IT2700CourseDocuments

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IT2700 Systems Analysis and Design

Course Documents

Chapter Summary

Chapters 1 - 10


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Chapter 1: Introduction to Systems Analysis and DesignThe following objectives will be covered:

Discuss the impact of information technology on business

Define an information system and describe its components

Use profiles and models to understand business functions and operations

Understand the impact of the Internet on business Identify various types of information systems and explain who uses them

Explain systems development tools, including modeling, prototyping, and CASE tools

Distinguish between structured analysis and object-oriented methodology

Describe the systems development life cycle

Discuss the role of the information technology department and the systems analystswho work there

Chapter 2: Analyzing the Business CaseThe following objectives will be covered:

Explain the concept of a business case and how a business case affects an ITproject

Describe the strategic planning process and why it is important to the IT team

Explain the purpose of a mission statement Describe the SDLC, and explain how it serves as a framework for systems

development and business modeling

List the reasons for information systems projects and the factors that affect suchprojects

Explain the initial review of systems requests and the role of the systems reviewcommittee

Define operational feasibility, technical feasibility, economic feasibility, and schedulefeasibility

Describe the steps in a preliminary investigation and the end product of aninvestigation

Chapter 3: Requirements Modeling

The following objectives will be covered:

Explain systems analysis phase activities and the end product of the systemsanalysis

Describe the Unified Modeling Language (UML) and explain use case diagrams andsequence

List and describe system requirements, including outputs, inputs, processes,performance,

Describe how to conduct a successful interview

Explain when and how to use fact-finding techniques, including interviews,documentation

Chapter 4: Enterprise ModelingThe following objectives will be covered:

Describe enterprise modeling concepts and tools, including entity-relationshipdiagrams, data flow diagrams, a data dictionary, and process descriptions

Explain how entity-relationship diagrams provide an overview of system interactions

Describe the symbols used in data flow diagrams and explain the rules for their use

Draw data flow diagrams in a sequence, from general to specific

Explain how to level and balance a set of data flow diagrams

Describe how a data dictionary is used and what it contains

Use process description tools, including structured English, decision tables, anddecision trees
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Describe the relationship between logical and physical models

Chapter 5: Development StrategiesThe following objectives will be covered:

Describe software trends, including the concept of software as service

Explain software acquisition alternatives, including traditional versus Web-based

software development strategies Describe software outsourcing options, including the role of service providers

Explain advantages and disadvantages of developing software in-house versus otheralternatives

Explain cost-benefit analysis and financial analysis tools

Explain the differences between a request for proposal (RFP) and a request forquotation (RFQ)

Describe the contents of the system requirements document

Explain the transition from systems analysis to systems design, and the differencebetween logical and physical design

Explain the transition to systems design and the importance of prototyping

Discuss guidelines for system design, and explain the importance of codes

Chapter 6: Data DesignThe following objectives will be covered:

Explain data design concepts and data structures

Describe file processing systems and various types of files

Understand database systems and define the components of a databasemanagement system (DBMS)

Describe Web-based data design and characteristics

Explain data design terminology, including entities, fields, common fields, records,files, tables, and key fields

Describe data relationships, draw an entity-relationship diagram, define cardinalityand use cardinality notation

Explain the concept of normalization

Understand the steps in database design

Describe hierarchical, network, relational, and object-oriented database models Explain data warehousing and data mining

Differentiate between logical and physical storage and records

Explain data control measures

Chapter 7: User Interface, Input, and Output DesignThe following objectives will be covered:

Explain the concept of user interface design and human-computer interaction,including the basic principles of user-centered design

List specific guidelines for user interface design

Describe user interface techniques, including screen elements and controls

Explain input design concepts, techniques, and methods

Describe guidelines for data entry screen design

Use validation checks for reducing input errors Design effective source documents and input controls

Discuss output design issues and various types of output

Design various types of printed reports and suggest output controls and security

Chapter 8: System ArchitectureThe following objectives will be covered:

Provide a checklist of items to consider when selecting a system architecture

Describe servers, server-based processing, clients, and client-based processing
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Explain client/server architecture, including tiers, cost-benefit issues, andperformance considerations

Describe the impact of the Internet on system architecture

Explain the difference between online and batch processing

Define network topology, and provide examples of hierarchical, star, bus, and ringnetwork models

Explain network protocols and licensing issues Explain system management tools and techniques, including performance

management, system security, fault management, backup, and disaster recovery

Describe the systems design specification and explain the contents of each section

Chapter 9: Systems ImplementationThe following objectives will be covered:

Explain the importance of software quality assurance and software engineering

Describe the application development process

Draw a structure chart showing top-down design, modular design, cohesion, andcoupling

Explain the coding process and how code is generated

Explain unit testing, integration testing, and system testing

Differentiate between program, system, operations, and user documentation List the main steps in system installation and evaluation

Develop an overall training plan with specific objectives for each group ofparticipants, compare in-house and outside training providers, and describe effectivetraining techniques

Describe the data conversion process

Identify and describe changeover methods

Explain post-implementation evaluation

Describe the final report to management

Chapter 10: Systems Operation and SupportThe following objectives will be covered:

Explain how the systems operation and support phase relates to the rest of the

system development process Describe user support activities, including user training and help desks

Discuss the four main types of system maintenance: corrective, adaptive, perfective,and preventive

