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Italy

Italy (Italian Italia), republic in southern Europe, bounded on the north by Switzerland and Austria; on

the east by Slovenia and the Adriatic Sea; on the south by the Ionian Sea and the Mediterranean Sea;

on the west by the Tyrrhenian Sea, the Ligurian Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea; and on the

northwest by France. It comprises, in addition to the Italian mainland, the Mediterranean islands of

Elba, Sardinia, and Sicily, and many lesser islands. Enclaves within mainland Italy are the independent

countries of San Marino and Vatican City; the latter is a papal state mostly enclosed by Rome, the

capital and largest city of Italy. The area of Italy is 301,323 sq km (116,341 sq mi).

Geography of Italy

I INTRODUCTION

Italy: Flag and Anthem

II LAND AND RESOURCES

Area 301,323 sq km 116,341 sq mi

Coastline 7,600 km 4,722 mi

Highest point Mont Blanc 4,810 m/15,782 ft

© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved./© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

Italy

Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

More than half of Italy consists of the Italian Peninsula, a long projection of the continental mainland.

Shaped much like a boot, the Italian Peninsula extends generally southeast into the Mediterranean

Sea. From northwest to southeast, the country is about 1,145 km (about 710 mi) long; with the

addition of the southern peninsular extremity, which extends north to south, it is about 1,360 km

(about 845 mi) long. The maximum width of the mainland portion of Italy is about 610 km (about 380

mi) in the north; the maximum width of the peninsula is about 240 km (about 150 mi). On the

northern frontiers are the Alps, which extend in a wide arc from Ventimiglia on the west to Gorizia on

the east, and include high peaks such as Monte Cervino (4,478 m/14,692 ft) and Monte Rosa, which

rises to its highest point (4,634 m/15,203 ft) in Switzerland just west of the border. The highest point

in Italy is near the summit of Mont Blanc (Monte Bianco), on the border of Italy, France, and

Switzerland; the peak, located in France, is 4,810 m (15,782 ft). Between the Alps and the Apennines,

which form the backbone of the Italian Peninsula, spreads the broad Plain of Lombardy, comprising

the valley of the Po River. The northern Apennines project from the Maritime Alps along the Gulf of

Genoa to the sources of the Tiber River. Monte Cimone (2,163 m/7,097 ft) is the highest summit of

the northern Apennines. The central Apennines, beginning at the source of the Tiber, consist of several

chains. In the eastern portion of this rugged mountain district is Monte Corno (2,912 m/9,554 ft), the

highest Apennine peak. The southern Apennines stretch southeast from the valley of the Sangro River

to the coast of the Gulf of Taranto, where they assume a more southerly direction. High peaks of the

Apennine ranges of the Calabrian Peninsula, as the southern extremity of the Italian Peninsula is

known, include Botte Donato (1,929 m/6,329 ft) and Montalto (1,957 m/6,422 ft). The Apennines

form the watershed of the Italian Peninsula. The main uplifts are bordered by less elevated districts,

known collectively as the sub-Apennine region.

Dolomites Alps, Italy

The Dolomites Alps rise above Saint Magdalena, Italy. The limestone mountains, unique because of their spectacular pinnacles, belong to a subdivision of the Eastern Alps and are part of the South Tirolese Alps in north Italy.

ALLSTOCK, INC./M. Thonig

Italy


Only about one-third of the total land surface of Italy is made of plains, of which the greatest single

tract is the Plain of Lombardy. The coast of Italy along the northern Adriatic Sea is low and sandy,

bordered by shallow waters and, except at Venice, not readily accessible to oceangoing vessels. From

a point near Rimini southward, the eastern coast of the peninsula is fringed by spurs of the Apennines.

Along the middle of the western coast, however, are three stretches of low and marshy land, the

Campagna di Roma, the Pontine Marshes, and the Maremma.

The western coast of Italy is broken up by bays, gulfs, and other indentations, which provide a

number of natural anchorages. In the northwest is the Gulf of Genoa, the harbor of the important

commercial city of Genoa. Naples, another leading western coast port, is situated on the beautiful Bay

of Naples, dominated by the volcano Mount Vesuvius. A little farther south is the Gulf of Salerno, at

the head of which stands the port of Salerno. The southeastern end of the peninsula is deeply

indented by the Gulf of Taranto, which divides the so-called heel of Italy (ancient Calabria) from the

toe (modern Calabria). The Apennine range continues beneath the narrow Strait of Messina and

traverses the island of Sicily, where the volcano Mount Etna, 3,323 m (10,902 ft) high, is located.

Another active volcano rises on Stromboli, one of the Lipari Islands (Isole Eolie), northwest of the

Strait of Messina. In addition to volcanic activity, Italy is also plagued by frequent minor earthquakes,

especially in the southern regions.

A Rivers and Lakes

Aerial View of the Po, Italy

The Po stretches some 652 km (405 mi) from its source in northwestern Italy near the border with France to its mouth at Porto Tolle, where it flows into the Adriatic Sea. In its lower reaches, the river meanders through an extensive flood plain, where it is contained by levees and dikes. This photograph shows a section of the river that has breached its banks, spilling out into the surrounding countryside.

Woodfin Camp and Associates, Inc./Albert Moldvay

Italy


Italy has many rivers, of which the Po and the Adige are the most important. The Po, 652 km (405 mi)

long, is navigable for about 480 km (about 300 mi), and with its tributaries affords about 970 km

(about 600 mi) of inland waterways. The Adige, 410 km (255 mi) long, enters Italy from the Austrian

province of Tirol (Tyrol), flows east, and, like the Po, empties into the Adriatic. The beds of these

rivers are slowly being elevated by alluvial deposits from the mountains.

The rivers of the Italian Peninsula are shallow, often dry during the summer season, and consequently

of little importance for navigation or industry. The chief peninsular rivers are the Arno and the Tiber.

From its sources in the Apennines, the Arno flows west for about 240 km (about 150 mi), through a

well-cultivated valley and the cities of Florence and Pisa. The Tiber rises not far from the sources of

the Arno and runs through the city of Rome. Both the northern and peninsular regions of Italy have

numerous lakes. The principal lakes of northern Italy are Garda, Maggiore, Como, and Lugano; the

peninsular lakes, which are considerably smaller, include Trasimeno, Bolsena, and Bracciano.

The climate of Italy is highly diversified, with extremes ranging from frigid in the higher elevations of

the Alps and Apennines, to semitropical along the coast of the Ligurian Sea and the western coast of

the lower peninsula. The average annual temperature, however, ranges from about 11° to 19°C

(about 52° to 66°F); it is about 13°C (about 55°F) in the Po Valley, about 18°C (about 64°F) in Sicily,

and about 14.5°C (about 58°F) in the coastal lowlands. Climatic conditions on the peninsula are

characterized by regional variations, resulting chiefly from the configurations of the Apennines, and

are influenced by tempering winds from the adjacent seas. In the lowlands regions and lower slopes of

the Apennines bordering the western coast from northern Tuscany (Toscana) to the vicinity of Rome,

winters are mild and sunny, and extreme temperatures are modified by cooling Mediterranean

breezes. Temperatures in the same latitudes on the east of the peninsula are much lower, chiefly

because of the prevailing northeastern winds. Along the upper eastern slopes of the Apennines,

climatic conditions are particularly bleak. The climate of the peninsular lowlands below the latitude of

Rome closely resembles that of southern Spain. In contrast to the semitropical conditions prevalent in

southern Italy and along the Gulf of Genoa, the climate of the Plain of Lombardy is continental. Warm

summers and severe winters, with temperatures as low as -15°C (5°F), prevail in this region, which is

shielded from sea breezes by the Apennines. Heaviest precipitation occurs in Italy during the fall and

winter months, when westerly winds prevail. The lowest mean annual rainfall, about 460 mm (about

18 in), occurs in the Apulian province of Foggia in the south and in southern Sicily; the highest, about

1,520 mm (about 60 in), occurs in the province of Udine in the northeast.

Italy is poor in natural resources, much of the land being unsuitable for agriculture due to

mountainous terrain or unfavorable climate. Italy, moreover, is seriously deficient in basic natural

resources such as coal. The most important mineral resources are natural gas, petroleum, lignite,

sulfur, and pyrites. Other mineral deposits include lead, manganese, zinc, mercury, and bauxite. Many

of these deposits are on the islands of Sicily and Sardinia. However, they had been heavily depleted

by the early 1990s. Italy is rich in various types of building stone, notably marble. The coastal waters

B Climate

C Natural Resources

Italy


of Italy teem with fishes, of which sardine, tuna, and anchovy have the greatest commercial

importance. Freshwater fishes include eels and trout.

The flora of the central and southern lowlands of Italy is typically Mediterranean. Among the

characteristic vegetation of these regions are trees such as the olive, orange, lemon, palm, and citron.

Other common types, especially in the extreme south, are fig, date, pomegranate, and almond trees,

and sugarcane and cotton. The vegetation of the Apennines closely resembles that of central Europe.

Dense growths of chestnut, cypress, and oak trees occupy the lower slopes, and at higher elevations,

there are extensive stands of pine and fir.

Italy has fewer varieties of animals than are found generally in comparable areas of Europe. Small

numbers of marmot, chamois, and ibex live in the Alps. The bear, numerous in ancient times, is now

virtually extinct, but the wolf and wild boar still flourish in the mountain regions. Another fairly

common quadruped is the fox. Among the predatory species of bird are the eagle hawk, vulture,

buzzard, falcon, and kite, confined for the most part to the mountains. The quail, woodcock, partridge,

and various migratory species abound in many parts of Italy. Reptiles include several species of lizards

and snakes and three species of the poisonous viper family. Scorpions are also found.

Industrial and urban pollution is a major concern in Italy. Sulfur dioxide emissions that have been

linked with health problems and damage to buildings have decreased since 1970, but progress in

cleaning the air has been slower than in other European countries. Nitrogen oxide emissions are still

on the rise, however, linked with continued growth of the transportation sector. Electric cars are

becoming a popular solution to air-quality problems in urban areas. Up to 10 percent of Italy’s forests

have been damaged by air pollution. Levels of water pollution from farm chemicals and human waste

are high in some rivers and in the Adriatic Sea. Extreme levels in 1988 and 1989 caused widespread

eutrophication (oxygen depletion) of the marine environment in this region, and the government

declared an emergency.

Nature conservation has been practiced in Italy since Roman times. There are currently five national

parks, each independently administered. In addition, there are many other types of smaller protected

areas. The lack of a national system of protected areas with centralized administration has impeded

efforts to create new preserves and to legally protect existing ones. A nationwide forest inventory was

completed in 1988. The government provides incentives for forest preservation and tree planting.

About 22.1 percent (1995) of the country is forested, of which 42 percent is managed for tree harvest

and only one-quarter is mature forest. A significant proportion of forests is under private

management. Forest biomass has increased in recent years due to a decline in human encroachment

on mountain habitats. Since the early 1980s Italy has had fairly comprehensive laws and guidelines

protecting the sea and coastlines, although enforcement and implementation has been irregular.

Italy has ratified numerous international environmental agreements, including the World Heritage

D Plants and Animals

E Environmental Issues

Italy


Convention and agreements concerning air pollution, biodiversity, climate change, endangered

species, hazardous wastes, marine dumping, the nuclear test ban, the ozone layer, ship pollution,

tropical timber, wetlands, and whaling. Regionally, Italy is party to the European Wild Birds Directive

and the Council of Europe (CE), under which dozens of biogenetic reserves have been designated. Ten

specially protected marine areas exist in Italy under the Mediterranean Action Plan. Several

transborder parks have been established with France and Switzerland.

People of Italy

III POPULATION

Population 58,103,033 (2005 estimate)

Population density 198 persons per sq km 512 persons per sq mi (2005 estimate)

Urban population distribution 67 percent (2003 estimate)

Rural population distribution 33 percent (2003 estimate)

Largest cities, with population Rome, 2,540,829 (2002 estimate) Milan, 1,247,052 (2002 estimate) Naples, 1,008,419 (2002 estimate)

Official language Italian

Chief religious affiliations Roman Catholic, 98 percent Other, 2 percent

Life expectancy 79.7 years (2005 estimate)

Infant mortality rate 6 deaths per 1,000 live births (2005 estimate)

Literacy rate 98.8 percent (2005 estimate)

Friends Gather at a Café

Italians enjoy meeting at sidewalk cafés to talk, drink coffee or wine, play cards, or simply take in the sun. Cafés such as the one shown here, in the town of Siena in the Tuscany region, line the streets of cities, towns, and villages all over the country. Some cafés serve everything from a cup of coffee to a full meal. Siena is known for its rich sweets, while the surrounding countryside produces some of Italy's best wines.

The Image Works/Granitsas

Italy


The Italian population consists almost entirely of native-born people, many of whom identify

themselves closely with a particular region of Italy. The country can be generally divided into the more

urban north (the area from the northern border and the port of Ancona to the southern part of Rome)

and the mostly rural south (everything below this line, which is called the “Ancona Wall” by Italians).

