizedorganizednetworkstendtobemostefficientandsustainable.Incontrasttotraditionaltop-downorganizingmethods,participatoryengagementpromotesvoluntaryactionamongsupporters,whichrequiresfewerresourcestocarryoutsocialchangestrategies(Fine,2006).Whiletheleadershiproleremainshighlyimportantforpromotingacommonvisionandmobilizingthenetworkofsupporters,itisexpectedthatthebenefitsofparticipatoryapproachesfaroutweighthecosts.Themorethenetworkisengagedinmeaningfulparticipation,thestrongerthenetworkbecomes(Fine,2006).Ingeneral,decentralizednetworksaremoreadaptableandresilienttochangebecausetheorganizationdoesnotbecomeunstableifoneormoreleadersstepdown.Furthermore,individualsincreasinglyexpecttobeinvolvedindecision-makingprocessesbecausethe

internethasbeguntodecentralizepowerinallaspectsoflife(Beato,2014),whichmakesdecentralizedadvocacyeffortsadaptivetothedemandsofmodernsociety.

Decentralized,participatorygovernancestructurescantakeseveralforms.Asacaseinpoint,anorganizationseekingtoaddressstreetsexualharassmentinvolvedwomeninaparticipatorydigitalstorytellingprocessusinganonlineforum(Dimond,Dye,LaRose,&Bruckman,2013).Theprocessenabledparticipantstosharesexualstreetharassmentexperiences,whichinturnhelpedtoredefinetheproblemassymptomaticofagreatersocialissue–thepositionofwomeninsociety.Theprocessnotonlypromotedcriticalawarenessamongparticipants,butalsohelpedtofundamentallyshiftperspectivesaboutthenatureoftheproblem(Dimondetal.,2013).Womenrecognizedthatthestatusquorestrictswomenfromrecognizingthephenomenaasproblematic,pushingthemtobelievethatsexualstreetharassmentissomethingthey“hadtoaccept”andshould“ignoreitandwalkquicklyaway”(p.6).Whenwomenrecognizedthecollectiveproblematicnatureofsexualstreetharassment,theybegantoshiftawayfrom“victimblaming”toidentifypotentialsolutionsandattemptactions(e.g.,postingaboutissueonFacebook;confrontingharassers).Someparticipantsfeltempoweredintheprocessandsoughttofurthertheiractivismrole(Dimondetal.,2013).

SenseofCommunity

Participatorystrategiesthatempowersupporterstomakemeaningfulcontributionstoacause(e.g.,decision-makingprocesses)canaidinthedevelopmentofanothercommunitypsychologyvalue–senseofcommunity,whichischaracterizedbyperceivedsimilarityinidentity,sharedemotionalexperiences,andinterdependence(e.g.,fulfillingoneanother’sneeds;Sarason,1974).Forinstance,participatoryapproachesthatdemonstrateanorganizationhaslistenedtosupporters’ideasandconcernspromote



trustandbondsamongsupporters(Fine,2006).Additionally,virtualmeetingspacesthatinvitememberstodiscussexperienceshelpforminterpersonalconnectionsandgeneratesharedemotionalexperiences(Kanter&Paine,2012),whichwasdemonstratedbytheparticipatorystorytellingapproachdescribedbyDimondandcolleagues(2013).

Inadditiontoparticipatoryapproaches,digitalsettingscanpromotesenseofcommunitybyexplicatinggroupvalues,norms,andvisions.Thisexplication,inturncanstrengthenidentificationwiththegroupbyenhancingperceptionsthatmembersaretiedbysharedbeliefs,whichwasdemonstratedinastudyamonguniversitystudentsineasternChina(Zhou,2011).Recognitionofsharedvaluesandsocialsupportbetweenmemberscanbolsterempowermentandengagementamonggroupmembersbyenhancingsolidarity,promotingindividualparticipation,andencouragingasenseofcollectiveefficacycharacterizedbyconfidenceinworkingtogethertoeffectchange(Kloosetal.,2012).Inthecontextofadvocacy,groupmembersareboundbysharedvaluesrelatedtoasocialissue,whichdrawsindividualstojoinavirtualgroup,butdoesnotautomaticallyengenderasenseofcommunity.