Explain techniques for managing systems operation and support, includingmaintenance teams, maintenance request procedures, configuration management,maintenance releases, version control, and baselines

Describe techniques for managing system performance, including performance andworkload measurement, and capacity planning

List factors indicating that a system has reached the end of its useful life

Assess future challenges and opportunities that IT professionals will face astechnology continues to reshape the workplace
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Chapter 1

Discuss the impact of information technology on business

Information technology, orIT, is a term that refers to the combination of hardware andsoftware products and services that companies use to manage, access, communicate, andshare information. Most businesses give information technology a high priority, and for good

reason. A report generated by the U.S. Department of Commerce, Digital Economy 2002,stated that IT has created a new economy and provides unprecedented benefits tobusinesses and individuals around the world. This growth is primarily driven by the explosionin Internet use, which is predicted to increase by 60 percent between 2001 and 2004. Duringperiods of economic growth, companies work to stay ahead of the IT curve with the mostadvanced hardware, software, and connectivity options. When the economy is weak, manycompanies depend on IT to reduce operating costs and improve business efficiency.

Define an information system and describe its components

An information system combines information technology, people, and data to supportbusiness requirements. An information system has five key components. The first ishardware, which consists of everything in the physical layer of the information system, suchas servers, workstations, scanners, handheld computers, and telecommunications equipment.

The second component is software, which refers to the programs that control the hardwareand produce the desired information or results. Data, the third component, refers to the rawmaterial that is transformed into useful information. The fourth component, processes,describe the tasks and functions that users, managers, and IT staff members perform toachieve specific business results. Processes represent actual day-to-day businessoperations, and thus are referred to as the building blocks of an information system. The finalcomponent of an information system consists of the people who use the information system,who are called users, orend users.

Use profiles and models to understand business functions and operations

A process called business process modeling is used by systems analysts to represent acompany's operations and information needs. In business processing modeling, the analyst'sfirst step is to create an overview that describes a company's overall functions, which is calleda business profile. The business profile often includes descriptions of the company'sprocesses, organization, products, services, customers, suppliers, competitors, constraints,and future goals. After creating a business profile, the analyst then creates a series of modelsthat document various business procedures. A business model is a graphical representationof one or more business processes that a company performs. This business processdescribes a specific set of transactions, events, tasks, and results carried out by the firm. Forexample, an analyst might create a business model that represents how the companyhandles a sales order. This model might include the event of receiving the sales order,followed by processes for checking customer status, verifying customer credit, and enteringcustomer order data. The final step in this model would be the desired result: the completedsales order.

Understand the impact of the Internet on business

Consumers can use the Internet to go online and purchase an enormous variety of productsand services. Internet-based commerce is called e-commerce (electronic commerce) orI-commerce (Internet commerce). Within the e-commerce shopping environment, consumerscan use the Internet to conduct research, compare prices and features, check availability,arrange delivery, and choose payment methods, all in one convenient session. These typesof activities refer to the sector of e-commerce called B2C, orbusiness-to-consumer. B2Cactivity is expected to grow dramatically in the coming years, which has created strongcompetition among the Web designers who create the sites that generate online sales. Theother main e-commerce sector is B2B, orbusiness-to-business. B2B allows companies to


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access the global marketplace, allowing greater access to information and opportunities forcost control. Most B2B transactions rely on individual data-sharing arrangements calledelectronic data interchange (EDI), by which company computers transfer data betweencompanies over private telecommunications networks. In the future, a substantial amount ofEDI traffic will take place on the Internet, making such arrangements accessible to more

businesses. It is predicted that B2B sales will increase to over $7 trillion by 2004.

Identify various types of information systems and explain who uses them

At one point, it was general practice for IT managers to divide systems into categories basedon the user group the system served. Today, these traditional labels no longer apply, asinformation use has changed in most companies. Thus, it makes more sense to identifysystems by their functions and features, rather than by who uses the system. Enterprisecomputing refers to information systems that support company-wide operations and datamanagement requirements. Examples of such company-wide operations include production,sales, services, inventory control, and accounting. Enterprise computing integrates IT into acompany's primary functions to improve efficiency, reduce costs, and help managers makekey decisions. Transaction processing (TP) systems process data generated by day-to-dayoperations of a business, such as accounts receivable, warranty claim processing, and

customer order processing. Business support systems offer job-related information supportto users at all levels of a company. For example, some companies use scanners to collectsales data that can update a company-wide database immediately. Knowledge managementsystems, also called expert systems, simulate human reasoning in order to provideinformation. Knowledge management systems combine a knowledge base and inferencerules that determine how the knowledge is applied. A knowledge base is a large databaseinto which users enter keywords or questions in order to find information, and inference rulesare logical rules that identify data patterns and relationships. User productivity systemsinclude e-mail, voice mail, fax, video conferencing, word processing, automated calendars,database management, spreadsheets, and much more. In short, user productivity systemsare systems that are used by employees at all levels to improve productivity.

Explain systems development tools, including modeling, prototyping, and CASE tools

Modeling is a systems development tool that involves creating a graphical representation of aprocess or concept that then can be analyzed, tested, and modified. An information systemcan be described using a set of business, data, object, network, and process models. Abusiness model, orrequirements model, describes the information a system must provide.