The more prosperous north contains most of Italy’s larger cities and about two-thirds of the country’s

population; the primarily agricultural south has a smaller population base and a more limited

economy. In recent decades the population has generally migrated from rural to urban areas; the

population was 67 percent urban in 2003. The overwhelming majority of the people speak Italian (see

Italian Language), one of the Romance group of languages of the Indo-European family of languages

(see Italic Languages). German is spoken around Bolzano, in the north near the Austrian border.

Other minority languages include French (spoken in the Valle d’Aosta region), Ladin, Albanian,

Slovenian, Catalan, Friulian, Sardinian, Croatian, and Greek.

According to the 1991 census, Italy had a population of 56,778,031. The 2005 estimated population is

58,103,033, giving the country an average population density of 198 persons per sq km (about 512

per sq mi).

Administratively, Italy is divided into 20 regions, each of which is subdivided into provinces and

communes.

A Population Characteristics

B Political Divisions

Assisi, in the Umbria Region

The town of Assisi is in the Umbria region of central Italy. Italy is divided into 20 regions, each of which is governed by an executive elected by the regional council, whose members are elected by the people.

C Principal Cities

Hi Pix

Italy


The capital and largest city of Italy is Rome (population, 2002 estimate, 2,540,829), which is a

famous cultural and tourist center. Other cities with large populations include Milan (1,247,052), an

important manufacturing, financial, and commercial city; Naples (1,008,419), one of the busiest ports

in Italy; Turin (861,644), a transportation junction and major industrial city; Palermo (682,901), the

capital and chief seaport of Sicily; Genoa (604,732), the leading port in Italy and a major trade and

commercial center; Bologna (373,018), a major transportation center and agricultural market;

Florence (352,940), a cultural, commercial, transportation, and industrial center; Bari (315,068), a

major commercial center; Catania (308,438), a manufacturing and commercial city of Sicily; and

Venice (269,566), a leading seaport and a cultural and manufacturing center.

Rome, Italy

Looking down from the Villa Medici the many domes and churches of Rome can be seen. For over 2000 years, Rome has been an urban center, and the city’s architecture reflects its many historical changes.

D Religion

Photo Researchers, Inc./David M. Grossman

Italy


The dominant religion of Italy is Roman Catholicism, the faith of about 98 percent of the people.

However, the Catholic church’s role in Italy is declining; only about 25 percent of Italians attend mass

regularly, and a law ratified in 1985 abolished Roman Catholicism as the official state religion and

ended mandatory religious instruction in public schools. The constitution guarantees freedom of

worship to the religious minorities, which are primarily Protestant, Muslim, and Jewish.

The Italian impact on European education dates back to the ancient Roman educators and scholars,

outstanding among whom were Cicero, Quintilian, and Seneca. Later, during the Middle Ages, Italian

universities became the model for those of other countries. During the Renaissance, Italy was the

teacher of the liberal arts to virtually all Europe, especially for Greek language and literature. The

educational influence of Italy continued through the 17th century, when its universities and academies

were Continental centers of teaching and research in the sciences. After a decline during the 18th and

19th centuries, Italian education regained international notice in the 20th century, partly as a result of

the method for teaching young children developed by Maria Montessori.

Saint Mark's Cathedral

Saint Mark’s Cathedral, located in the heart of Venice, has been the city’s most important church for many centuries. The cathedral flanks Saint Mark’s Square (Piazza San Marco), a famous landmark for Venetians and tourists alike, who gather to relax in sidewalk cafés or simply to enjoy the beauty of the surroundings.

E Education

Photo Researchers, Inc./Wysocki/Explorer

Italy


The modern educational system of Italy dates from 1859, when a law was enacted providing for a

complete school system that extended from the elementary through the university levels.

Improvements were introduced later in the 19th century. In 1923 the philosopher Giovanni Gentile,

minister of public instruction under Benito Mussolini, promoted complete governmental control of

education, and the control was reinforced by the School Charter of 1939. With the collapse of fascism

in 1944, however, Italy undertook to organize the school system along democratic lines. The

constitution of 1947 and later laws raised the general educational level and encouraged

experimentation, such as televised adult education (telescuola).

Traditionally, the goal of the Italian educational system has been to establish a well-trained minority

rather than a widely educated majority. Children aged 3 to 5 may attend kindergarten. Education is

free and compulsory for all children aged 6 through 14. The compulsory term includes five years of

elementary and three years of secondary education. The required part of secondary education is taken

in a lower secondary school. This period may be followed by study in a higher secondary school to

gain specialized training or to prepare for university entrance. Higher secondary studies leading to

university entrance may be taken in classical, scientific, teacher-training, technical, or business

schools. A student may also enter an art institute or conservatory of music. Areas of specialized

training include industry and agriculture.

In the 2000 school year about 20,361 primary schools with some 262,675 teachers were giving

instruction to about 2.8 million pupils. Some 4.5 million students were enrolled in secondary schools.

Much attention is given to higher education in Italy. During the last quarter of the 19th century, the

gain in Italian university graduates was about seven times the corresponding rate of increase of the

Italian population. Some 1.9 million students were enrolled in higher education in Italy in 2001–2002.

Examinations held three times a year are mainly oral. Six Italian universities were founded in the 13th

century and five in the 14th. The oldest is the University of Bologna, dating from the 11th century,

and the largest is the University of Rome, with about 217,000 students. Other notable institutions are

those of Bari, Florence, Genoa, Milan, Padua (Padova), Perugia, Pisa, Siena, and Trieste.

From antiquity to modern times, Italy has played a central role in world culture. Italians have

contributed some of the world’s most admired sculpture, architecture, painting, literature, and music,

particularly opera. Although the nation was politically unified less than 150 years ago, the Italians do

not consider themselves to be a “new” people, but see themselves instead as the descendants of the

E1 Elementary and Secondary Schools

E2 Universities and Colleges

F Culture

Italy


ancient Romans. Moreover, regional differences persist because of natural geographical boundaries

and the disparate cultural heritage that has come down from the Greeks, Etruscans, Arabs, Normans,

and Lombards. Regional particularism is evident in persistent local dialects, holidays, festivals, songs,

and regional cuisine. Central to all Italian life is the tradition of the family as a guiding force and focus

of loyalty.

Many of the great Italian painters, such as Giotto, Fra Angelico, Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci,

Raphael, Titian, and Amedeo Modigliani, are covered in separate articles in the encyclopedia, as are

famous Italian composers such as Antonio Vivaldi, Gaetano Donizetti, Giacomo Puccini, Gioacchino

Rossini, and Giuseppe Verdi. See also Architecture; Italian Literature; Motion Pictures, History of;

Music, Western; Opera; Painting; Sculpture.

Italy is rich in important library collections. Among the largest and most valuable libraries are the

national libraries in Florence, Naples, and Rome. Several universities also have large libraries. Smaller

collections, rich in local manuscripts and incunabula (books printed before 1501), are found in most

Italian cities.

World-famous art collections are housed in numerous Italian cities. Among the most important art

museums are the Uffizi Gallery and Medici Chapel in Florence, the National Museum in Naples, and, in

Rome, the Villa Giulia Museum, the Galleria Borghese, and the National Gallery of Modern Art. Vatican

F1 Libraries and Museums

Palazzo degli Uffizi, Florence

The Palazzo degli Uffizi in Florence, Italy, built in the late 16th century, is a fortresslike building that houses the world-famous Uffizi Gallery. The gallery’s collection includes works by artists such as Raphael, Titian, and Sandro Botticelli.

David Price

Italy


City has important art collections in its museums and chapels, the most famous of which is the Sistine

Chapel. An international biennial exhibition of visual arts in Venice is world renowned.

Economy of Italy

A largely agricultural country before World War II (1939-1945), Italy has developed a diversified

industrial base in the north, which contributes significantly to the economy. In 2003 the gross

domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $1.47 trillion, or about $25,470 per capita; industry

contributed 28 percent to the value of domestic output, services 70 percent, and agriculture (including

forestry and fishing) 3 percent. Italy essentially has a private-enterprise economy, although the

government formerly held a controlling interest in a number of large commercial and manufacturing

enterprises, such as the oil industry (through the Italian state petroleum company) and the principal

transportation and telecommunication systems. In the mid-1990s Italy was transferring government

interest in many enterprises to private ownership. An ongoing problem of the Italian economy has

been the slow growth of industrialization in the south, which lags behind the north in most aspects of

economic development. Government efforts to foster industrialization in the south have met with

mixed results, as problems with the workforce and the overriding influence of the criminal groups

known collectively as the Mafia have discouraged many large corporations from opening operations

there. Many southerners have migrated to northern Italy in search of employment. Unemployment

remains a problem throughout the country, however; the unemployment rate remains at about 9

percent of the working-age population. The large national debt has also plagued Italy’s economy: The

national budget of Italy in 2000 included revenue of $409 billion and expenditure of $426 billion. In

keeping with provisions of the Maastricht Treaty, which created the European Union (EU), Italy is

attempting to reduce its budget deficit. Progress was evident by 1996, with the debt reduced to 7

percent of GDP, although still far from the goal of 3 percent.

IV ECONOMY

Gross domestic product (GDP in U.S.$) $1.47 trillion (2003)

GDP per capita (U.S.$) $25,470 (2003)

Monetary unit 1 euro (€), consisting of 100 cents

Number of workers 25,366,663 (2003)

Unemployment rate 9 percent (2002)

A Agriculture

Italy


Some 38 percent of the land area of Italy is cultivated or used for orchards; agriculture, with fishing

and forestry, engages 5 percent of the labor force. Variations of climate, soil, and elevation allow the

cultivation of many types of crops. Italy is one of the leading nations in the production of grapes and

ranks among the world’s foremost wine producers. Italian wine production totaled about 5 million

metric tons at the beginning of the 21st century. Italy also is one of the world’s leading producers of

olives and olive oil. The output of olives was about 2.4 million metric tons annually in the early 1990s,

and production of olive oil was about 435,000 metric tons. Chief field crops, with 2004 production in

metric tons, included vegetables such as tomatoes (15 million), maize (11.3 million), wheat (8

million), sugar beets (10 million), potatoes (2 million), rice (1.3 million), and soybeans (487,000).

Other field crops are barley, rye, artichokes, chili peppers, and watermelons. Orchard crops,

prominent in the Italian economy, include apples, peaches, pears, oranges, figs, dates, and nuts.

Dairy farming is a major industry. About 50 kinds of cheese are produced, including Gorgonzola,

pecorino, and Parmesan. The livestock population in 2004 numbered 6.7 million cattle, 8 million

sheep, 9.2 million hogs, 1 million goats, 290,000 horses, and 125 million poultry.

The forestry industry is limited in Italy, and much wood must be imported. Most of the old-growth

forests were harvested, first by the Romans in antiquity and then in the 19th century. The resulting

soil erosion has also hampered industry. However, some advances have been made in recent years,

and the timber harvest in 2003 was 8.2 million cubic meters (290 million cubic feet). The catch of the

Olive Harvesting in Italy

The production of olives and olive oil is one of Italy's chief agricultural activities. Italy ranks as one of the world's leading producers of olive oil and wine, and its variety of climatic conditions allows for the cultivation of many different fruits, vegetables, and grains.

B Forestry and Fishing

Woodfin Camp and Associates, Inc./Paul Solomon

Italy


country’s substantial fishing industry in 2001 was 528,666 metric tons. Among the species harvested

are mussels, shrimp, prawns, sardines, trout, striped venus, hake, anchovies, and octopus.

Mining contributes only a small portion of the annual national product, but production of some

minerals is sizable. Lead production, for example, totalled 6,000 metric tons in 1999. Production of

fossil fuels in 2002 included 31.2 million barrels of crude petroleum and 14.6 billion cubic meters (515

billion cubic feet) of natural gas. Other mineral resources include barites, lignite, pyrites, fluorspar,

sulfur, and mercury.

Since World War II, Italian industry has expanded rapidly, and Italian products have gained worldwide

popularity. In the early 1990s the annual production of the textile industry, one of the largest and

most important, included 245,100 metric tons of cotton yarn. Annual production of the chemical

industry, which is also important to the national economy, included sulfuric acid (2.8 million metric

tons), ammonia (1.4 million), and caustic soda (964,800). Among other major industries are the

manufacture of motor vehicles, iron and steel, rubber, heavy machinery, electrical ware (particularly

household electronic products), and foodstuffs, particularly pasta. Annual production of passenger cars

totaled 1.5 million in the early 1990s. Shipbuilding, the processing of hemp and tobacco, and sugar

refining are also important. Leading manufacturing centers include Genoa, Milan, Rome, and Turin.