Socialmediacanprovidevirtualhomeswheresenseofcommunitymaydevelop(e.g.,Lovejoy&Saxton,2012;Zhang,2010),butadigitalspaceisnotsufficientforfacilitatingasenseofcommunityandmembercommitment–organizationsmustactivelysupportsenseofcommunitybyprovidingopportunitiesforrelationshipdevelopmentbothonlineandoffline(Fine,2006).Organizationscancreatesettingsthatpromotesolidaritybyprovidingopportunitiesformeaningfulinteractionsandparticipation(Kloosetal.,2012);however,interactionsamongmembersarecriticalforgeneratingsharedemotionalexperiencesanddevelopingsenseofcommunity(Fine,2006).Therefore,organizationscannot“create”

senseofcommunitywithoutsupporters’participationbecauseorganizationscannotgenerateemotions(Fine,2006).Asoneexampleofanonlineactivistgroupthatsuccessfullypromotedsenseofcommunityamongsupporters,MoveOn.orgusedsocialmediatodisseminateinformation,involvesupportersinactivities,andfacilitateinteraction.ContinuousonlinecommunicationamongsupporterseventuallyhelpedMoveOntogrowasenseofcommunity(Hara&Huang,2011).

Facilitatinginteractionsandcontinuouscommunicationamongsupporterscanbeaidedbydigitalinformationandcommunicationtechnologies.Theseinteractionshelptodevelopsenseofcommunityovertimebyengagingmembersinmeaningfulinteractionswithoneanotherandparticipationindecisionmaking(Obaretal.,2012).Theseopportunitiespromoteacollectiveidentity,createbondsthatmobilizingparticipantstoengageincollectiveaction,andgeneratecommitmentforsustainingthoseactions(Fine,2006;Hara&Huang,2011;Koh,Kim,Butler,&Bock,2007).Additionally,OWSactivistsreportedthatinformalinteractionsviaTwitterpromotedasenseofcommunityandsolidaritybycreatingbondsbetweenactivists,boostingmorale,andbridginginteractionswithface-to-faceevents(Penney&Dadas,2014).

MobilizingAction

Volunteeringandotherformsofhigh-levelengagementareanultimategoaloforganizerssothatsupportersgetinvolvedandcontributetoacause(Fine,2006).However,somesocialsciencescholarsareskepticalaboutthedegreetowhichonlinecommunitiescanpromotesuchmeaningfulcontributionsbecausesocialmediaactivismmay“cheapen”politicalengagementbyengagingsupportersinlow-costefforts,dispiritingthepublicwhentheireffortsareignored,orbycrowdingouthigherlevelsengagement.Thisphenomenonhasbeentermed“slactivism”(seeKarpf,2010).



ConcernsofslacktivismparallelthosedescribedbyRobertPutnam(2000),whonotedthatdecliningtrendsinpoliticalparticipation(e.g.,voting,engaginginpoliticalactivities)wereprimarilyattributabletogenerationaldifferencesandevolvingtechnologies(i.e.,television).Thedigitalagemayalsocontributetoevolvingtrendsincivicengagement;however,thereislittleempiricalsupporttosuggestthattheinternetcontributestolowerlevelsofpoliticalengagement.Infact,internetuserstendtobemorepoliticallyengagedthannon-internetusers.Ameta-analysishassuggestedthattheinternetmaymodestlysupportofflinepoliticalparticipation,particularlywhenindividualsconsumeonlinenewsorinformationaboutpublicaffairscomparedtomerelydiscussingpoliticalviews(Boulainne,2009).