A data model describes the structure and design of data in the system. An object modeldescribes objects that combine data and processes, and a network model describes thedesign of telecommunications links. Finally, a process model describes the logic thatprogrammers use to write programming code. Another systems development tool isprototyping, which uses an early working version of an information system, called aprototype, to test and examine input, output, and user interfaces before final decisions aremade. Sometimes, a prototype can develop into the final version of the system; other times, aprototype serves as an initial model that is used as a benchmark in creating the finishedsystem. Computer-aided systems engineering, orCASE, is a technique that uses powerfulsoftware to assist systems analysts in developing and maintaining information systems. This

software is called CASE tools, and makes it easier to build an information system byproviding an overall framework for systems development and supporting a wide variety ofdesign methodologies used by analysts.

Distinguish between structured analysis and object-oriented methodology

Structured analysis is the most popular method for developing computer-based informationsystems. It uses a series of phases, called the systems development life cycle (SDLC), toplan, analyze, design, implement, and support an information system. Structured analysis iscalled a process-centered technique because it uses a set of process models to describe a


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system graphically. Structured analysis treats processes and data as separate components;the process accepts input data and transforms it into output data. Object-oriented analysis(O-O), on the other hand, combines data and the processes that act on the data into oneentity, which is called an object. O-O models real-world business processes and operations,with objects representing actual people, things, transactions, and events. All objects are

members of a class, which is a collection of similar objects. An object inherits propertiesfrom its class, or can possess properties on its own. Built-in processes called methods canchange an object's properties. One object can send information to another object by using amessage, which requests specific behavior or information from another object. O-O takesadvantage of object models to represent data and behavior, and to show how objects canaffect other objects.

Describe the systems development life cycle

The SDLC is a model that describes activities and functions that all systems developersperform, regardless of which approach they use. These steps include systems planning,systems analysis, systems design, systems implementation, and systems operation andsupport. The systems planning phase typically beings with a formal request to the ITdepartment that describes problems or desired changes in an information system or a

business process. The IT department then performs a preliminary investigation to identifythe scope of the request, which often includes a feasibility study that reviews anticipatedcosts and benefits of proposed changes. The next step in the SDLC is the systems analysisphase, in which analysts build a logical model of the proposed new system. The purpose ofthe next phase, called the systems design phase, is to generate a blueprint that will satisfyall documented requirements for the system. This phase involves the design of the userinterface and internal and external controls that ensure the system will be reliable, accurate,maintainable, and secure. The result of this phase is a document called the systems designspecification that is presented to managements and users for review. The next phase iscalled the systems implementation phase, in which the new system is constructed. Theprocedure for constructing a new system is the same whether structured analysis or O-Omethodology is used; programs are written, tested, and documented, and the system isinstalled. Final preparations including converting data to the new system's files, training users,and undergoing the transition to the new system. A formal assessment, called a systems

evaluations, is performed to determine whether the system acts as expected. The final stageof the SDLC is the systems operation and support phase, in which the IT staff maintainsand enhances the system as necessary.

Discuss the role of the information technology department and the systems analystswho work there

The function of a company's information technology (IT) department is to develop andmaintain the company's information systems. In large companies, the IT department may becomprised of many people with specialized skills; in a small firm, a single person might handleall computer support activities and services. However structured, the IT department providestechnical support, which includes six functions. The first is application development, whichrefers to system design, development and implementation. While the traditional applicationdevelopment group within an IT department was comprised of systems analysts and

programmers, today, many companies use teams consisting of users, managers, and IT staffmembers to perform application development tasks. The second function of technical supportis systems support, which provides hardware and software support for information systems,which includes installation and assistance. If a company does not have a separate applicationdevelopment group, the systems support group coordinates the development of new systems.The user support function, which often is called a help desk orinformation center (IC),provides users with necessary technical information, training, and productivity support. Insome cases, the user support team also installs and configures software applications that areused within the organization. Database administration, imperative for companies withmission-critical database applications, refers to database design, management, security,


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backup and user access. Network administration includes the hardware and softwaremaintenance, support, and security that are associated with telecommunication networks.Web support specialists, often called webmasters, support a firm's Internet and intranetoperations by designing and constructing Web pages, monitoring traffic, managing hardwareand software, and linking Web-based applications to other company information systems.


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Chapter 2

Explain the concept of a business case and how a business case affects an IT project

A business case consists of the reasons, or justification, of a proposal that is reviewed by asystems analyst. An effective business case makes a suggestion for an IT project anddemonstrates that the company should pursue that suggestion, above other options, because

it would be in the firm's best interest to do so. For each proposal, the systems analyst mustconsider the company's overall mission, objectives, and IT needs. Evaluating the businesscase occurs during a process referred to as systems development. Systems developmentgenerally beings with a systems request, followed by a preliminary investigation. The strengthof the business case determines if a project will move forward in the review process

Describe the strategic planning process and why it is important to the IT team

Strategic planning is the process of identifying the long term goals, strategies, andresources of a business. By understanding the strategic planning process, the IT team is ableto focus on the larger, strategic role of IT as they work on evaluating and implementing a newsystem. The IT team should not only be concerned with the immediate details of an IT project,but also have a strong grasp of the long-term implications of the project and how it helps thecompany achieve its objects three, five, or even 10 years into the future. Top managers use a

method called SWOT analysis to assist in the strategic planning process and identifytechnical, human, and financial resources. SWOT analysis examines a company's strengths(S), weaknesses (W), opportunities (O), and threats (T). Each item in SWOT analysis isformed into a question, i.e., "What are our major strengths, and how can we maximize them inthe future?" The answers to the questions lead to an IT-related issue, which then results infurther analysis and planning.