Italy generates only about a quarter of the energy it consumes, relying mostly on imported fossil

fuels. Some 81.13 percent of Italy’s yearly output of electricity is generated in thermal plants burning

petroleum products, natural gas, coal, or lignite, and most of the remainder is produced in

hydroelectric facilities. The country’s nuclear energy program was abandoned because of public

opposition following the 1986 accident at Chernobyl’ in Ukraine. In 2002 Italy’s annual output of

electricity was 262 billion kilowatt-hours.

The monetary unit of Italy is the single currency of the European Union (EU), the euro (1.07 euros

equal U.S. $1; 1999 average). Italy is among 12 EU member states to adopt the euro. The euro was

introduced on January 1, 1999, for electronic transfers and accounting purposes only, and Italy’s

national currency, the lire, was used for other purposes. On January 1, 2002, euro-denominated coins

and bills went into circulation, and the lire ceased to be legal tender.

The Bank of Italy is the Italian national bank. A public institution, the Bank of Italy has branches in

each provincial capital. In addition, Italy has many private banks. The 1990 Banking Act introduced a

number of changes in the country’s banking system, reducing public ownership of banks and loosening

C Mining

D Manufacturing

E Energy

F Currency and Banking

Italy


regulations on external and foreign capital, as part of the move by the European Community (now the

EU) toward free capital movement within Europe and currency union. Milan and Rome are major

financial centers.

As a participant in the single currency, Italy must follow economic policies established by the

European Central Bank (ECB). The ECB is located in Frankfurt, Germany, and is responsible for all EU

monetary policies, which include setting interest rates and regulating the money supply. On January 1,

1999, control over Italian monetary policy was transferred from the Bank of Italy to the ECB. The

Bank of Italy joined the other EU countries that adopted the euro as part of the European System of

Central Banks (ESCB).

Increased trade between Italy and the other member countries of the European Union characterized

the 1970s and 1980s. The dependence of Italy on imported coal, petroleum, and other essential raw

materials usually yields an unfavorable balance of trade. This imbalance is partly offset by the tourism

industry, remittances from Italian nationals in foreign lands, and shipping revenues. In 2003 Italian

exports earned $292.3 billion per year and imports cost $290.8 billion. Exports include machinery,

motor vehicles, clothing, textile yarn and fabrics, footwear, iron and steel, fruit and vegetables, and

wine. Imports include machinery and transportation equipment, petroleum, metals, chemicals, textile

yarn and fabrics, and meat.

Exports increased in the early 1990s when the lira was devalued against other European currencies,

making Italian manufactures less expensive to foreign buyers. Rising exports helped pull Italy from a

recession, which in the early 1990s produced the sharpest economic fall in the postwar era. Nearly

three-fifths of Italian trade is with members of the European Union. Principal markets for Italy’s

products are Germany, France, the United States, the United Kingdom, Spain, and Switzerland. Chief

sources for imports are Germany, France, United Kingdom, The Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, and the

United States.

G Foreign Trade

H Transportation

Italy


With 1,516 vessels in 2004, Italy has one of the world’s largest merchant fleets; its total displacement

was 6.6 million gross registered tons. The country’s chief seaports include Genoa, Trieste, Taranto,

and Venice. Italy is served by 16,307 km (10,133 mi) of operated railroad track, much of which is

electrified. The government operates most of the rail lines. The country has about 479,688 km (about

298,064 mi) of roads, including some 7,000 km (some 4,300 mi) of limited-access highways

(autostrada). One of the longest automobile tunnels in the world, the Mont Blanc Tunnel linking Italy

and France, was opened in 1965. The two countries also are linked via the Mount Frejus vehicular

tunnel, opened in 1980. Alitalia, the state airline, provides both domestic and international service.

The country’s busiest airport is near Rome; the largest international airport is Malpensa Airport near

Milan.

Since the abolition in 1976 of the Italian government’s monopoly on broadcasting, the number of

stations in the country has increased to more than 160 radio and 80 television broadcasters. While the

number of daily newspapers remains small relative to Italy’s population, total circulation was 6 million

in 1996, or 104 copies for every 1,000 residents. Readership in the north and central portion of the

country accounts for four-fifths of the sales. Local and regional publications, including those produced

by political parties and by the Roman Catholic church, are an important part of Italy’s communications

network. Influential dailies include Corriere della Sera and Il Giorno, in Milan; La Repubblica, in Rome;

Port of Genoa

Throughout its history, Genoa was an important sea power because of its fine harbor and active merchant community. Bombing in World War II destroyed much of the port of Genoa, but the city has since rebuilt and modernized its harbor facilities. The port of Genoa now ranks as one of the busiest in Europe and is the center of Italy's shipbuilding industry.

I Communications

Fotocronache Olympia

Italy


and La Stampa, in Turin. In 1997 Italy had 880 radios and 499 televisions for every 1,000 people.

Italy’s labor force in 2003 was 25 million; some 39 percent were women. In the early 1990s,

approximately 9.9 million workers belonged to three major trade union federations: the

Confederazione Generale Italiana del Lavoro, or CGIL (some 4.6 million members), associated with the

Socialist Party and the Democratic Party of the Left; the centrist Confederazione Italiana Sindacati

Lavoratori, or CISL (about 3.8 million); and the Unione Italiana del Lavoro, or UIL (1.5 million). Labor

union contracts set wages and salaries in every major field.

A loosely affiliated network of criminal groups that first developed in Sicily during the late Middle Ages,

the Mafia has historically been one of the most powerful economic and social forces in Italy. By the

late 19th century, the Mafia, known for its familial structure, ruthless violence, and strong code of

silence (omertà), controlled the Sicilian countryside, infiltrating or manipulating local authorities,

extorting money, and terrorizing citizens. During the 20th century, except for a period of repression

by Benito Mussolini from the 1920s until the end of World War II in 1945, the Mafia continued to

expand its influence over both legal and illegal operations in Italy, especially in the south. The Mafia’s

influence was exported to other countries by emigrants, and by the 1970s the Mafia controlled a large

part of the world’s heroin trade. Renewed government prosecution of Mafia figures and activities

beginning in the mid-1980s, and a series of political scandals linking many Italian politicians with the

Mafia, gave rise to hopes that Mafia influence in Italy would eventually decline.

Government of Italy

Italy has been a democratic republic since June 2, 1946, when the monarchy was abolished by popular

referendum. By the terms of the constitution that became effective on January 1, 1948, the

reestablishment of the Fascist Party is prohibited; direct male heirs of the house of Savoy (see Savoy,

House of) are ineligible to vote or hold any public office and are, in fact, banished from Italian soil;

and recognition is no longer accorded to titles of nobility, although titles in existence prior to October

J Labor

K The Mafia

V GOVERNMENT

Form of government Republic

Head of state President

Head of government Prime minister

Legislature Bicameral legislature: Chamber of Deputies, 630 deputies Senate, 326 senators

Voting qualifications Universal at age 18 (except in senatorial elections, for which minimum age is 25)

Constitution 1 January 1948; amended 1993

Highest court Constitutional Court, Supreme Court of Cassation

Italy


28, 1922, may be used as part of the bearer’s name. Although Italy’s tumultuous politics have

produced more than 50 different governments since the advent of the democratic system, order is

maintained through a well-established bureaucracy that supports the elected offices.

The president of Italy is elected for a seven-year term by a joint session of parliament augmented by

three delegates from each of the 20 regional councils except that of Valle d’Aosta, which sends only

one. The president, who must be at least 50 years old, is ordinarily elected by a two-thirds majority.

The president has the right to dissolve the Senate and Chamber of Deputies at any time except during

the last six months of his tenure. The president usually has little to do with the actual running of the

government. These duties are in the hands of the prime minister—who is chosen by the president and

must have the confidence of parliament—and the Council of Ministers. The prime minister (sometimes

called the premier) generally is the leader of the party that has the largest representation in the

Chamber of Deputies.

The Italian parliament consists of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies elected by popular suffrage for

five-year terms of office. For many years, Italian citizens voted for political parties, and individual

representatives were named by party leaders in a proportional manner. But as a result of corruption

scandals in the early 1990s, a number of public referendums were passed in April 1993 that mandated

a more direct electoral system. Beginning with the elections of March 1994, three-fourths of the 630

seats in the lower-house Chamber of Deputies and an identical proportion of the 326 elected seats in

the upper-house Senate are now filled by direct candidate ballot, as in the United States. The other 25

percent of Senate seats are filled by a system of proportional representation. There are also life

members in the Senate, a group made up of past presidents and their honorary nominees (each

president is entitled to make up to five such appointments). Citizens must be 25 years of age or older

to vote for senators; in all other elections, all citizens over age 18 are eligible to vote.

A Executive

Oscar Luigi Scalfaro

Oscar Luigi Scalfaro was president of Italy from 1992 to 1999.

B Legislature

Sygma/Giansanti

Italy


Italy has a Supreme Court of Cassation (Corte Supreme di Cassazione), which is the highest court of

appeal in all cases except those concerning the constitution. There is also a constitutional court, which

is analogous in function to the Supreme Court of the United States, and is composed of 15 judges.

Five of the judges are appointed by the president of the republic, five by the Senate and Chamber of

Deputies jointly, and five by the supreme law courts. The criminal justice system includes district

courts, tribunals, and courts of appeal.

Italy is divided into 20 regions, which are subdivided into a total of 94 provinces. Each region is

governed by an executive responsible to a popularly elected council. The regional governments have

considerable authority. The chief executive of each of the provinces, the prefect, is appointed by, and

answerable to, the central government and in fact has little power. An elected council and a provincial

executive committee administer each province. Every part of Italy forms a portion of a commune, the

basic unit of local government, which may range in size from a small village to a large city such as

Naples; there were more than 8,000 communes in the early 1990s. Each commune is governed by a

communal council elected for a four-year term by universal suffrage. Each council elects a mayor.

During the first half of the 1990s, in the face of widespread political scandal, Italy moved from a

coalition system of politics that had long been dominated by a single party to a more splintered

system of powerful new parties and alliances. The centrist Christian Democratic Party, which had been

part of 52 consecutive coalitions that had ruled Italy since 1948, dissolved in January 1994. Its

members formed two separate parties, the Popular Party and the Christian Democratic Center Party. A

new right-wing party, Forza Italia (“Go, Italy”), led by media magnate Silvio Berlusconi, then emerged

as a leading political group. The far-right National Alliance, a successor of the neo-fascist Italian Social

Movement, also gained prominence during the 1990s.

The major left-wing party became the Democratic Party of the Left, the new name adopted in 1991 by

the Italian Communists, one of the largest Communist parties in Western Europe. The party

renounced its Communist past and adopted more moderate policies, but a smaller splinter group, the

Communist Refoundation, continued to espouse Marxist principles. The Northern League-Federal Italy

(known as the Northern League until 1995), begun in the 1980s as a protest party, has advocated

increased regional autonomy, at times calling for Italy to be split into several federated republics. The

country’s minor parties include the Green Party, the Liberal Party of Italy, several Socialist parties, the

Republican Party of Italy, the Radical Party, and the anti-Mafia Network Party.

C Judiciary

D Local Government

E Political Parties

F Health and Welfare

Italy


A government-run national health service, created by legislation enacted in 1978, has the goal of

providing free medical care for all citizens. In 1998 Italy had one hospital bed for every 182 people

and one physician for every 169 people. Social-welfare insurance, funded largely by employers, is

extended to the infirm and the aged, as well as to people pensioned by the state, farmers,

unemployed agricultural workers, and apprentices. Life expectancy at birth was estimated at 83 years

for women and 77 years for men in 2005; the infant mortality rate was 6 per 1,000 live births.

The armed forces of Italy have been greatly expanded since the country joined the North Atlantic

Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949. In 2003 the Italian permanent armed forces totaled 194,000

people, with an army of 116,000, a navy of 34,000, an air force of 48,000, and a central staff.

Compulsory military service for men extends for ten months. Italy will phase out peacetime

conscription by 2003, opening the way for the creation of a voluntary military force.

For the history of Italy to the 5th century AD, see Ancient Rome and Roman Empire. For additional

data on the development of modern Italy, see Etruscan Civilization; Florence; Genoa; Lombardy

(Lombardia); Milan; Naples; Papal States; Savoy, House of; Sicily; Tuscany; Venice.

G Defense

VI HISTORY

A The Middle Ages

Europe and the Byzantine Empire

As the political authority of Rome disintegrated, the bishops of the Roman Catholic church stood firm for what they saw as the truth and the ancient

© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

Italy


In AD 476 the last independent Roman emperor of the West, Romulus Augustulus, was dethroned by

the invading Germanic chieftain Odoacer, who thereupon succeeded to the throne. In 488 Theodoric,

king of the Ostrogoths, invaded Italy and, after defeating and slaying Odoacer, became the sole ruler

in Italy. Theodoric ruled until his death in 526. In 535 Justinian I, emperor of the Eastern Roman

Empire (see Byzantine Empire), dispatched the great general Belisarius to expel the Germanic

invaders from Italy. A fierce war ensued, ending in 553 with the death of Teias, the last of the Gothic

kings. The Byzantine rule was of short duration, however, for in 572 Italy was invaded by the

Lombards, another Germanic tribe. Alboin, their king, made Pavia the capital of his realm, and from

that city he launched a series of campaigns that eventually deprived the Byzantine power in Italy of

everything except the southern portion of the province and the exarchate of Ravenna in the north. The

country’s most important religious leaders of the time were the archbishops of Ravenna.