Thereareadditionaldatatosupportalinkbetweeninternetusageandincreasedcivicengagement,suchasthefindingthatFacebookusersaremorelikelytovotethanothers(Hampton,Goulet,Rainie,&Purcell,2011).Thistrendmayextendbeyondvotingbehaviors,asanationallyrepresentativesurveyrevealedthat82-85%ofsocialmediausersareactiveinsomekindofvoluntarygroupororganization,whichisgreaterthanthe75%nationalaverage.Ingeneral,thosewhousesocialmediaaremorelikelytojoinciviceffortscomparedtothosewhodonotusetheinternetorsocialmedia(Rainie,Purcell,&Smith,2011).Inwhole,studiessuggestthatsocialmediaandinternetusemaycontributetomeaningfulformsofofflineengagement;however,theresearchislimitedbyalackoflongitudinaldesigns.Theprimaryuseofcross-sectionaldatacannotbeusedtoascertainatemporalsequencetosuggestsocialmediausagemayincreasecivicengagement(Boulainne,2009).

Otherstudiesconnectsocialmediaorinternetusedirectlywithengagementinsocialchangeeffortsandconcludethatinformationcommunicationtechnologiesappeartoprovideopportunitiesformodern-

daycivicengagement.Facebookgroupsareonemechanismfordisseminatinginformationthatengagesindividualsandpromoteslateraction.Forexample,collegestudentswhoparticipateinpoliticaldiscoursethroughFacebookgroupstendtobemoreengagedinofflinepoliticalactions(e.g.,callinganelectedofficial;Conroy,Feezell,&Guerrero,2012).Ingeneral,socialmediaarebecomingapopularfeatureofpoliticalengagementamongAmericans(Rainieetal.,2012).Additionallysupportingthelinkbetweenonlineinformationandofflineactionisastudythatfoundonlinerecruitmenteffortswerereportedlymoresuccessfulthanofflineeffortsforadvancingorganizationalmembershipandattendanceatofflinepoliticalprotests(Gervais,2015).

StudiesregardingOWShavereportedsimilarfindingsaboutthepotentialbenefitofsocialmediatoofflineengagement.ThosewhoparticipatedintheOWSviaFacebookorTwitterweremorelikelytoparticipateinofflineOWSeventscomparedtoanon-OWScontrolgroup,evenafteraccountingforindividualdifferences,suchaswillingnesstogetinvolvedinpolitics.Inessence,thosewhousedsocialmediaforlowtomoderateonlineengagementinthecauseweremorelikelytobehighly-engagedthroughrelatedofflineactivities(GarcíaAlbacete,Theocharis,Lowe,&vanDeth,2013).Furthermore,someOWSactivistshavereportedintentionallyusingTwitterasan“e-mobilization”tooltoshareinformationaboutofflineprotestopportunitiesandfacilitateofflineaction.ItisexpectedthatthespeedandwidespreaddistributionofinformationviaTwittermayhaveincreasedturnoutsatOWSprotests(Penny&Dadas,2014).

Thesestudieshighlightthepotentialforsocialmediatoencouragemeaningfulofflinepoliticalengagement,butmodestformsofonlineengagementshouldnotbediscounted.Actioncanbeassimpleassigningane-petition(Fine,2006).E-petitionsinparticularhavedemonstratedthatsmall,collectiveeffortsofmanyindividualshavethepotential



tocreatesubstantialimpact.Petitionshavebeenusedfororganizingsocialchangeeffortsforcenturies,butdigitaltoolscomplementthistraditionalstrategybyexpandingthereachtoadditionalsupporters(Beato,2014).Change.org(n.d.a),ane-petitiongiant,reportedover5,000oftheirpetitionsin2014werevictories(i.e.,proposedactionwasaccomplished).Signersarenotifiedofthesevictories,whichhasthepotentialtotransferanindividual’smomentofattentionintoasenseofaccomplishment(Beato,2014).AparticularlynoteworthyexamplewasthepetitionbegunbytheparentsofTrayvonMartin,whichpromotedaninternationalmovementforracialjusticeandinspiredmillionstotakeaction(Beato,2014).Thepetitionaskedthatchargesbebroughtagainsttheshooter;lateron,aFloridaStateAttorneyfiledseconddegreemurdercharges(Change.org,n.d.b).