Explain the purpose of a mission statement

A mission statement is a description of the company that includes the company's overallpurpose, products, services, and values. The mission statement is useful because it brieflydescribes the company's purpose and activities to its stakeholders. Stakeholders include allthose affected by the work of the company, such as employees, customers, stockholders,suppliers, and community members. A mission statement provides the foundation for acompany's day-to-day operations, short-term objectives, and long-term goals.

List the reasons for information systems projects and the factors that affect suchprojects

There are five main reasons that motivate proposals for information systems projects. Thefirst is improved service. An information systems project often aims to improve service tocustomers or employees. The second reason is to improve performance. The current systemmay not meet performance requirements and therefore needs to be reconfigured in order tosupport the company's current needs and future growth. The third reason is to provide moreinformation to the company. This is especially true in the area of marketing, as companiesgrow and need to make major decisions based on the best possible information they canobtain from their IT systems. The fourth reason is to provide stronger controls, which ensurethat data is secure and accurate. The fifth reason is to reduce costs so that the IT systemsused by a company are the most cost-effective solutions. Factors that affect IT systemsprojects can be categorized as internal and external factors. Internal factors include thecompany's strategic plan, top managers, user requirements, IT department, and thecompany's existing systems. External factors include technology, suppliers, customers,competitors, the economy, and the government. Each of these factors can influence whetheror not a systems request, which is a formal request for IT support, is considered for furtherreview.


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Explain the initial review of systems requests and the role of the systems reviewcommittee

A systems review committee, also called a computer resources committee, is made up ofkey managers and users within a company. A typical committee consists of the IT directorand several managers from other departments. The systems review committee evaluates

systems projects based on the combined judgment and experience of the committeemembers. Many firms streamline the systems request process by providing a special form tobe used to initiate a systems request. When a systems request form is received, an ITmanager or systems analyst examines it to determine the time and staffing that are requiredfor a preliminary investigation of the request. The committee then decides whether to proceedwith the investigation. To make such a decision, the committee must prioritize among allsystems requests that they receive. They must determine which project(s) should be pursuedfurther, and what criteria will be used to make further decisions. While most large companiesuse a systems review committee to evaluate systems requests, some smaller companies relyon one person to evaluate systems requests. In this case, the individual must consult closelywith others in the company to make sure that the needs of managers and users areconsidered carefully.

Define operational feasibility, technical feasibility, economic feasibility, and schedule

feasibility

In order to determine whether a systems request is worthwhile to proceed further, it mustpass several tests, called a feasibility study, which evaluate operational feasibility, technicalfeasibility, economic feasibility, and schedule feasibility. Operational feasibility refers towhether a system will be used effectively after it has been developed. Operational feasibility isbased on issues such as manager support, required training, workforce reduction, andadverse effects to users and customers. Technical feasibility involves the technicalresources that are needed to develop, purchase, install, or operate the system. Technicalfeasibility considerations include evaluation of hardware, software, and network resources,company expertise, and capacity for future transaction volume and company growth.Economic feasibility evaluates whether or not the projected benefits of the proposed systemoutweigh the estimated costs of the system (often referred to as the total cost of ownership,orTCO). Acquisition costs, maintenance costs, and ongoing support costs must be evaluated

against the tangible and intangible benefits of the proposed system. Lastly, schedulefeasibility refers to whether a project can be implemented in an acceptable time frame.

Describe the steps in a preliminary investigation and the end product of aninvestigation

A preliminary investigation studies a systems request and recommends a specific action. Thefirst step in a preliminary investigation is to understand the problem or opportunity at hand. Asystems analyst determines which departments, users, and business processes are involvedin a systems request, and then evaluate the causes and effects related to the proposedsystem. The second step is to define the project scope and constraints. The project scoperefers to the boundaries, or extent, of the project, being as specific as possible. Theconstraints are the requirements or conditions that the system must satisfy or an outcomethat the system must achieve. The third step is to perform fact-finding in accordance with

various techniques. Fact-finding techniques include analyzing organization charts, conductinginterviews with users and managers, reviewing documentation, observing operations, andconducting a user survey. The fourth step is to evaluate feasibility, including operational,technical, economic, and schedule feasibility. The fifth step is to estimate the time and cost ofproject development. The sixth and final step is to present the results and recommendationsto management. A preliminary investigation report is the end product of an investigation andincludes an evaluation of a systems request, an estimate of costs and benefits, and therecommendation of the analyst presenting the report.


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Chapter 3

Explain systems analysis phase and describe JAD

Systems analysis provides an understanding of the proposed project, ensures it will meetbusiness requirements, and details user requirements that will be used as the starting pointfor systems design. Requirements modeling is the first phase of systems analysis and

involves investigation and fact-finding to describe the current system. The end product ofsystems analysis is the systems requirements document, which includes the results ofrequirements, data, process, and objects modeling. These activities, along with the transitionto systems design, comprise the major activities of systems analysis. Joint applicationdevelopment (JAD) uses a team of systems analysts, users, and managers to perform theprocesses of systems analysis.