After the death of Alboin in 572, the Lombards for a time had no king. Separate bands thereupon

united under regional leaders known as duces. The Lombards, like the Goths before them, espoused

the heretical creed called Arianism, with the result that they were in perpetual religious conflict with

the native Italians, who overwhelmingly supported orthodox Christianity. This conflict was intensified

as the temporal power of the popes increased. At length, Agiluf, a new Lombard king who reigned

from 590 to 615, was converted to orthodox Christianity, and for some time comparative harmony

prevailed. To consolidate their political power, however, the Lombards began to encroach on papal

territory, even threatening Rome, the center of church authority. In 754 Pope Stephen II summoned

help from the Franks, who had accepted the spiritual authority of the church a century earlier. Under

the vigorous leadership of Pepin the Short and his son, Charlemagne, the Franks conquered the

Lombards, deposing the last Lombard king in 774. On Christmas Day, 800, Charlemagne was crowned

emperor of the West by Pope Leo III.

When the Saracens subdued Sicily and threatened Rome in the 9th century, Pope Leo IV called on

King Louis II, Charlemagne’s great-grandson, who checked the progress of the invaders. The Muslims

overran southern Italy after Louis died and compelled the popes to pay tribute. For many years

thereafter, the history of Italy is the record of the rise and fall of successive petty kings. Chief among

them were Guido of Spoleto; Berengar I of Friuli, Holy Roman emperor; and Hugh of Provence. The

period of anarchy ended in 962, when the Germanic leader Otto I, after obtaining possession of

northern Italy and the Lombard crown, was crowned emperor by Pope John XII. This event is

considered by some to mark the establishment of both the Holy Roman Empire and the German

nation.

order. The only representative of that order in Rome was no longer the emperor or the Senate but the pope, holder of the chair of St. Peter. What remained of Roman authority became centered in Constantinople. The Roman Empire had transformed into the Byzantine Empire.

A1 Religious Conflict

A2 The Papacy Versus the Holy Roman Empire

Italy


Until the close of the Middle Ages the Holy Roman emperors claimed and, in varying degrees,

exercised sovereignty over Italy, but for practical purposes imperial authority became completely

nominal by the beginning of the 14th century. Meanwhile, the south of Italy had remained under

Byzantine and Lombard sway. In the 11th century, however, the Normans broke the Byzantine power

and expelled the Lombards. The Normans united their territorial conquests in Italy in 1127 with Sicily,

which they had wrested from the Saracens. These developments coincided with a resurgence of papal

power, long secondary to that of the emperors. Imperial and papal friction reached a peak in the

Investiture Controversy. By the Concordat of Worms, negotiated in 1122, the emperor surrendered to

the college of cardinals the right to elect the pope. Simultaneous with the increasing influence of the

papacy, strong opposition to the continued rule of the Holy Roman emperors appeared in the form of

the rising Italian city-states. In Italy the feudal system had never attained the high degree of

development characteristic of France and Germany (see Feudalism). The relative weakness of Italian

feudalism was due in great part to the survival of Roman traditions and to the large number of cities in

Italy, for feudalism was a rural rather than an urban phenomenon. The northern cities in particular

defied the power of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I, who fought fierce but inconclusive wars with

them. At length the Lombard League, an alliance of Italian cities, was formed in 1167; Frederick was

vanquished at Legnano in 1176, and in 1183, with the signing of the Peace of Constance, the cities of

northern Italy secured virtual autonomy. A final and unsuccessful attempt to crush both the papacy

and its allies was made by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, the last great ruler of the royal house of

Hohenstaufen. Italy itself was divided by the struggles between imperial partisans (the Guelphs) and

their opponents (the Ghibellines). These names continued to be the designations of fiercely contending

parties long after the Holy Roman emperors had lost their hold on the country. See Guelphs and

Ghibellines.

Meanwhile, in 1266, southern Italy and Sicily came under the domination of the French house of

Anjou. In 1282, however, Sicily threw off the French yoke and placed itself under the power of

Aragón. See Sicilian Vespers.

A3 The Rise of The City-States

Venice, Italy

Gondolas and other water taxis wait for passengers at the entrance to the Grand Canal of Venice. Across the way rise the domes of Santa Maria della Salute. Completed in 1681, the church honors a decree of the Venetian senate to build a church to Mary in hopes that the city be saved from a devastating plague that decimated the population from 1630 to 1631. In the

Denis Tremblay Labtex Inc.

Italy


Through commerce, some of the northern Italian cities had meanwhile grown wealthy and had

established oligarchic governments that were tending to become democratic. The prosperous

merchants of these cities, having secured their independence from the authority of the Holy Roman

emperors, soon began to contest the authority of their powerful nobles. Gradually, these nobles were

divested of their power and compelled to abandon their extensive landholdings. Venice, by its

participation in the Fourth Crusade, had secured extensive possessions in the Byzantine East and had

developed a far-reaching trade empire. Pisa, Genoa, Milan, and Florence had likewise become

powerful. A bitter struggle for ascendancy soon developed between Genoa and Venice. The conflict

ended with a Venetian victory toward the close of the 14th century.

distance stands the large bell tower of Saint Mark’s square next to the façade of Saint Mark’s Cathedral.

Gonzaga Family of Mantua

Many of the wealthy and powerful families who ruled the Italian city-states during the Renaissance commissioned paintings by great artists of the period. Andrea Mantegna, a northern Italian painter of the 15th century, depicted the Gonzaga family holding court at the Doge’s Palace in Mantua. This very realistic work is part of a series of famous frescoes on the walls of the Camera degli Sposi (Bridal Chamber) of the palace in Mantua.

Art Resource, NY/Scala

Italy


In every city of northern and central Italy the population had long been divided into Guelphs and

Ghibellines. The former party was substantially progressive in character, the latter conservative. Civil

strife was almost incessant, and the triumph of one party frequently resulted in the banishment of

members of the other. On occasion, the banished party sought to regain power with the aid of other

cities, so that city often warred against city, producing a shifting succession of alliances, conquests,

and temporary truces. This turbulence was highly disadvantageous to commerce and industry, the

chief interests of the northern cities. In consequence, the office of podesta, or chief magistrate, was

established to mediate the differences of the contending parties. It proved ineffective, however, and

the podesta came in time to be primarily a judicial officer. His place as head of the city was taken by a

“captain of the people,” representing the dominant party. This position was usually held by a noble.

The people, longing for peace, acquiesced in the establishment of centralized authority. Thus, almost

every city came to have its despot, or absolute ruler; the office in many cases became hereditary in

some noble families, such as the Scala at Verona, the Este at Ferrara, the Malatesta at Rimini, and the

Visconti and later the Sforza at Milan. Under the rule of the despots, wealth increased, life became

more luxurious, and literature and the arts flourished. Gradually, the smaller cities passed under the

influence of the larger ones.

By the middle of the 15th century Italy had achieved great prosperity and comparative tranquility. The

country stood in the forefront of European nations culturally, having pioneered the great revival of

learning and the arts (see Renaissance). Preeminent in this revival was Tuscany, which had produced

the great poet Dante Alighieri and the painter Giotto. Near the end of the 15th century Italy became

the object of a succession of aggressive wars, waged by France, Spain, and Austria, which culminated

Leaning Tower of Pisa

In the Piazza del Duomo (Cathedral Square) of Pisa, Italy, stands the city’s most prominent landmark: the Leaning Tower of Pisa, a spectacular Romanesque campanile (bell tower) renowned for its ten-degree tilt. Begun in 1173, construction of the eight-story tower was delayed for nearly 200 years, due to structural problems and the early realization that the foundation was insufficient to hold the tower erect in the soft soil. The tower was preceeded by a cathedral (foreground), begun in 1063, and a baptistery (behind the cathedral), begun in 1153. All share characteristics of the Romanesque period of architecture, such as the tiers of open colonnades (series of columns).

A4 Period of Prosperity

Denis Tremblay Labtex Inc.

Italy


in the ascendancy of the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs. In 1494 King Charles VIII of France

undertook to conquer the kingdom of Naples, then under the rule of the house of Aragón. Charles was

induced to conduct this campaign by the Milanese regent Ludovico Sforza and by the citizens of

Florence, who were restive under the Medici family. He invaded Italy, occupied Naples, and concluded

a treaty with Florence, by the terms of which the Medici were expelled and the pope was brought to

submission. In consequence, however, of a league formed against him by Spain, the pope, the Holy

Roman emperor, and the Italian cities of Venice and Milan, Charles was forced to retire from Naples

and fight his way out of Italy. This French invasion, although it produced no great political results, was

highly important as a means by which Italian culture was disseminated throughout Europe.

During the 16th century the various states on the Italian Peninsula fell prey to armies from the more

centralized countries of the north. In 1499 King Louis XII of France, successor to Charles VIII,

subjugated Milan, which changed hands several times between the French and the Habsburgs. In

1501 Ferdinand V of Castile, who had also been king of Sicily since 1468, reunited Naples and Sicily

under one crown. The rivalry between Charles V, the Holy Roman emperor, and King Francis I of

France led to another French invasion of Italy in 1524. With the Florentines, Genoese, and Venetians

as allies, the French were successful at first, but they were ultimately defeated. In the Peace of

Cambrai (1529) Francis renounced all his claims to territory in Italy. Although he renewed the conflict

in the 1540s, Charles’s domination over Italy could not be broken. On the extinction of Milan’s Sforza

dynasty in 1535, Charles also took control of that duchy, which became part of his Spanish Habsburg

realm. Milan remained a Spanish possession for almost 200 years. Of the various free cities of Italy a

few survived, and of these only Genoa and Venice remained influential. Venice, in its last notable

achievement as an independent city, conquered the Pelopónnisos (Peloponnesus) in 1684, but lost it

in 1715.

During the 18th century Italy remained divided and controlled by foreigners. Until 1748 it was the site

of a succession of European wars, while the balance of power shifted. Venice turned eastward, the

papacy became increasingly insular, and Florence no longer had a central role in the area. The duchy

of Savoy, located between France and the Habsburg possessions in Italy, became a major force in the

area. Duke Victor Amadeus II emerged from the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) with

power and prestige. The Peace of Utrecht (1713) awarded him a royal title and Sicily, which he ceded

to Austria in exchange for Sardinia in 1720. The Utrecht treaties also transferred Spain’s holdings in

Italy to the Austrians, who exercised dominion in the peninsula throughout most of the second half of

the 18th century.

In 1796 Napoleon Bonaparte, later emperor Napoleon I of France, invaded Italy. His victories led to

the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797), establishing the Cisalpine and Ligurian republics, with the

former’s capital at Milan and the latter’s at Genoa. Venice and its territory were given to Austria.

Napoleon was crowned king of Italy at Milan in 1805. The next year he took possession of the

kingdom of Naples. The island of Sicily, however, was preserved for the Neapolitan Bourbons by the

B The Early Modern Age

B1 The Napoleonic Period

Italy


British fleet. Naples was granted first to Napoleon’s brother Joseph and later to his brother-in-law

Joachim Murat. By 1810 even Rome was incorporated into the French empire.

Napoleon’s hold on Italy was weakened by his defeat at Leipzig in 1813 as the Austrians invaded

northern Italy and a British fleet occupied Genoa. The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) led to a

restoration of Austrian domination of the peninsula, but Sardinia recovered Piedmont (Piemonte),

Nice, and Savoy and acquired Genoa.

The Italian resistance to Austrian domination, characterized by a growing movement for national unity

and independence, has been termed the Risorgimento. Despite suppressive measures by the petty

despots who relied on Austrian statesman Prince Klemens von Metternich’s diplomacy and threat of

military intervention to preserve their rule, a network of secret societies challenged the traditional

order. These societies, especially the Carbonari of southern Italy, played a key role in the revolutions

of 1820, which were suppressed by Austria.

The July Revolution of 1830, which drove the Bourbons from the throne of France, had repercussions

in Italy. In 1831 insurrections erupted in the Papal States. A congress of representatives from its

constituent areas (except Rome and a few cities in the march of Ancona) met in Bologna and adopted

a constitution establishing a republican form of government. Responding to the request of Pope

Gregory XVI, Austria intervened to suppress the revolutionary movement in the papal domain and

placed Bologna under military surveillance.

After the 1831 death of King Charles Felix of Sardinia, the crown passed to Charles Albert, prince of

Savoy and Piedmont, who, as regent, had proposed granting his people a constitution in 1821.