Despitethepotentialforsocialmediatomobilizesupporters,nonprofitsmayinfrequentlyasksupporterstorespondtocallstoaction.Astudyofarandomselectionofsocialworkorganizationsengagedinadvocacyfoundthatnon-profitsocialworkorganizationsdonotfullyutilizesocialmedia.Only8.1%oftweetssentoutwereintendedtocallfollowerstoaction,eventhoughthesetypesofmessagesweremorelikelythanothertypesoftweetstobeshared(i.e.,retweeted)andengagesupportersindialoguewiththeorganization(Guidryetal.,2014).Ifitisexpectedthatonlineengagementisanimportantpredecessortoofflineengagement,advocacygroupsmuststrategicallyengagesupportersthrougheffectivemessagingstrategies,andincreasetheusageofcallstoactionasaresourcefordoingso.

ChallengesandConsiderations

Asassertedintheoverarchingframework,implementingaqualitysocialmediacampaignthatsuccessfullyengagessupportersrequiressubstantialplanning.Uptothispoint,thepaperhasdescribedhow

socialmediamaypromoteincrementalincreasesinsupporters’engagement,startingwithdisseminatinginformationaboutissues,increasingcriticalawareness,andnurturingrelationshipsamongsupportersandtheorganization.Successfulsocialmediacampaignsmanagethesetasksinawaythatpropelssupporterstobecomeactivistsandsubstantiallycontributetoandsustaintheeffort.However,noneofthiscanbeachievedwithoutrecognizingtheinherentchallengesofestablishingaqualitysocialmediapresence.

Thefirststeptoestablishingqualityisallocatingsufficientresources.Whilesocialmediacanreducethecostofinformationdisseminationandengagesupporters(Hara&Huang,2011),developinga“free”accountonTwitterorFacebookisnopanacea.Qualitycampaignsrequireconcertedtimeandthoughtfulconsideration.OrganizationsthatsuccessfullyusesocialmediatypicallyspendabouttwoandahalfhoursperweekonFacebookalone(Satariano&Wong,2012).Dedicatedtimeisimportantforbeingabletocultivatelegitimateconversations(Guidryetal.,2014),yetorganizationsmaylackthestafftofocusonthiseffort.Atminimum,organizationsshoulddesignateawebmastertomonitorforspamandrudelanguagetoensurethatinappropriatepostsareremovedquickly(Brunson&Valentine,2010).

Resourcesarealsoneededforengaginganaudiencebymaintainingaflowofposts(Brunson&Valentine,2010),subscriptionsforservicesthatcollectimportantdatatoinformstrategies,andforextendingthereachofmessagesviapaidcontentpromotion.Promotedcontent,anexplicitcost,canincreasethedisseminationofkeymessages,whichmaybecriticalforacampaignlookingtogainvisibility,support,andtractionquickly(e.g.,Beato,2014).Inshort,socialmediamayprovideefficientmeansforaccomplishingadvocacy-relatedgoals(Obaretal.,2012),butarenot“free”becauseorganizationsandadvocacygroupsmustdedicatesubstantiveresourcestowardthedevelopmentofan



effectivesocialmediacampaign(Satariano&Wong,2012).

Stafftimeisasalientneedconsideringthestruggleamongmanyonlinegroupstodevelopparticipationamongacorebaseofmembers(Lampeetal.,2011).Forexample,thebenchmarkformoderatesuccessisengagingapproximately2%ofmembersinonlineparticipation(Brunson&Valentine,2010).Thislevelofengagementmaybeduetoalackofpersonalconnection,whichcanhindervirtualorganizing(Obaretal.,2012);however,connectionscanbesupportedbystaffcapacitytorespondtomembersandprovideopportunitiesforinteractionthatpromotesenseofcommunity(e.g.,conversationsaboutsharedvalues),whichmayenhancedigitalparticipation(Fine,2006;Zhang,2010).