Describe and develop effective documentation methods to use during systemsdevelopment

Systems analysis requires a significant documentation of the results of the various modelingactivities. The Unified Modeling Language (UML) provides an industry standard method ofvisualizing and documenting software systems design. Two of the diagrams included in UMLare use case diagrams and sequence diagrams. A use case diagram visually represents the

interactions between users and information systems. In the use case diagram, the user isrepresented as an actorwith a specific role that describes how the user interacts with thesystem. Sequence diagrams illustrate the timing of interactions between system componentsas they occur. A functional decomposition diagram (FDD) provides a graphicalrepresentation of the entire system. The FDD shows the business functions and processes ofthe system in a top-down fashion.

List and describe system requirements, and explain TCO and the importance ofscalability

The purpose of systems analysis is discovering and modeling system requirements. Asystem requirement is a characteristic or feature of the system that must be included tosatisfy business requirements and meet user needs. System requirements can relate tooutputs that the system produces, inputs (how data is entered into the system), processes

that describe how data is transformed, performance, and controls related to system security.Scalability is a measure of how well the system can adjust to increased performancerequirements after the system has been implemented. Total cost of ownership (TCO)includes all costs associated with a systems project including both direct costs, such as thesalary of programmers and the price of equipment, and indirect costs, such as training anduser support.

Describe how to conduct a successful interview

An interview is a planned meeting where the systems analyst questions a user or otherknowledgeable party about how the existing system works and what the requirements are forthe new system. For an interview to be successful, the systems analyst should follow asequenced set of actions. First, the analyst should determine who should be interviewed.Prior to the interview, the analyst should identify what his or her objectives are for eachspecific interview and develop questions based on these objectives. During the interview, theanalyst needs to listen to the answers and not just ask questions. Finally, document andevaluate the interview.

Explain when and how to use fact-finding techniques

Fact-finding focuses on current processes and procedures to provide a base to analyze whatshould be done to support and improve these processes. The primary tool in fact-finding iscollecting information from users and others involved in the operation of the current system


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through interviews and written questionnaires. Document review can facilitate anunderstanding of how the current system is supposed to work by reviewing proceduremanuals, forms, and related documentation. Observation of actual operating proceduresmay assist in identifying aspects of the current system that can be changed to improveperformance. Actual system inputs and outputs should be examined. Sampling techniques

provide a method for looking at only a small subset of inputs and outputs that represent theentire collection. In addition, research on the Internet or in a library may be used for fact-finding.


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Chapter 4

Describe enterprise modeling concepts and tools, including entity-relationshipdiagrams, data flow diagrams, a data dictionary, and process descriptions

Many graphical techniques are used to describe an information system. An entity-reltationship diagram (ERD) is a model that shows the logical relationships among system

entities. An entity us a person, place, thing, or event for which data is collectred andmaintained. A data flow diagram (DFD) illustrates how data moves through an informationsystem. DFDs do not show logic or processing steps; they show what the system does, nothow it does it. A data dictionary is a central storehouse of information about the data in asystem. A data dictionary stores the details within the set of DFDs that make up the logicalmodel of the system. A process description documents the details of a functional primitive,which represents a specific set of processing steps and business logic

Explain how entity-relationship diagrams provide an overview of system interactions

An entity-relationship diagram recognizes the relationships among nictitates, which helpsyou understand the interaction among them. An entity-relationship diagram requires you tocategorize the type of relationships that exist, based on three basic relationship types. Thefirst is a one-to-one relationship, abbreviated 1:1, which exists when exactly one of the

second entity occurs for each instance of the first entity. A one-to-many relationship,abbreviate 1:M, is when one occurrence of the first entity can relate to many instances of thesecond entity, but each instance of the second entity can associate with only instance of thefirst entity. Finally, a many-to-many relationship, abbreviated M:N, exists when onceinstance of the first entity can relate to many instances of the second entity, and one instanceof the second entity can relate to many instances of the first entity.

Describe the symbols used in data flow diagrams and explain the rules for their use

Four based symbols are used in DFDs. These symbols represent processes, data flows, datastores, and entities. A process symbol represents the interaction between input data andoutput. The symbol for a process is a rectangle with rounded corners, with the name of theprocess inside the rectangle. The process name must consist of a verb (and an adjective, ifnecessary), followed by a singular noun. A process receives input data and produces outputthat has a different content, form, or both. Processes contain the business logic, also calledthe business rules, that transform the data and produce the required output. A data flowsymbol is used in a DFD to represent the path by which data moves from one part of theinformation to another. The symbol for a data flow is a line with a single or double arrowhead,with the data flow name written above, below, or alongside the line. A data store symbolrepresents the data that the system stores because one or more processes need to use thedata at a later time. A data store must be connected to a process with a data flow. An entitysymbol is used to represent external entities that provide data to the system or receive outputfrom the system. The symbol for an entity is a rectangle, with the name of the entity writteninside the rectangle.

Draw data flow diagrams in a sequence, from general to specific

The most general view of an information system is a context diagram, which is a top-levelview of an information system tat shows the system's boundaries and scope. The first step isto place a single process symbol in the center of the page, which you identify as process 0.This process represents the entire information system, and is connected to other centralprocesses using data flows. To show the detail inside a context diagram, you create diagram0, which shows major processes, data flows, and data stores. When you explode a DFD toshow a more detailed version of the process, the higher-level diagram is called the parentdiagram, and the lower-level diagram is called a child diagram.