Believing that Charles Albert still held liberal views, the Italian patriot Giuseppe Mazzini exhorted the

new king to serve as liberator of Italy. The king answered this appeal by ordering Mazzini’s arrest;

nevertheless, patriotic Italians continued to look to the Sardinian monarchy for leadership.

From exile in Marseille, France, Mazzini in 1831 established an organization called Giovane Italia

(Young Italy) to spread the ideals of nationalism and republicanism to the Italian people. Its goals

were education and insurrection, and it inspired several revolutions. As these uprisings were

suppressed, some Italians questioned the use of radical tactics, suggesting that the national

movement required a more responsible leadership.

The neo-Guelph movement sought to establish an order in which the pope would exercise political as

well as spiritual leadership in Italy. In 1846 the nationalist and neo-Guelph movements were

quickened by the election of Pope Pius IX, who was perceived as being a liberal and a nationalist. The

pope immediately began an extensive program of reforms in the Papal States. An amnesty was

proclaimed for political offenders, political exiles were permitted to return, freedom of the press was

introduced, the highest government offices were opened to laymen, and a consultative chamber was

C The Risorgimento

C1 Nationalist Movements

Italy


created to suggest new reforms. The pope’s example was followed by the rulers of Lucca, Tuscany,

and Piedmont. Instead of allaying the revolutionary movement, however, the reforms of 1846 and

1847 only intensified it. In January 1848 the people of Palermo drove out the forces of Ferdinand II,

king of the Two Sicilies, who responded to the revolutionary outburst on the mainland by granting his

Italian subjects a constitution. At the same time Leopold II, grand duke of Tuscany, issued a

constitution for his duchy. In Turin, Charles Albert, encouraged by Conte Camillo Benso di Cavour,

also promised to issue a constitution. Pope Pius IX reluctantly consented to a constitution for the Papal

States, although he began to regard the course of events with some apprehension.

The outbreak of revolution in Vienna in 1848, which drove Metternich from power, served as the signal

for an uprising in Milan on March 18. The populace drove the Austrian troops out of the city on March

22. The Austrians were also expelled from Venice, and a Venetian republic was proclaimed. The

autocratic rulers of Parma and Modena were forced to abandon their thrones. In Piedmont the

nationalists called for a war of liberation to drive the Austrians from Italian soil. After some hesitation,

Charles Albert mobilized his army and marched to the assistance of Lombardy, which he entered on

March 26, acclaimed as the liberator of Italy.

Italian hopes were dashed when at the end of April the pope refused to join in the war, in mid-May the

revolution in Naples collapsed, and on July 24 the Piedmontese were defeated in battle by the

Austrians. By the subsequent armistice the Piedmontese gave up Lombardy. Charles Albert later

denounced this armistice, only to be badly defeated in battle at Novara in March 1849. He then

abdicated the Sardinian throne in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel II.

Meanwhile, Pius IX was denounced by radicals in the Papal States for failing to join the war of national

liberation. A popular insurrection in Rome led the pope and his closest adviser, Cardinal Giacomo

Antonelli, to flee the capital in November 1848. In his absence the temporal power of the pontiff was

abolished and a republic was proclaimed. Early in 1849 Cardinal Antonelli appealed to the Roman

Catholic powers of France, Austria, Spain, and Naples to overturn the Roman Republic. Despite the

efforts of Mazzini, at the head of the government, and the military leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi,

the Austrians moved into the north, the Spanish and Neapolitans invaded from the south, and a

French force occupied Rome in July 1849. The papal regime was restored.

C2 The Uprisings of 1848

C3 The Revolution in Rome

C4 Garibaldi and Cavour

Italy


Victor Emmanuel remained faithful to the liberal constitution promulgated by his father and retained

the tricolor flag, a symbol of free Italy, thus encouraging political refugees from the restored

conservative states of the peninsula to find asylum in Sardinia. In 1852 Cavour became the Sardinian

prime minister and in 1855 led his country into the Crimean War on the side of Britain and France. At

the peace conference in Paris in 1856, Cavour, with the connivance of French Emperor Napoleon III,

aired the Italian question as an international problem. In 1858 he met secretly with Napoleon to plot a

Franco-Sardinian war against Austria for the liberation of Italy; war erupted in 1859. The Franco-

Italian coalition won the battles of Magenta and Solferino, which proved costly. Fearing the

consequences of a long war, Napoleon deserted the Italians and unilaterally concluded a preliminary

agreement in July 1859 with the Austrians. The Sardinians then accepted the terms formalized in the

Treaty of Zürich: Austria ceded most of Lombardy to France, which in turn transferred the Lombard

cities of Peschiera and Mantua (Mantova) to Sardinia. Elsewhere, the drive for a united Italy

accelerated. In a series of plebiscites in 1860 the people of Romagna and the duchies of Parma and

Giuseppe Garibaldi

Giuseppe Garibaldi, born in 1807, was an Italian patriot, soldier, and freedom fighter who led the 19th-century movement known as the Risorgimento. This movement sought Italian unification and independence. The kingdom of Italy was finally established in 1861, due in large part to Garibaldi’s leadership and military successes against occupying European forces. He eventually ended his career as an elected legislator in the government he dedicated his life to establish.

Photo Researchers, Inc./ARCHIV

Italy


Modena voted for union with Sardinia. France, in return for its collaboration, obtained the regions of

Nice and Savoy. In April 1860 Palermo rose against Francis II, king of the Two Sicilies. In May,

Garibaldi, with Cavour’s secret support, led an expedition from Genoa to aid the Sicilian revolt.

Garibaldi soon took control of Sicily, and in August he attacked the Neapolitan mainland, entering

Naples on September 7. Francis fled to the fortress of Gaeta. The Sardinian government, while

sympathetic to Garibaldi’s conquest, had officially maintained a policy of neutrality. When Garibaldi

threatened to march on Rome, which was protected by French forces, Cavour became alarmed. With

Napoleon’s consent, he moved his forces into the Papal States to block Garibaldi. In the process,

Sardinia absorbed the bulk of the Papal States, leaving the pope with Rome and its immediate

environs. Meanwhile elections in Naples and Sicily and in the Italian regions of Marche and Umbria all

favored union with Sardinia.

On March 17, 1861, the kingdom of Italy was proclaimed, with Victor Emmanuel II as king and Cavour

as prime minister. Italy, however, was not complete; Rome and Venice remained outside the kingdom.

Cavour, who planned for their peaceful inclusion, died in June. The next year Garibaldi went to Sicily

and organized a march on Rome. Fearing French intervention, the Italian government denounced

Garibaldi. He and his followers, who had landed in Calabria, were blocked by the troops of Victor

Emmanuel and compelled to surrender in August 1862. In 1866 Italy became the ally of Prussia in the

Seven Weeks’ War against Austria, and at its end acquired Venice. Rome remained elusive, however,

as a combined Franco-papal force defeated a renewed effort by Garibaldi and his followers at Mentana

in 1867. In 1870 French reverses in the Franco-Prussian War induced Napoleon III to withdraw his

troops from Rome, and the Italians were finally able to enter the city. An October plebiscite favored

union with the Italian kingdom, and in July 1871, Rome became the capital of a united Italy.

When Victor Emmanuel died in January 1878, his son, Humbert I, succeeded to the Italian throne.

During his reign, Italy concluded the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1882,

marking the division of Europe into two hostile camps. Humbert was assassinated by an anarchist on

July 29, 1900, and his son, Victor Emmanuel III, ascended the throne. Meanwhile, prompted by the

examples of France and Britain and by the desire to distract attention from economic and social

problems at home, the government had launched a colonial program. In early 1885 an Italian

expedition occupied a portion of East Africa. These territories were consolidated in 1890 into the

colony of Eritrea. In that year Italy established a protectorate over the Somali coast south of British

Somaliland. Prime Minister Francesco Crispi then decided to move from the coastal territories and take

over the heartland of Ethiopia. The Italians, however, suffered a serious defeat at Ādwa (Aduwa) in

1896 and had to recognize Ethiopia’s independence. Elsewhere, Italian troops moved into Libya in

1911 and, at the end of the ensuing Italo-Turkish war, Italy’s possession of the Libyan coast was

confirmed.

D The Kingdom of Italy

D1 Colonial Ventures

D2 Prewar Italy

Italy


From 1901 to 1914 Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti dominated Italy, which experienced political,

social, and economic modernization. Giolitti has been criticized for interfering in the electoral process,

tolerating protectionism, and creating a virtual parliamentary dictatorship, but he has also been hailed

as the maker of modern Italy. During his tenure a number of reforms were introduced: The right of

workers to strike for higher wages was recognized; changes in electoral law greatly increased male

suffrage; Roman Catholics were drawn into Italy’s political life; and the first major legislation on behalf

of the economically depressed south was passed. In foreign affairs, relations were improved with

France, while Italy remained in the Triple Alliance. During the Giolitti era Italy’s rate of industrial

growth was 87 percent, and workers’ wages grew by more than 25 percent despite a shortened

workday and the introduction of a guaranteed day of rest. In many ways Italy was a democracy in the

making; this progress was halted by participation in World War I.

When World War I began in August 1914, the Italian government brushed aside the Triple Alliance and

declared its neutrality. Subsequently, after having signed the secret Treaty of London with the Allied

powers, Italy declared war on Austria and the Ottoman Empire, and then declared war against

Germany about a year later. Italy sent a large force into the Trentino region, in the southern Tirol. In

1916 the Austrians launched a series of attacks northeast of Trent and along the eastern bank of the

Adige River, capturing the towns of Asiago and Asiero. Most of the lost territory was later regained by

Italian forces, which then mounted an offensive along the Isonzo River in Venezia Giulia, capturing

Gorizia on August 9. The Italian armies made little progress thereafter. In October 1917 a combined

Austro-German force attacked the Italian defenses, winning a dramatic victory at Caporetto in Venezia

Giulia. The Italians fell back, abandoning both Gorizia and the Karst Plateau. The enemy threatened

the Italian line from the Julian Alps to the Adriatic Sea. The Italians retreated to the Piave River;

reinforced by small numbers of French and British troops, they consolidated their defenses and were

able to fight off an Austrian force that attacked in June 1918. The Italians and their allies assumed the

offensive, culminating in their smashing victory in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto (October 24-November

4). The Italian army then occupied Udine and Trent, while the navy landed troops at Trieste.

Meanwhile, on November 3, the Austro-Hungarian government and the Allies had signed an armistice.

Italian casualties during the war totaled more than half a million. In the treaties that followed, Italy

acquired the Trentino, Trieste, and the South Tyrol, but did not get all the territory promised in the

Treaty of London—notably Dalmatia and Fiume. In November 1920 Italy and the Kingdom of the

Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (later renamed Yugoslavia) signed the Treaty of Rapallo; Fiume was

established as a free state, and Italy renounced its claims to Dalmatia.

D3 World War I

D4 The Postwar Years

Italy


From 1919 to 1922 Italy was torn by social and political strife, inflation, and economic problems,

aggravated by the belief that Italy had won the war but lost the peace. Armed bands with a strong

nationalist bias, known as the Fascisti (see Fascism), fought Socialist and Communist groups in Rome,

Bologna, Trieste, Genoa, Parma, and elsewhere. During Giolitti’s final ministry from 1920 to 1921,

some semblance of normality returned. He formed a National Bloc of Liberals, Nationalists, and others,

including Fascists, but he failed to gather a stable parliamentary majority because the two largest

political parties, the Socialists and the newly formed Catholic Popular Party, withheld their support.

Giolitti then resigned. His departure precipitated a period of uncertainty. Many landowners feared that

their estates would be seized by the peasants; the middle class and the industrialists feared that Italy

would become a Soviet-style republic; and conservative Roman Catholics worried that socialism,

communism, and atheism threatened the religious order. On October 24, 1922, the Fascist leader

Benito Mussolini, emboldened by the support of conservatives and former soldiers, demanded that the

government be entrusted to his party. He threatened to seize power by force if his conditions were

refused. As the Fascisti mobilized for a march on Rome, Prime Minister Luigi Facta resigned. On

October 28 Victor Emmanuel called on Mussolini to form a new government.

Fascists March on Rome

A period of economic and political turmoil engulfed Italy after World War I. When none of the largest parties in Italy could establish a stable government, Benito Mussolini, the leader of a militantly nationalistic group called the Fascisti, threatened to use force to gain power. On October 28, 1922, as the Fascists staged a March on Rome, Italian king Victor Emmanuel III invited Mussolini to form a coalition government. Leaders of the Fascist movement, pictured here wearing the party's symbolic black shirts, joined other marchers as they entered Rome.