Challengestoestablishingastrongqualitysocialmediapresenceextendbeyondresources.Effectivemessagingstrategiesarealsocriticaltoaddressingengagementchallenges.Organizersshouldbeginastrategicplanbydeterminingwhichindividualsareimportantstakeholderswhocaninfluencekeydecisionmakers,clearlydefiningatargetaudience(e.g.,basedonage,primarypurposeofinternetusage-informationorentertainment,theuseofcertaintools,frequencyofsocialmediause),andoutliningmeasurablegoals(Satariano&Wong,2012).Usingageasanexamplecharacteristicfortargetinganaudience,literaturesuggeststhatolderaudiencesaredutifulinformationreceiversandtendtorelyoncrediblesourcesofinformationthatalignwiththeirsocialgroupsorparties(Wells,2014).Incontrast,youngeraudiencesarelesslikelytoengageincivicorganizations,expecttoparticipateininformationsharing,andtypicallybaseinvolvementonpersonalinterestsratherthanaffiliations.Therefore,participatoryapproachesareparticularlyvaluablefororganizationsseekingtobuildrelationshipswiththenextgeneration(Wells,2014).

Awell-definedtargetaudiencecanalsoguidetheuseofcertainsocialmediaplatformsthatrangeincapacities,includingstartingconversations(e.g.,blogs,newsfeed,videos),buildingsocialnetworks(e.g.,Facebook,Twitter),andcollaborating(e.g.,Wikiboards,Googledocs;Kanter&Fine,2010).Thechosenplatformmustbeuser-friendlyforthetargetaudiencetocreateavirtualsettingconducivetodevelopingsocialbondsthatallowmemberstofulfilloneanother’sneeds(Brunson&Valentine,2010;Zhang,2010);therefore,understandingthetechnicalcapacityandcommunicationpatternsofthetargetaudiencemayaidwiththeselectionofasocialmediaplatformorrangeofplatforms.

Therearemanyotherconsiderationsregardingtheuseofspecificsocialmediaplatformsortoolsthatarebeyondthescopeofthisarticle;however,theattachedappendix(AppendixI)providesabriefoverviewofseveralpopulartoolstohighlightstrengthsandweaknessespertainingtoadvocacyefforts.Ingeneral,varioussocialmediatoolsofferdifferentcapacitiesthatcomplementoneanother,whichwasdemonstratedbyorganizersaimingtorelocatetheSocietyforSocialWorkResearch(SSWR)conferenceincongruencewithalocalboycottregardingworkerpayandworkingconditions(Bradyetal.,2015).Theeffortleveragedavarietyofdigitaltools,beginningwithane-petitionthatdemonstratedsupportamong1,200individualsin15countries,andrecruitedsupportersinfurtherdigitalcommunication.OrganizersreportedthatdifferentformsofsocialmediawerecomplementarysuchthatYouTubevideosweredisseminatedviaFacebook,blogsdescribedissuesandfeaturedpersonalstories,Twitterhelpedraiseissueawarenessandbuildcommunityusingacommonhashtag,andFacebookenableddialogueandmobilizedadvocatesindisparatecommunities.Therangeoftoolsenabledcommunicationamongdiversesupporterswithvaryingtechnologicalcapacitiesandhelpedtobuildtrustandrapportamong



supportersovertime.Organizersconcludedthatonlineeffortsledtoboots-on-the-groundorganizingregardingSSWRpoliciesintendedtoavoidsimilarsituationsinthefuture(Bradyetal.,2015).

Althoughmanyexampleshighlightthepotentialforsocialmediatoengageandpromoteactionamongsupporters,itisnotalwayssuccessfulatdoingso.Offlineactionrequireseffort,andsometimesdiscussionsdonotleadtoaction(Hara&Huang,2011).Moreresearchisneededtoexplicateunderwhatconditionsandwhichsocialmediatoolspromotemeaningful,offlineactionamongsupportersofacause.Forinstance,thereismuchtolearnabouthowsocialmediaplatformscansuccessfullyengageindividualsinparticipatoryapproachesbecausesofewindividualsparticipateinonlinecommunicationforums(Brunson&Valentine,2010).Moreover,itisunlikelythatsocialmediainteractionswillbeaseffectiveforpromotingpolicychangeasthoseoccurringface-to-face(e.g.,lobbyingonlineversusin-person;Hara&Huang,2011).Ingeneral,socialmediamaysupportasuccessfulorganizingeffort,butmaynotbyitselfleadtosustainable,long-termchanges.On-the-groundactionisnecessary(Bradyetal,2015).