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Explain how to level and balance a set of data flow diagrams

Leveling a set of DFDs is the process of drawing a series of increasingly detailed diagrams,until all functional primitives are identified. Leveling allows an analyst to start with an overallview, and then create more detail with diagram 0 and further lower-level DFDs. Leveling isalso called decomposing, exploding, orpartitioning. Balancing is the process of ensuring

that input and output data flows align properly, which maintains consistency among a set ofDFDs. Balancing ensures that all data flows of the parent DFD are maintained on the childDFD.

Describe how a data dictionary is used and what it contains

A data dictionary stores specific facts about the system, including the contents of data flows,data stores, entities, and processes. Furthermore, the data dictionary defines and describesall data elements and the meaningful combinations of data elements. For each data element,the data dictionary documents attributes such as the name or label, alias, type and length,default value, acceptable values, source, security information, response user(s), andadditional notes. The data dictionary stores detailed information about data flows, such as thename or label for the data flow, its description, alternate name(s), origin, destination, record,and volume and frequency. Documenting data stores involves storing the data store's name

or label, description, alternate name(s), attributes, and volume and frequency. Examplecharacteristics of entities that are stored in the data dictionary include the entity name,description, alternate name(s), input data flows, and output data flows. Lastly, the datadictionary contains information about each process, including process name or label,description, process number, and process description.

Use process description tools, including structured English, decision tables, anddecision trees

A process description allows you to create a model tat is accurate, complete, and concise.There are several process description tools that allow you to document the details of afunctional primitive. Structured English is a subset of standard English that describes logicalprocesses clearly and accurately. When using structured English, you should use a limitedvocabulary of standard terms used in the data dictionary, use indentation to improve

readability, and use only the three building blocks of sequence, selection, and iteration.Decision tables show a logical structure, with all possible combinations of conditions andresulting actions. Using a decision table to describe a logical process ensures that you havenot overlooked any logical possibility of combining conditions and obtaining results Adecision tree is a graphical representation of the conditions, actions, and rules found indecision table. Graphically, a decision tree resembles a horizontal tree with the roots at theleft and the branches to the right.

Describe the relationship between logical and physical models

Structured analysis tools can be used to develop physical models, in addition to logicalmodels. Studying a physical model of the current system first allows you to understand howthe system works, before tackling how it will implement the requirements. Many systemsanalysts create a physical model and logical model of the current system, before creating a

logical and physical model of the new system. This method is called a four-model approach,and it offers a clear picture of current system functions before any modifications orimprovements to the system are made.


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Chapter 5

Describe software trends, including the concept of software as service

Software acquisition has been greatly affected by the Internet, just as have all businessmethods and operations. The Software and Information Industry Association (SIIA), anindustry group that focuses on the digital economy, believes that the concept of software as a

service is redefining the way companies develop their information systems. Many people inthe industry expect that traditional packaged applications will be replaced by Web-basedservices. Web-based services will remove the responsibility for installation, maintenance, andupgrades from a company's in-house staff. The responsibilities will be outsourced to behandled by outside firms and application service providers. The options for systemsdevelopment strategies are much greater today with choices including application serviceproviders, Web-hosted software options, and firms that offer a variety of enterprise-widesoftware solutions.

Explain software acquisition alternatives, including traditional versus Web-basedsoftware development strategies

In the traditional model of software acquisition, software vendors develop and sell applicationpackages to customers. Now, the marketplace includes many forms of acquiring software,

including application service providers and firm that offer Internet business services. AsInternet-based systems become more popular, systems developers are focusing on Web-based application, which builds the Web into the application, rather than the other wayaround. In traditional development, system designs is influenced by compatibility issues,including existing hardware and software platforms. Systems are designed to run on local andwide-area company networks, and scalability can be limited by telecommunications limitationsand network constraints. Furthermore, Web-based features are treated as enhancementsrather than core elements of the design. In Web-based development, the Web is treated asthe platform, rather than just a communication channel. Web-based systems are easilyscalable, and can run on many different hardware environments. While Web-baseddevelopment offers greater options and flexibility, there are some risks involved as Web-based software requires additional layers, called middleware, to communicate with existingsoftware and legacy systems.

Describe software outsourcing options, including the role of service providers

Outsourcing refers to the transfer of information systems development, operation, ormaintenance to an outside firm that provides these services for a fee. Outsourcing can referto minor programming tasks, software rental, or the handling of a company's entire ITfunction. A company that offers outsourcing solutions is called a service provider. Anapplication service provider(ASP) is a firm that delivers a software application, or accessto an application, by charging a usage or subscription fee. Another outsourcing optioninvolves firms that offerInternet business services (IBS), also called managed hosting.IBS provides Web-based support for transactions such as billing, order processing, andcustomer relationship. Service providers use fee structures that are based on how theapplication is used by customers during a specific time period, such as a fixed fee model, asubscription model, and a usage model.

Explain advantages and disadvantages of developing software in-house versus otheralternatives

Developing in-house software means that a company chooses to develop its own systems,rather than purchase a software package. Developing software in-house allows a company tosatisfy unique business requirements and meet constraints of existing systems andtechnology. The firm will develop internal resources and capabilities, which many companiesconsider to be an advantage, and the development results in minimal changes in businessprocedures and policies. However, there are disadvantages of developing software in-house.


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It is less expensive and time-consuming to purchase software, as opposed to developing thesoftware in-house. Developing in-house software requires more technical development staffand does not have proven reliability and performance benchmarks that outsourcing optionsprovide.