D5 The Fascist Dictatorship

CORBIS-BETTMANN/ACME

Italy


Although he was given extraordinary powers to restore order, Mussolini initially governed

constitutionally. He headed a coalition government in 1923 that included Liberals, Nationalists, and

Catholics, as well as Fascists. After the violence of the 1924 elections and the murder of the Socialist

Party deputy Giacomo Matteotti in 1924, Mussolini moved to suspend constitutional government. He

proceeded in stages to establish a dictatorship by forbidding the parliament to initiate legislation; by

making himself responsible to the king alone; by ordering parliament to authorize him to issue

decrees having the force of law; by establishing absolute censorship of the press; and, in 1926, by

suppressing all opposition parties.

In 1928 further measures were taken to transform the nation into a Fascist state. Supreme power was

theoretically lodged in the Fascist Grand Council, making up the top leadership of the party, with the

prime minister as chairman. The Grand Council was to select the list of candidates for the Chamber of

Deputies and to be consulted on all important business of the government, especially the choice of an

heir to the throne and successor to Mussolini. Mussolini scored one of his greatest diplomatic triumphs

in 1929, when he concluded the Lateran Treaty between the Italian state and the Holy See. This

settled the 60-year-old controversy concerning the temporal power of the pope by the creation, at

Rome, of Vatican City. In 1934 another step was taken in the reorganization of the economic life of

Italy with the formation of 22 corporations, or guilds, representing workers and employers in all

phases of the economy. Each corporation included Fascist Party members on its governing council and

had Mussolini as its president. These councils were organized into a National Council of Corporations.

During the world economic depression that began in 1929, the Fascist government increasingly

intervened to prevent the collapse of a number of industries. The construction of new factories or the

expansion of old ones without governmental consent was prohibited. The government reorganized the

iron and steel industries, expanded hydroelectric plants, and embarked on other public works projects.

The military was also expanded and strengthened. Near the end of 1933, Mussolini announced that

Benito Mussolini

D5a Economic Measures

ABCNews VideoSource/Archive Films

Italy


the Italian Chamber of Deputies would be called upon to legislate itself out of existence and to transfer

its functions to the National Council of Corporations. This step was finally taken in 1939. The Chamber

of Deputies was replaced by a Chamber of Fasci and Corporations, composed of some 800 appointive

members of the National Council of Corporations. In their respective industries the corporations were

entrusted with regulating prices and wages, planning economic policies, and discharging other

economic functions.

The appointment in 1933 of Adolf Hitler as chancellor of Germany was greeted cautiously by the

controlled Italian press. Hitler in turn expressed friendship for Italian fascism. A German-Italian axis

was not immediately formed, however, and a temporary improvement in Franco-Italian relations

resulted from German attempts to force the incorporation of Austria into the Third Reich of Germany

in 1934. Mussolini rushed 75,000 Italian troops to the Italo-Austrian frontier, announcing that he

would intervene if Germany took overt action. Italy drew even closer to its allies of World War I in

1935, when, along with France and Britain, it formed the Stresa Front, organized in protest against

Germany’s repeated violations of the Treaty of Versailles.

The event that upset European alignments and brought the Fascist and Nazi dictatorships into close

accord was Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia in 1935. Generally regarded as within the Italian sphere of

influence, Ethiopia was bound to the Fascist state by many commercial and diplomatic pacts, but Italy

sought every opportunity to integrate it into the Italian colonial empire. The Ethiopian war was

preceded in 1935 by a Franco-Italian accord, by which Italy agreed to support French opposition to

German rearmament in exchange for French concessions in Africa. Britain, regarding aggressive

Italian expansion as a menace to British interests, vigorously opposed Mussolini’s plan.

The Italian invasion of Ethiopia began on October 3. Four days later the Council of the League of

Nations declared Italy guilty of violating its obligations under the League Covenant and imposed

economic sanctions against the aggressor. The league’s failure to enforce these sanctions, however,

contributed largely to the Italian victory. On May 9, 1936, Mussolini formally annexed Ethiopia and

proclaimed King Victor Emmanuel III emperor. Within a month, the country was incorporated, along

with Eritrea and Italian Somaliland, into a single colony, Italian East Africa. In October 1936, after

Germany had recognized the Italian conquest, Hitler and Mussolini concluded an agreement providing

for joint action in support of their common goals.

New stresses on the Italian economy were caused by Mussolini’s active espousal of General Francisco

Franco’s cause in the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). Italian troops played an important role at the

battles of Málaga and Santander, the Italian air force participated in many engagements, and Italian

submarines allegedly sank many neutral ships bound for Loyalist ports with oil, food, and other

supplies for the Republican armies. On the Guadalajara front, Italian forces were routed by the

D5b Relations with Germany

D5c The Ethiopian Campaign

D5d The Spanish Civil War

Italy


Spanish Loyalists in March 1937. An official report put Italian casualties at some 4,000 killed and

15,000 wounded.

By 1937, cooperation between Italy and Germany had begun to produce results. Following Mussolini’s

visit to Germany in September, Italy announced its adherence to the Anti-Comintern Pact between

Germany and Japan, and soon thereafter withdrew from the League of Nations. The first major

consequence of Italian policy toward Germany was Mussolini’s refusal to aid Austria when that republic

was absorbed by Germany in March 1938. Meanwhile, the increasing influence of Nazi racist doctrines

on Fascist Italy found expression in a series of measures designed to curb the activities of Italian

Jews, including a law that excluded all Jews from civil and military administrations. During the

negotiations for the Munich Pact in 1938 and the subsequent dismemberment of Czechoslovakia,

Mussolini gave firm support to Hitler’s demands. The two dictators signed a military assistance pact in

May 1939. This move followed the German seizure of Bohemia and Moravia and the Italian annexation

of Albania.

When World War II began in September 1939, Mussolini took the position that he was under no

obligation to aid Germany militarily because he had made it clear to the Nazis that Italy would not be

prepared for war until 1942.

German successes during the first year of the war, however, led Mussolini to reverse his policy. In

June 1940, when France lay prostrate in defeat and Britain alone faced the powerful German armies,

Italy entered the war and granted France an armistice. In August 1940, Italian forces in East Africa

occupied British Somaliland, and the following month Fascist armies in Libya and Italian East Africa

began a gigantic pincers movement designed to overwhelm British defenses in Egypt. On October 28,

1940, Fascist forces in Albania invaded Greece, apparently to divert British forces from Egypt and to

secure bases on the Greek peninsula. The invasion failed, however, as the Greeks drove the Italians

from Greece and Albania. This debacle, followed by British victories in the Mediterranean and in Egypt,

rocked the Fascist regime to its foundations. Mussolini had to ask Hitler for aid, and thereafter Italian

policy in all fields fell increasingly under German control. Sweeping changes in the Fascist military

hierarchy were instituted, but these and other reforms failed to restore the morale of the Italian

people.

In 1941 Italy suffered successive military and naval disasters and growing economic privation caused

by an Allied blockade. Anti-Fascist sentiment spread throughout the population. The successful end of

the Balkan campaign, as a result of German intervention, somewhat offset the Fascist reverses,

D5e The Berlin-Rome Axis

D6 World War II (1939-1945)

D6a Entry into the War

D6b Occupation of the Balkans

Italy


however, as Italy acquired several new territories. By arrangement with Germany, almost all Greece

was occupied by Italian troops. Many Italians soon realized that their territorial gains in the Balkans

were largely illusory, because the Germans actually controlled these areas. Also, Italy was forced to

pay an increasingly high price for Hitler’s military assistance. Italian foodstuffs and other commodities

ran low as large shipments were sent to the Third Reich in return for German coal and oil. Italy

declared war on the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) on June 22, 1941, on the day of the

German invasion, and five weeks later the first Italian division was sent to the Soviet front. As

difficulties developed in the German offensive, Hitler became more pressing in his demands on

Mussolini.

At the same time, relations between the United States and Italy were approaching a showdown. In

March the U.S. government had seized 28 Italian merchant ships in U.S. ports and arrested crew

members who sabotaged the vessels on orders from the Italian naval attaché in Washington, D.C. The

immediate recall of the attaché was demanded, whereupon Italy forced the recall of the U.S. military

attaché in Rome. When Italian assets in the United States were impounded in June, similar measures

were taken against U.S. assets in Italy. The alienation reached a climax in December, after Japan’s

attack on Pearl Harbor, when Mussolini declared war on the United States.

The outlook for Fascist Italy in 1942 was gloomy. In North Africa, temporary Italo-German gains were

liquidated by a vigorous British offensive. Axis forces, including the Italians, suffered serious reverses

in the Soviet Union. Italian occupation troops in Albania, Yugoslavia, and Greece suffered heavy losses

from guerrilla bands.

At home the Italian people endured a bitter winter with short rations of food and fuel. Increasing

German control of all phases of Italian life, corruption and inefficiency among Fascist officials, and

evasion of the rationing laws by the wealthy and influential contributed to their demoralization. In

October the British launched a series of bombing raids against the industrial cities of northern Italy. As

advancing British and American forces in North Africa established air bases in Algeria and Cyrenaica,

southern Italy was also bombed. The political prestige of the Fascist regime continued to decline. In

February 1943, hoping to turn the tide, Mussolini assumed full responsibility for both political affairs

and military operations. When the Axis forces in Tunisia collapsed in May, he established a council of

defense to prepare for an Allied invasion of the Italian mainland. All efforts to bolster defenses and

raise morale, however, were nullified by the Allied air raids.

On July 10, 1943, following the capitulation of the strategic Italian island of Pantelleria in the

Mediterranean, Allied forces invaded Sicily. Six days later, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and

British Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill addressed a joint radio message to the people of Italy

urging their surrender to avoid greater devastation. The next day Allied planes dropped leaflets over

D6c The United States Enters the War

D6d German Control

D6e Invasion of Italy

Italy


Rome advising of a possible raid on military installations in its vicinity, but assuring that the utmost

care would be taken to avoid destruction of residential buildings and cultural monuments. About 500

Allied bombers then attacked railroad yards, war factories, and airfields near the city.

The bombing precipitated a large-scale exodus of the Roman population and brought the political crisis

to a climax. During the raid Mussolini was at Verona, conferring with Hitler on measures to meet the

next phase of the Allied invasion. On his return to Rome he was confronted with a demand for a

meeting of the Fascist Grand Council to consider the Italian military crisis. After a stormy debate, the

session concluded with a no-confidence vote against Mussolini. King Victor Emmanuel on July 25

asked for Mussolini’s resignation and placed him in military custody. He summoned Marshal Pietro

Badoglio to form a new ministry. The Badoglio cabinet soon decreed the liquidation of all Fascist

organizations.

The fall of Mussolini precipitated clamorous peace demonstrations throughout Italy. Meanwhile, the

Allies continued their advance in Sicily. Churchill offered Italy the choice of breaking off its alliance

with Germany or suffering destruction; General Dwight D. Eisenhower, Allied commander in chief,

promised the Italian people an honorable peace and a beneficent occupation if they ended their aid to

the German war effort. In mid-August, a representative of Prime Minister Badoglio arrived in Lisbon

with an offer to join the Allies against Germany when the Allied invasion of the Italian mainland

began. American and British staff officers were dispatched to negotiate with the Italian emissary on

the basis of Italy’s unconditional surrender. The armistice was signed on September 3, the day the

invasion of southern Italy began.

The announcement of the armistice set off a furious race between the Allies and the Germans for

possession of the territories, bases, arms and supplies, communications, and other war facilities

formerly under Italian control. A large Anglo-American amphibious force landed on the beaches of

Salerno just south of Naples, hoping to drive inland and trap the German units facing the British

Eighth Army farther south. The Germans, however, held off the invasion force until German units in

southern Italy could retire. They also seized the cities and strategic centers of northern and central

Italy, disarmed Italian troops, and rounded up thousands of suspected enemies. On September 10

they occupied Rome, from which King Victor Emmanuel III and Badoglio had fled two days earlier. The

Allies were more successful in the race for control of the Italian fleet. In response to a message from

the Allied naval commander in the Mediterranean, virtually all seaworthy Italian warships left their

bases at La Spezia and other Italian-held ports to surrender to the Allies in accordance with the

armistice terms.

The Germans retained the support of pro-Fascist Italians by announcing in September that a Fascist

National Government had been established in opposition to the Badoglio government and was

functioning in the name of Mussolini. The former dictator had been rescued from prison by German

parachute troops, thus balking Badoglio’s promise to deliver him to the Allies.

D6f Surrender and Armistice

D6g The Battle for Italy

Italy


In line with pledges made to the Allies and to the Italian people, Prime Minister Badoglio declared war

on Germany on October 13 and reorganized his government on a broader, more democratic basis.

Seeking to induce leaders of various anti-German political groups to enter his cabinet, he conferred

with leaders of six political parties, disbanded by Mussolini, which had united to form a National

Liberation Front. These liberal elements, however, would consent to form a representative government

only if Victor Emmanuel abdicated. The king refused, and Badoglio declined any part in a move to oust

him. As a temporary solution, he organized a so-called technical government of nonparty experts to

carry on administrative functions. In November the Committee of National Liberation voted no-

confidence in the Badoglio government and called on the king to abdicate.