Itisalsoimportanttonotethatsuccessfulsocialmediacampaignsmaybeaffectedbyqualitiesofimplementationthataredifficulttomeasure(e.g.,effectivemessaging).Verylittleisknownabouttheeffectivenessofimplementationstrategiesforfacilitatingparticipatoryapproaches,senseofcommunity,ormeaningfulaction,oraboutcontextsinwhichcertainstrategiesaremosteffectiveformovingsupportersfrompassivefollowerstoactivistsmeaningfullyengagedinonlineandofflineaction.Overarchingsuggestionsfromcommunicationconsultantsincludeanumberofgenerallyeffectivemessagingstrategies,suchasregularlypostingpositive,relevant,shortandeasy-to-readmessages;usingpersonalstoriesoverstatistics;andprovidinglinksformore

information(Kanter&Paine,2012;Kidwai&Imperatore,2011;Kanter,2011).Nevertheless,muchmoreresearchisneededtounderstandthequalitiesofimplementationthatmaybemostsuccessfulforengagingsupportersandpromotingaction.

Limitations

Thoughtheworkdescribedinthispaperhighlightspotentialstrategiesforengagingaudiences,muchofthecitedresearchinthispaperhasyettobereplicated,maynotbegeneralizable,andmostoftendoesnotsupportcausalityofrelationshipsbecauseofatendencytorelyoncross-sectionaldesigns.Theconceptualframeworkislimitedbythelackofresearchregardingcontextualfactorscontributingtothesuccessofsocialmediaapproaches.Furthermore,assumptionsoftheproposed,simplisticconceptualframeworkmaybecontradictedinsomecircumstances.Forinstance,assumingthatinformationdisseminationcontributestocriticalawarenessandinitiatingrelationshipsmaycounterinstanceswhererelationshipsarebuiltpriortoengaginganindividualinanadvocacyeffort.Inparticular,strongrelationshipsmayenhancereceptivitytocriticalmessagesregardingpoliticallychargedissuessuchasgunviolence.

Theconceptualframeworkalsoassumesthatsupporterswillengageinparticipatoryapproachesifthereareopportunities.However,participationisoftenlimitedinonlineefforts(Brunson&Valentine,2010)andtheseapproachesmaybemostsuccessfulamongyoungeraudiences(Wells,2014),whereassomeaudiencesmaybeannoyedbyinteractiveapproaches.Additionally,thisarticledescribessenseofcommunityasanassetforbuildinganactivenetworkofsupporters;however,senseofcommunitymayalsoreducethelikelihoodofrecruitingdiversesupporters(Kloosetal.,2012),whichmaybeexacerbatedbyself-selectedinvolvementregardingsocialcausesthatalignwithanindividual’snarrowrangeofinterests(Hara&Huang,2011).Additionally,



senseofcommunitycancontributetoa“deadeningconformity”(pp.28;Kloosetal.,2012).Incontrasttotheframework’sassumptionthatcriticalawarenessandrelationshipsarethenecessaryingredientsforsuccessfulengagement,conformityhasthepotentialtopromoteordiscouragemeaningfulaction.Atworst,normsofinactionmaysuppressmeaningfulactionamongindividuals,evenamongthosewithwhomorganizershavebuiltstrongrelationships.