Explain cost-benefit analysis and financial analysis tools

In order to determine economic feasibility of a proposed system, you must conduct cost-benefit analysis to determine the best development strategy for moving forward. There arethree main cost analysis tools: payback analysis, return of investment, and net present value.Payback analysis specifies how long it takes an information system to pay for itself throughincreased benefits and reduced costs. Return on investment (ROI) is a percentage rate thatcompares the total net benefits received from a project to the total costs of the projects. Thenet present value (NPV) of a project is the total value of the benefits minus the total value ofthe costs. The most effective way to utilize these financial tools is to develop a cost-benefitchecklist that identifies all costs and benefits for each alternative, considering factors such asscalability, support costs, and licensing options.

Explain the differences between a request for proposal (RFP) and a request for

quotation (RFQ)

To obtain the information you need in order to make a decision about software acquisition,you prepare a request for proposal or a request for quotation. A request for proposal (RFP)is a document that describes the company, lists the IT services you need, and specifies thefeatures you require, such as service and support levels. Vendors evaluate the RFP todetermine if they have a product that will meet your need. A request for quotation (RFQ) isa document that you use to obtain price quotations or bids when you already know thespecific product or service you want. RFQs can involve outright purchase or a variety ofleasing options that can include technical support and maintenance terms.

Describe the contents of the system requirements document

The system requirements document contains the requirements for the new system,

describes all the alternatives that were proposed and considered, and makes a specificrecommendation to management. This document acts like a contract that identifies what thesystem developers must deliver to users, and therefore should be written in a language thatusers can understand. The system requirements document should be formatted so that it iseasy to read, and should include a cover page, table of contents, index, and glossary ofterms. In addition to the system requirements document, you also should prepare apresentation to management at the end of the systems analysis phase.

Explain the transition from systems analysis to systems design, and the differencebetween logical and physical design

A satisfactory transition from systems analysis to systems design is largely dependent on anaccurate and understandable system requirements document, which is the starting point forthe systems design phase. At this point, you have a logical design of the information system,

which defines the functions and features of the system, as well as the relationship among itscomponents. The logical design defines whatmust take place, and the physical design ofthe information system explains howit will be accomplished physically. The physical design isa plan for the actual implementation of the system, and is created during the systems designphase of the SDLC. The goal of systems design is to design a system that is effective,reliable, and maintainable, while satisfying the requirements and constraints defined duringthe systems analysis phase.


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Explain the transition to systems design and the importance of prototyping

An early working version of the proposed information system is called a prototype.Prototyping is the process that produces a prototype using a repetitive sequence of analysis,design, modeling, and testing. Prototyping allows users to test a model that accuratelyrepresents system outputs, inputs, processes, and interfaces. System prototypingproduces

a working model of the information system, which evolves into the final version of theinformation system in the implementation phase of the SDLC. This approach is especiallyuseful in RAD. Another approach is to use design prototyping, orthrowaway prototyping,which is a model that documents and benchmarks the features of the finished system in orderto be capture user approval while continuing to develop the system. Design prototyping doesnot producing a full-featured, working model of the system.

Discuss guidelines for system design, and explain the importance of codes

When starting the actual design process, the best place to begin with data design, whichdefines the physical data structures, elements, and relationship. Next, move to the userinterface, which will concurrently determine the design for specific input and output designtasks. The last step is to work on the architecture that will translate the design into codemodules. A code is a set of letters or numbers that represents a data item. Codes are used to

simplify output, input, and data formats. Because codes are shorter than the data theyrepresent, they save storage space and costs, and reduce the time it takes to enter andtransmit data. Codes can be used to reveal or conceal data, and using codes also reducesthe occurrence of data input errors, since coded data often is easier to remember than theoriginal source. Furthermore, codes can be limited so that only certain valid codes areallowed, which also reduces the opportunity for error. There are many different codingmethods, including sequence codes, block sequence codes, alphabetic codes (includingcategory codes and abbreviation codes), significant digit codes, derivation codes,cipher codes, action codes, and self-checking codes.


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Chapter 6

Explain data design concepts and data structures

Basic design concepts that must be understood prior to constructing an information systeminclude data structures and the characteristics of file-oriented and database systems. A datastructure is a framework for storing and organizing data, which consists of one or more files

or table. A file ortable holds information about people, places, things, or events that interactwith the system. An information system can be designed as either a file-oriented system or adatabase management system. A file-oriented system stores and manages data in separatefiles, while a database system consists of linked files that form an overall data structure.

Describe file processing systems and various types of files

File processing is the method by which a file-oriented system stores and manages data.Today, file processing is less common than database systems, although in some cases, fileprocessing is more efficient and cost-effective. The potential problems can occur in fileprocessing systems: data redundancy, data integrity, and rigid data structure. There areseveral kinds of files used in a file-oriented information system. A master file is used to storerelatively permanent data about an entity. A table file stores data that is referenced by thesystem. A transaction file stores records of day-to-day business data. A work file is a

temporary file used by the system for a single task. A security file is created by the systemfor backup and recovery purposes. A history file is created to archive inactive files that canbe used for queries or reports.