In April 1944 the king announced his decision to withdraw from public affairs and to appoint his son

Humbert, later King Humbert II, as lieutenant general of Italy, the appointment to become effective

on the entry of Allied troops into Rome. This cleared the way for a government representing the

National Committee of Liberation. The Allied armies liberated Rome on June 4, and Victor Emmanuel

transferred all royal authority to Humbert. The party leaders of the Committee of National Liberation,

however, unanimously refused to serve in the Badoglio government, and the position of prime

minister was given to Ivanoe Bonomi, who formed a coalition government.

Because the new government was under Allied jurisdiction and control, its plans for domestic reforms

were largely nullified. American and British officials, fearful of anything that might impede the Allied

war effort, vetoed all proposals for social and economic change. Allied authorities also frowned on

Italian anti-Fascist volunteers and resistance fighters, most of whom were radicals. The new cabinet

largely agreed on basic political issues. Middle-class liberals and proletarian radicals were united in the

belief that the armistice terms should be modified and that Italy should be allowed to reshape itself

into a self-governing democracy. Communists and Socialists, elsewhere bitter adversaries, advocated

economic reform. Even Communists and Roman Catholics found areas of agreement.

The winter of 1944 to 1945 was a period of intense suffering, particularly in the ravaged areas left by

the retreating Germans. Throughout the central provinces were burned villages, idle or flooded fields,

and ruined factories, railroads, power plants, and bridges. Some 800,000 hectares (some 2 million

acres) of arable land were uncultivated, and prices of necessities rose prohibitively. As a result of the

widespread misery, the Action and Socialist parties sharply criticized Bonomi’s leadership. Industrial

stagnation, mass unemployment, and skyrocketing inflation, however, continued to frustrate the

government in its efforts to rehabilitate the national economy.

D6h War Declared on Germany

D6i The King Retires

D6j A Hard Winter

D6k Death of Mussolini

Italy


The final Allied offensive in Italy began in April 1945, and by the end of the month the German armies

had been completely smashed. Mussolini, his mistress, and several of his high-ranking colleagues

were captured by Italian partisans at a small town near Lake Como. The entire group was summarily

tried and, on April 28, executed. Northern Italians inflicted brutal vengeance on Mussolini’s followers

after the German surrender on May 2. More than 1,000 Fascists were shot in Milan alone.

In accordance with a previous pledge Bonomi resigned after the liberation of northern Italy. A coalition

government, representing the entire Committee of National Liberation, was then formed. The new

government, headed by Ferruccio Parri, leader of the Action Party, was little more than a stopgap

regime, however; it was unable to grapple effectively with the problems confronting Italy. In October,

monarchists and leaders of the Liberal Party accused Prime Minister Parri of violating the truce on the

question of the monarchy, and he subsequently resigned. The ensuing crisis was accompanied by

riotous demonstrations in southern Italy against the high cost of living. The Committee of National

Liberation finally offered the premiership to Alcide De Gasperi, a Christian Democrat. He took office on

December 9.

The year 1946 was one of unparalleled hardship for most of the Italian people. Although the privations

Italian Partisans Patrolling in Milan, 1945

Civilian resistance fighters, or partisans, played an active role in defeating Hitler’s forces in Italy. While thousands of Italian soldiers were forced to fight alongside the Nazis in Italy or on the Russian front, most Italian citizens opposed Mussolini’s Fascist regime. As the war came to an end in 1945, partisans captured Mussolini and executed him. Partisans also exacted vengeance on German sympathizers and high-ranking officials of the Fascist establishment.

D6l Rise of De Gasperi

Fotocronache Olympia

Italy


provoked occasional civil unrest, the general mood of the populace was apathetic during the campaign

preceding the national referendum and elections for a constituent assembly in June. The prevalence of

opposition to the monarchy was indicated in April, when the convention of the Christian Democratic

Party voted by a ratio of 3 to 1 in favor of a republic. King Victor Emmanuel III abdicated on May 9,

and his son ascended the throne as Humbert II.

Nearly 25 million voters, about 89 percent of the eligible electorate, which for the first time included

women, voted in the general elections of June 2 and 3, 1946. Of the voters, 54.3 percent chose a

republic. On June 10, when the popular mandate was officially proclaimed, Italy became a de facto

republic. Three days later King Humbert abdicated and left the country.

In the vote for the Constituent Assembly the Christian Democrats won a plurality of 207 seats and

emerged as the dominant party in Italy. The Socialist Party won 115 seats, the Communists gained

104 seats, and four minor parties shared the remaining 117 seats. On June 28 Enrico de Nicola, a

member of the Liberal Party, was elected provisional president of the republic. De Gasperi remained as

prime minister.

In the deliberations preceding approval of the new republican government by the Constituent

Assembly, irreconcilable disagreements between the Communists and Christian Democrats became

evident. This friction was intensified by persistent semifamine and the generally chaotic Italian

economy. As the prestige of the De Gasperi government declined, the Socialist and Communist parties

drew together. Municipal elections in November 1946 indicated a decline in Christian Democratic

support and gains for the Communist, Socialist, and rightist parties.

The despairing mood of the Italians was meanwhile aggravated by preliminary decisions of the Big

Four (France, Britain, the United States, and the USSR), as revealed at the Paris Peace Conference in

July 1946. These decisions contemplated the internationalization of Trieste, the cession of several

territories, and the award of $100 million in reparations to the USSR. The proposed treaty provided

also for additional reparations to other nations victimized by fascism, for severe restrictions on the

Italian armed forces, and for British administration of Italian East Africa, pending a Big Four

agreement on final disposition of the colonies. Despite popular protests, the treaty was signed at Paris

on February 10, 1947, and was subsequently ratified by the Italian Constituent Assembly, with

Communist and Socialist delegates abstaining; it came into effect on September 15. Allied occupation

forces withdrew from Italy shortly thereafter. Although the Italian people generally opposed the peace

treaty, many were mollified by the attitude of the U.S. government, which had helped to frustrate

Soviet demands for harsher terms and had also concretely demonstrated its friendly intentions toward

Italy.

E The Republic

E1 Principal Parties

E2 Paris Peace Conference

Italy


Early in 1947 the Italian Socialist Party, reflecting a trend in Europe, split into two groups on the issue

of collaboration with the Communists. Pietro Nenni, foreign minister in De Gasperi’s cabinet and a

leader of the pro-Communist faction, resigned on January 15. The entire cabinet then withdrew, and

De Gasperi formed another coalition ministry, including both Communists and Socialists. Relations

between the leftists and moderates deteriorated steadily thereafter. In the mounting Cold War

between the Western democracies and the Soviet bloc, Italians chose sides according to their

ideology. During this period the extreme right, composed mainly of former adherents of Mussolini and

monarchists, became increasingly bold. On May 1 an armed band attacked a Communist-led parade at

Greci, Sicily, killing eight people. The incident precipitated a cabinet crisis from May 13 to 31, when De

Gasperi formed a ministry of Christian Democrats and nonparty specialists, excluding both

Communists and Socialists. The new regime immediately began a purge of leftists from important

public positions.

Bitter political strife followed. By means of mass demonstrations, general strikes, and other tactics the

leftists tried to dislodge the De Gasperi government. Reflecting hostility to the Italian government, the

USSR in the United Nations Security Council vetoed Italy’s application for United Nations (UN)

membership. At the same time the Italian Communist Party became a founding member of

Cominform. See International.

Meanwhile, the Constituent Assembly had drafted a constitution for Italy. Approved on December 22,

1947, by a vote of 453 to 62, the document became effective on January 1, 1948. The ensuing

national election campaign was one of the most bitter and dramatic in Italian history. Coinciding with

an intensification of the Cold War, the contest brought Italy to the verge of civil war. Displays of force

became a central feature in the strategy of many parties. The Communist-led coalition, operating

through the General Confederation of Labor, frequently used strikes as a political weapon. In reprisals

against the Left, the government confiscated arms and ammunition and conducted intimidatory

military demonstrations in various urban areas. Pope Pius XII sanctioned anti-Communist activity by

the Italian clergy.

In the elections on April 18 and 19 the Christian Democratic Party won overwhelmingly. It received

nearly 49 percent of the vote, giving it 307 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 151 in the Senate.

The Popular Front, the coalition of Communists and left-wing Socialists, won 182 seats in the Chamber

of Deputies and 31 in the Senate. The right-wing Socialists elected 33 deputies; the remaining 52

seats went to minor parties.

The decisive mandate to the Christian Democrats markedly reduced political tension in Italy. Because

of the relative strength displayed by the Communists, however, reconciliation of the differences that

E3 Political Violence

E4 Parliamentary Elections

E5 Communist Opposition

Italy


had divided the nation appeared unlikely. On May 11, Luigi Einaudi, the candidate of the Christian

Democrats and right-wing Socialists, was elected president of the Italian republic. De Gasperi was

reappointed prime minister.

Supplies and credits made available under the Marshall Plan (see European Recovery Program) had

meanwhile begun to flow into Italy, creating favorable conditions for reconstruction of the national

economy. Adhering to their policy of irreconcilable struggle against the plan, Communists promoted a

widespread strike for higher wages. The movement culminated on July 2 in a general 12-hour walkout.

Within two weeks Italy was plunged into another grave crisis as the result of the attempted

assassination of Palmiro Togliatti, head of the Italian Communist Party. The General Confederation of

Labor, charging the government with political responsibility, immediately called a nationwide general

strike to force its resignation. During the next two days riotous demonstrations occurred in practically

every city of Italy. Peace was restored only by the mobilization of more than 300,000 troops and

police.

In 1949 the Popular Front confined its struggle against the Christian Democratic regime chiefly to the

chambers of parliament. The principal object of Communist attacks during this period was the

proposed North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). With the unanimous approval of his cabinet and

a large majority of the Chamber of Deputies, however, De Gasperi signed the treaty at Washington,

D.C., on April 4, 1949.

The Big Four meanwhile had failed to agree on the disposition of Italian prewar colonies in Africa, and

the matter had been referred to the United Nations (UN). On November 21, 1949, the UN General

Assembly adopted a resolution on the issue. Its salient features included provisions for granting

independence to Italian Somaliland after 10 years as a UN trust territory under Italian administration;

for granting independence to Libya by January 1, 1952; and for disposition of Eritrea on the basis of a

report to be prepared by a UN special commission.

Italy continued to collaborate with the Western democracies after its ratification of the North Atlantic

Treaty. The government announced in July 1950 that the Italian army would be built up to 250,000,

the limit imposed by the World War II peace treaty. Further expansion of the military establishment

was announced the following December. The Western countries subsequently waived the clauses of

the peace treaty concerning restrictions on Italy’s rearmament.

In June 1952 the Italian parliament ratified the Schuman Plan creating the European Coal and Steel

Community, which would become the European Community (now the European Union).

In an attempt to improve the effectiveness of the executive branch of the government, the Christian

Democrats and their allies secured passage, in March 1953, of an electoral reform bill ensuring the

party in power of a working majority in parliament. The bill provided that a party or coalition polling

E6 Foreign Problems and Treaties

E7 Fall of De Gasperi

Italy


50 percent or more of the popular vote would receive 65 percent of the seats in the Chamber of

Deputies.

Parliamentary elections were held on June 7 and 8. The Christian Democrats emerged again as the

strongest party, this time with 40 percent of the votes. The Communists were second (22.6 percent),

and the parties of the Right, which registered the biggest gains (12.7 percent as compared with 4.2

percent in 1948), were third. De Gasperi was succeeded as prime minister by Giuseppe Pella, former

minister of the treasury, who won the neutrality of the Socialists and the support of the monarchists.

Intraparty differences, however, brought about the collapse of several governments in the following

two years.

Late in 1953 the question of the future status of the Free Territory of Trieste brought Italy and

Yugoslavia to the verge of war, but tensions abated after the United States, Britain, and France agreed

to work out a formula acceptable to both sides. The subsequent settlement in 1954 allocated a zone

including the city of Trieste to Italy; Yugoslavia received the rest of the Trieste region. Italy became a

member of the United Nations in 1955.

The repudiation of Joseph Stalin at the 20th Congress of the Soviet Communist Party in February 1956

plunged the powerful Italian Communist Party into confusion, and it disillusioned the left-wing

Socialists and weakened their alliance with the Communists. After the Hungarian uprising in October

of that year, the number of Communist sympathizers dwindled. The decline of the party strengthened

democratic forces.

In the elections held on May 25 and 26, 1958, the center coalition obtained majorities in both houses

of parliament. A new coalition government composed of Christian Democrats and right-wing Socialists

and led by Amintore Fanfani was sworn in on July 2. He was succeeded in January 1959 by Antonio

Segni, whose cabinet consisted entirely of Christian Democrats. Widespread criticism of the visit by

President Giovanni Gronchi to the Soviet Union in February 1960 led to the fall of the government

later that month. In July, Fanfani returned to office and, with the voting support of three centrist

parties, obtained approval of a cabinet composed entirely of Christian Democratic ministers. Two years

later, former Prime Minister Segni, who was foreign minister in Fanfani’s government, was elected to

the presidency.