FutureDirections

Mostworkcarriedoutbycommunitypsychologists,regardlessoftheextentoftheresearch,consistsofchangeeffortsthatarebolsteredbydata-informedqualityimprovementstrategies.However,theneedforevaluatingsocialmediaadvocacyeffortsisheightenedbythelackofempiricalevidencethatinformseffectivestrategiesorbestpractices.Consultantssuggestthatorganizersshouldlearnwhatiseffectiveandappealstothetargetaudiencebytestingandevaluatingstrategiesinaction(Kanter&Paine,2012).Thisrequirespatienceandwillingnesstoexperimentandadaptovertime(Brunson&Valentine,2010).Thereisanoverabundanceofpotentialindicatorsthatcanbecollectedbyanarrayofdigitaltools(e.g.,Cyfe,Hootsuite),whichnecessitatestheprioritizationandspecificationofmeasurablegoalstoinformevaluationmethods.Moreover,progressongoalsmustbereviewedfrequentlytoinformimprovementsandefficientresourceallocation.Foracompletereviewoftools,metrics,andanalyticapproaches,includingcontentanalysisandsocialnetworkanalysis,seeKanter&Paine(2012).Ingeneral,socialmediaprovidesvaluablefeedbackoncommunicationsthatarenotavailablethroughtraditionalmedia(e.g.,newspapersdonotmeasure“likes”),whichenablesorganizationstomodifyandadaptstrategies(Obaretal.,2012).

Conclusion

Althoughsocialmediahavebecomeincreasinglyrelevanttosocialchangeefforts,communitypractitioners’useofdigitaltoolsshouldbeguidedbyconcertedstrategiesandcarriedoutusingdedicatedresources.Strategicplanningbeginswithgoaldefinition,asgroupsshouldconsiderwhattheyhopetoaccomplishlong-term,identifystepstomovetowardthelong-termgoal,andthenmatchappropriatetoolstomeetthosegoals(Satariano&Wong,2012).Communitypsychologistsmustrecognizethatsocialmediacannotbeusedinisolation,butshouldaugmenttraditionaladvocacytechniquestoadapttothedemandsofourevolvingsociety.Thesetoolsalignwellwithempowerment,participatoryapproaches,andsenseofcommunity,whicharefoundationalvaluesofcommunitypsychologypractice(Kloosetal.,2012).Althoughchallengesaretobeexpected,communitypsychologyvaluesandstrategiesforcontinuousqualityimprovementcanguidetheeffectiveuseofthesetoolstoadapttothelatestsocialtrends.

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AppendixI

Thefollowingparagraphsreviewrelativestrengthsandweaknessesofseveralpopularsocialmediaplatformsandtools.

Twitter

Strengths Weaknesses

• Rapidinformationexchangeviacondensedmessagesthatprovideconciseheadlinesandadditionalinformationvialinks(Bonetta,2009;Penny&Dadas,2014).

• Messagesmaybemonitoredbyantagoniststothecause(e.g.,OWS;Penney&Dadas,2014).

• Agreatresourceforinformationexchangeamongscientistsandthepublic(Bonetta,2009;Liangetal.,2014).

• Brevitylimitstheabilitytopromotemeaningfuldialogue(Bonetta,2009;Penney&Dadas,2014).

• Recruitingarelativelyspecificpopulationofworkingprofessionals(Satariano&Wong,2012).

• Presentstechnologicalbarriersthatmayintimidatenewcomers(Bradyetal.,2015).

• Fewbarrierstoaccess,asanyonecanaccessposts,evenwithoutanaccountorapprovedconnectionsbetweenaccounts(Penney&Dadas,2014).

• ItisuncertainwhetherornotTwitterpromotessubstantiveengagement;onlyasmallpercentageofusershavebeenfoundtotakemeaningfulaction(Satariano&Wong,2012).



Facebook


• Providesacolossalsocialnetwork(64%ofU.S.adultsuseit);offersalarge,diverseaudienceacrossarangeofages(Bradyetal.,2015;Mitchell,Kiley,Gottfried,&Guskin,2013).

• Youngerpeopleoftenpreferothersocialmediaplatforms(Bradyetal.,2015).

• Itcanbeusedtoexpandthereachofin-personrelationships(Biddix,2010)andtosharenewsandinformation(Mitchelletal.,2013).