Local elections in 1962 demonstrated strong popular support for the progovernment parties, and the

Communists lost strength for the first time in many years. Subsequently, dissension arose among the

parties supporting the government. It had its base in Communist criticism of Fanfani’s policies,

including charges that the prime minister had failed to stimulate domestic economic reforms and to

secure the removal of NATO missile bases from Italy. Although the parties agreed in January 1963 to

continue their support of his government, it was weakened by the results of parliamentary elections

on April 28 and 29. The popular vote for the Christian Democrats declined to 38.3 percent, while the

Communist vote increased to 25.3 percent. Fanfani resigned on May 16 but remained head of a

caretaker government until Giovanni Leone, president of the Chamber of Deputies, formed a

temporary Christian Democratic minority government.

E8 Christian Democratic Governments

Italy


In October the moderate elements of the left-wing Italian Socialist Party, led by Nenni, agreed to

enter a center-left government for the first time since 1947. A four-party coalition cabinet was then

organized by the Christian Democrat Aldo Moro, who assumed the position of prime minister in

December.

During 1964 the conservative and left-wing elements in the government persistently and

fundamentally disagreed. The situation was rendered more serious by signs that the six-year

economic boom would be ending because the factions were unable to agree on a policy to counter the

threatened downturn. On March 4, 1965, however, the four parties in the coalition government agreed

to set aside their political differences in order to take unified action against the economic slump.

Throughout 1965 and 1966 the government headed by Moro maintained the confidence of the

coalition parties.

Since the late 1960s Italy has experienced dramatic social, economic, political, and religious

developments. In 1968 students demanding educational reforms clashed with police on university

campuses in Rome and other cities, and workers called general strikes to urge an overhaul of the

social security system. Feminist issues became more important as a divorce law was adopted in 1973

and abortion was legalized in 1978. Problems of inflation, unemployment, and currency outflows

increased with the 1974 recession and Italy’s huge oil import bills. Government deficits rose rapidly;

massive international loans were needed to avert bankruptcy.

Throughout this period, Italy’s political system struggled to cope with the pace of change. The late

1960s and early 1970s were characterized by a series of short-lived, mainly coalition governments,

led by the Christian Democrats. For a short period in 1974 the country was without a government

altogether. As Italy’s economic problems worsened and a wave of extortive kidnappings and political

E9 Opening to the Left

Pietro Nenni

In October 1963 the Left wing Socialist Party of Italy, led by Pietro Nenni, agreed to enter a coalition for the first time since 1947. The Socialists joined with three other parties, led by the Christian Democrats, to form a government.

E10 Social Upheavals

AP/Wide World Photos/Huynh Cong

Italy


violence swept the country, public confidence in the government declined, and support for the

Communist Party, led by Enrico Berlinguer, increased.

In the June 1975 regional elections the Communists won 33 percent of the vote and pressed the

government to support a long-term alliance between Communism and Roman Catholicism. In

parliamentary elections in June 1976 the Communists made more gains, winning 35 percent of the

vote; the Christian Democrats won 39 percent. The Christian Democrat leader Giulio Andreotti formed

a new government with Communist support; by July 1977 the Communists were permitted a voice in

policy making. The Andreotti government fell in January 1978 when the Communists insisted that the

country’s economic crisis required emergency rule, with Communists holding cabinet positions. Finally,

in March, Andreotti formed a new Christian Democrat government with formal support from the

Communists. The eventual loss of Communist support led to Andreotti’s resignation in January 1979.

Violence and lawlessness, which had plagued Italian society throughout the 1970s, took more virulent

forms toward the end of the decade. Outraged by the Communists’ decision to ally themselves with

the government, extreme left-wing terrorists preyed on politicians, police, journalists, and

businessmen. In March 1978 former Prime Minister Aldo Moro was kidnapped by a fanatical left-wing

group, the Red Brigades, which made Moro’s release contingent on the freeing of other terrorists from

Italian jails. The government refused to deal with Moro’s captors, and he was subsequently found

murdered.

From June 1979 to June 1981 the Christian Democrats led the government, as they had for more than

three decades. In 1981, however, Giovanni Spadolini, a leader of the small Republican Party, became

the first post-World War II prime minister who was not a Christian Democrat. Another series of

cabinet crises in August 1983 led to the formation of a government under Bettino Craxi, Italy’s first

Socialist prime minister since the war. He served until March 1987, the longest tenure of any postwar

E11 Urban Terrorism

E12 Shifting Alignments

Sandro Pertini

Sandro Pertini served as president of Italy from 1978 to 1985.

Woodfin Camp and Associates, Inc./Shone/Sipa Press

Italy


leader. During his term, in 1984, Roman Catholicism lost its status as Italy’s state religion, as the

government signed a new concordat with the Vatican to replace the Lateran Treaty of 1929.

Craxi’s term was followed by several short-lived governments in the late 1980s. In July 1987 Christian

Democrat Giovanni Goria became prime minister; his five-party coalition broke up in March 1988, and

Ciriaco De Mita, leader of the Christian Democrats’ left wing, came to power. A year later De Mita was

ousted as party secretary, and in May 1989 he resigned as prime minister. Then in July Andreotti

returned for his sixth time as prime minister. Divisions among Christian Democrats and the five-party

coalition led to his resignation in March 1991, but when no one else was able to form a government,

Andreotti did so again in April, remaining in office for another year.

The collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe precipitated changes in Italy as well. In 1991 the

Italian Communists renamed themselves the Democratic Party of the Left, downplaying their former

atheism and emphasis on class conflict in favor of issues such as the environment, feminism, and the

economic disparity between the country’s industrial north and the poverty-ridden south. The Socialist

Party, still led by Craxi, tried to unify the left and renamed itself the Party of Socialist Unity.

Meanwhile, the separatist Northern League gained popularity by criticizing central government waste

and advocating a federal system that would grant more regional autonomy.

Voters showed their lack of confidence in all established parties in elections held in April 1992. The

once-dominant Christian Democrats received 29.7 percent of the vote, an all-time low. The renamed

Communists, in second place, drew 16.1 percent, down from 26.6 percent in 1987; the Socialists were

third, with 13.6 percent.

The voter backlash resulted from a combination of factors, including a poor economy, high

unemployment, and the public revelation of widespread political corruption and Mafia influence at high

levels of the government. In the years that followed, thousands of individuals, including hundreds of

politicians as well as judicial and business leaders, were investigated or arrested on charges that

included taking bribes and granting political and economic favors. As a result of the scandal, Craxi was

forced to resign his position as head of the Socialist Party in early 1993. In July 1994, facing arrest for

accepting bribes, he fled to Tunisia, where he remained in self-imposed exile until his death in 2000.

In April 1993 Italian voters approved eight governmental reform referendums, which revised the

country’s electoral system and ended state funding of political parties. Soon after the elections Prime

Minister Giuliano Amato resigned and was replaced by the head of the Bank of Italy, Carlo Azeglio

Ciampi.

In March 1994 a newly formed right-wing coalition called the Freedom Alliance was voted into power,

winning 58 percent of the vote; the left-wing coalition received 34 percent of the vote, and the once-

dominant centrist parties drew only 7 percent. The Freedom Alliance was composed of the new Forza

Italia party, a creation of media magnate Silvio Berlusconi; the far-right National Alliance; and the

Northern League. With 25 percent of the vote, Forza Italia was the election leader, and Berlusconi was

named prime minister, with the Freedom Alliance holding a majority in the Chamber of Deputies and

forming the strongest force in the Senate. But Berlusconi’s coalition collapsed in December 1994 when

the Northern League withdrew from the alliance. Berlusconi, who was also facing investigation on

Italy


bribery charges, resigned as prime minister.

In January 1995 Lamberto Dini, Berlusconi’s treasury minister, was appointed prime minister by

President Oscar Luigi Scalfaro to lead a politically neutral, transitional government. Dini’s government

passed an austerity budget to deal with Italy’s worsening economy, which included a crippling national

deficit and a devalued lira. It also oversaw efforts to reform the regional electoral system and state

pension system and to enact rules governing political access to television. Dini resigned in January

1996, but continued in office until elections were held in April.

The April 1996 elections brought another change as a coalition known as the Olive Tree won the

chance to form a new government. The alliance’s largest member was the Democratic Party of the

Left; it also included former Christian Democrats and Dini’s newly formed Italian Renewal Party. Olive

Tree gained control of the Senate and a plurality, 284 seats, in the Chamber of Deputies. Romano

Prodi, an economics professor, was sworn in as prime minister, pledging to cut spending and reduce

unemployment.

The corruption scandals continued, engulfing prominent politicians as well as business leaders and

others. Former Prime Minister Andreotti was charged with selling favors to the Sicilian Mafia in

exchange for votes and political support. In January 1996 Berlusconi went on trial on charges of

bribing tax police to gain favorable treatment for one of his media companies. In January 1997 the

year-long trial was declared null and void when the presiding judge resigned after being accused of

bias against the defendant. In February a new trial began for Berlusconi, who continued to lead the

opposition Forza Italia party. Berlusconi was accused of falsifying the price of a film company bought

by one of his companies in 1989. He was found guilty in December 1997 and given a 16-month

suspended sentence. He was also convicted of bribery and corruption by a Milan court in 1998.

In November 1996 Italy moved to rejoin Europe’s currency system by admitting the lira into the

European exchange rate mechanism (ERM); the lira had been withdrawn from the ERM in 1992. After

heated debate, Prime Minister Prodi won parliamentary approval the following month for his 1997

budget. The budget contained a series of austerity measures aimed at reducing the budget deficit to 3

percent by the end of 1997 in accordance with EU requirements for participating in a common

European currency. The measures taken by Prodi’s government ultimately paid off, as Italy met the

requirements to join the common currency. In May 1998 Italy officially agreed to adopt the euro, the

new currency. The euro was gradually phased in between 1999 and 2002.

In September 1997 two large earthquakes struck the region of Umbria, in central Italy. In the town of

Assisi, the famous Basilica of San Francesco was severely damaged. The basilica, which contains many

famous paintings and frescoes by artists of the early Italian Renaissance, is one of the most visited

E13 The Prodi Governments

E13a Economic Reforms

E13b Natural Disasters

Italy


Roman Catholic shrines in Italy. The first quake occurred in the middle of the night on September 26,

causing extensive damage to villages in the area as well as at the Basilica of San Francesco. The

second quake struck several hours later as people were assessing damage to the basilica, collapsing a

large part of the its ceiling and killing four people.

In May 1998 heavy rains caused massive mudslides centered around the city of Sarno in the

Campania region. Rescue efforts were hampered by the hot weather immediately after the slides,

which caused the mud to harden quickly. It is estimated that up to 300 people may have died in the

slides. Experts say that deforestation and construction of buildings on soft or unstable land may have

contributed to the disaster.

In October 1998 Prodi lost a parliamentary confidence motion by only one vote. Massimo D’Alema, a

former Communist and head of the Democratic Party of the Left, put together a broad center-left

coalition that took power in the Italian parliament. D’Alema replaced Prodi as prime minister,

becoming the first ex-Communist to serve in that position. The new prime minister hoped to stabilize

the Italian government with proposals for electoral reform, but a national referendum on the issue was

E14 Recent Events

Silvio Berlusconi

Media magnate Silvio Berlusconi, backed by his political movement Forza Italia, became prime minister following Italy’s March 1994 general elections. He was forced to resign in December 1994 after the withdrawal of the Northern League from his conservative coalition shattered his majority in parliament. However, despite a number of corruption scandals involving Berlusconi’s business interests, he was reelected prime minister in May 2001.

AP/Wide World Photos/Gregorio Borgia

Italy


narrowly defeated in April 1999 when it failed to receive the required percentage of voter turnout to

validate the election.

In May 1999 former prime minister Carlo Azeglio Ciampi was elected president. In December of that

year, in the face of widening cracks in his ruling coalition, D’Alema resigned as prime minister. After

negotiations between the opposition parties failed to produce a government, D’Alema returned to

office at the head of a slightly smaller center-left coalition. This new government, however, was

equally short-lived, and after his coalition sustained heavy losses in regional elections in April 2000,

D’Alema resigned for good. He was replaced by former prime minister Giuliano Amato, who had

served as treasury minister in D’Alema’s cabinet.

The center-left’s control of government came to an end in national elections in May 2001, when a

conservative alliance led by Silvio Berlusconi captured a majority of seats in the upper and lower

houses of parliament. Berlusconi’s winning alliance included his own Forza Italia party, which emerged

from the elections as the nation’s largest single party; the National Alliance; and four smaller

conservative groups. As Italy’s new prime minister, Berlusconi pledged to lower taxes, streamline the

state bureaucracy, and modernize Italy’s sluggish economy.


Italy


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