• Accommodatessocialinterestgroupsbyprovidingvirtualgroupspaces,whichaidthedevelopmentofasenseofcommunity(Kanter&Paine,2012).Facebookgroupscanservemultiplepurposes:

• MostnewsworthycontentconsumedonFacebookpertainstoentertainmentandsports(Mitchelletal.,2013),whichsuggeststhatthevirtualsettingisinfrequentlyusedforinformationexchangeaboutsocialissues,andismoreoftenusedforinformationindividualsfindpersonallyinterestingorentertaining.

o Enhancemeaningfulactionsamongexistingsupportersthroughprivategroups;incontrast,publicgroupsmayenabletokensupportviaaffiliationandpublicendorsements,whichreducesthelikelihoodofengaginginmeaningfulsupportiveactions(Kristofferson,White,&Peloza.,2014).

o Enhancecriticalawarenessandoutreachtoprospectivesupportersthroughpublicgroupsthatbroadcastappealingandshareablecontentthatreachesindividualsoutsidetheorganization’snetwork(Vragaetal.,inpress).

• MessagingstrategiesareparticularlyimportantbecauseFacebookusescomplexalgorithmsbasedonindividuals’interests,behaviors,andinteractions(e.g.,“likes”)thatinfluencewhatinformationisavailable(Facebook,n.d.).Inotherwords,ifpostsarenotclicked,liked,orshared,fewerFacebookuserswillviewthepost.

• Discussionsessentialtoparticipatoryapproaches(Brunson&Valentine,2010)aremoreeasilyfacilitatedthanonTwitterbecausethereisnocharacterlimit.



Videos


• Visualmediacandeliverpowerfulmessagesandismoreaccessiblethanwrittendialoguesforsomeindividuals,particularlythosewithintellectualdisabilities(Bradyetal.,2015).

• AlthoughsiteslikeYouTubecreatetheirownsocialnetworks,videodisseminationisenhancedbyrobustinformationsharingnetworkssuchasTwitterandFacebook.

• Canbeusedtoillustrateanonprofit’sworkorshareinformationaboutspecificissues,whichissometimescarriedoutbyinterviewingkeyinformantsorexperts(Bradyetal.,2105;Vragaetal.,2013;Satariano&Wong,2012).

• Limitedtechnicalcapacityreducesabilitytoleveragevideosfrequentlyandeffectively.Videosrequirecameras,editingsoftware,andsignificanttimeforeditingvideofootage(Bradyetal.,2015).

• Therearenoteworthyusesofvideoforenhancingcriticalawarenessinsocialmovements(e.g.,OWSandProposition8;Vragaetal.,2103).

• Publicperceptionofaccuracyandcredibilityofvideosbroadly(Bradyetal.,2015),whichmayhinderperceivedcredibilityofvideoeffortsintendingtodisseminateinformation.

E-Petitions


• Enhancedemocraticvaluesbycreatingan“incrediblemegaphoneforeverydaypeople”(pp.21)andempoweruserswithopportunitiestocreateandpromotecontentofconcerntocommunitymembers(Beato,2014).

• Abilitytobuildrelationshipswithsupportersviadigitalcommunities,asthee-petitionsenableendorsementsbutprovidefeweropportunitiesforconversationsthroughgroupsthansocialnetworkssuchasFacebookorTwitter.

• Seektoenhancecriticalawarenessaboutacausewithinaspecificplatform’snetworkandoutsidethenetworkbyreachingpotentialsupportersviaothercommunicationchannels(e.g.,Facebook,email).

• Abilitytomobilizeactionamongsupporters,astheprimaryfunctionistodemonstratesupportforspecificsocialchangeactions.

• Capacitytocollectinformationaboutsupporters,aninitialsteptoforminganetwork(Beato,2010).

• Capacitiesmirrorthe“footinthedoor”approachforincrementallyengagingsupportersdescribedpreviously(Fine,2006)byintroducinganissue,attemptingtobuildawareness,andrecruitingsupportersforfutureengagement.

J. Taylor Scott J’Vonnah Maryman - Community Psychology _ Maryman - Social... · 2016-03-10 ·...

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