Understand database systems and define the components of a database managementsystem (DBMS)

Database systems provide a framework for storing data within a real-time, dynamicenvironment, without the risk of data redundancy. A database management system (DBMS)is a collection of tools, features, and interfaces that allows users to manage the contents of adatabase. A DBMS provides an interface between a database and the users, databaseadministrators (DBAs), and the other systems with which the DBMS interacts. In addition tointerfaces, other DBMS components include a data manipulation language, a schema, and aphysical data repository. A data manipulation language, orDML, controls the operations ofthe database. A schema refers to the complete definition of a database, includingdescriptions of all fields, tables, and relationships. A subschema defines only portions of thedatabase that a particular user or system can access. A physical data repository contains theinformation in the data dictionary, plus the schema and subschemas of the DBMS.

Describe Web-based data design and characteristics

In a Web-based design, the Internet serves as the interface for the DBMS. Severalcharacteristics of Web-based data design make it an appealing option for many companies.Web-based design offers global access via the existing infrastructure of the Internet. Web-based design provides ease of use, as an Internet-based interface is familiar and user-friendly. Web-based design can be run on multiple platforms, and users world-wide need onlya Web browser and an Internet connection to access the database. Cost effectiveness isanother characteristic of Web-based design, since initial costs are relatively low and thesystem is flexible, with few operating requirements. Since a Web-based database uses theInternet as the interface, it is important to address security issues with good design, protectivesoftware, and controls such as passwords and user identification. A final characteristic ofWeb-based data design is the adaptability issues that are inherent when transferring atraditional database design to the Web. This process may require additional software, designmodifications, and added financial expense.


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Explain data design terminology, including entities, fields, common fields, records,files, tables, and key fields

An entity is a person, place, thing, or event for which data is collected and maintained. Afield is a single fact or characteristic about an entity, which can also be called an attribute. Acommon field is an attribute that appears in more than one entity, can be used to link entities

in relationships. A record is a set of related fields that describe a single instance, or anoccurrence of an entity. A record is also called a tuple. A table, also called a file, contains aset of related records that store data about a specific entity. Key fields are used to organize,access, and maintain data structures. For example, a primary key is a field or a combinationof fields that uniquely identifies a particular member of an identity. A candidate field refers toany field that could serve as a primary key. A foreign key is a field in one file that must matcha primary key value in another file in order to establish a relationship between the two files.The fourth type of key field is a secondary key, which is a non-unique field or combination offields that can be used to retrieve records.

Describe data relationships, draw an entity-relationship diagram, define cardinality anduse cardinality notation

A relationship is a logical link between entities that is based on how they interact. Systems

analysts draw an entity-relationship diagram (ERD) to graphically depict the relationshipamong the entities of an information system. Cardinality describes how instances of oneentity relate to instances of another entity. Cardinality notation is used to show relationshipsbetween entities using four basic symbols. Cardinality notation is often called crow's footnotation because a crow's foot shape is used in combination with other shapes to depict thedata relationships within a system.

Explain the concept of normalization

The process of creating table designs by assigning specific fields to each table in a databaseis called normalization. A table design specifies the fields and identifies the primary key in aparticular table. Normalization is used to help you identify and correct problems andcomplexities in table designs by converting table designs from one stage of normalization tothe next stage. The first stage of normalization is unnormalized design, in which you have a

set of one or more fields that can occur any number of times in a single record, with eachoccurrence having different values. This set is referred to as a repeating group. The secondstage of the normalization process is first normal form (1NF). A table is in 1NF if it does notcontain a repeating group. The next stage is second normal form (2NF) , in which the tabledesign is in 1NF and if all fields that are not part of the primary key are functionally dependenton the entire primary key. The last stage of the normalization process is third normal form(3NF). A design is in 3NF if it is in 2NF and if no nonkey field is dependent on another nonkeyfield.

Understand the steps in database design

There are four basic steps to create database and file designs. The first step is to create aninitial ERD, using DFDs and class diagrams to identify the system entities. The second step isto assign all data elements to entities, ensuring that every data element in the data dictionary

is associated logically with an entity. The third step is to create 3NF designs for all tables.This allows you to create the final ERD that includes all the new entities identified during thenormalization stages. Finally, verify that the data dictionary entries for data stores, records,and data elements are documented correctly.

Describe hierarchical, network, relational, and object-oriented database models

A hierarchical database model is organized like a family tree, with branches representingparent and child records. A network database is similar to a hierarchical design but it


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provides more flexibility. In a hierarchical database, a parent record can have multiple childrecords, but each child record can have only one parent. On the other hand, a child record ina network database can have relationships with more than one parent. A relational databaseuses common fields to establish relationships between tables. These relationships betweentables form an overall data structure for the database. An object-oriented database(OODB)

is an extension of the object-oriented analysis process, which describes systems in terms ofobjects. Each object in an OODB has a unique object identifier, which allows the object toform relationships with other objects, similar to the primary key in a relational database.

Explain data warehousing and data mining

Data warehousing is the act of organizing and storing data in data warehouses, which areintegrated collections of data that offer an enterprise-wide view of a company's databasesystems. Data warehousing software can link various information systems and databases tocollect unrelated information, no matter where it is stored in the company. Data miningsoftware searches for meaningful relationships among data. Data mining often is used toanalyze e-commerce trends, such as Web visitor behavior and Web site traffic trends.

Differentiate between logical and physical storage and records

Logical storage refers to information as seen through a user's eyes. When discussing logicalstorage, it does not matter how or where the information actually is organized or stored. Onthe other hand, physical storage involves the process of writing and writing binary data tophysical media, such as a CD-ROM or a hard drive. Portions of a document might be storedin different physical locations on a hard drive, which refers to physical storage. Logicalstorage describes the fact that the document is one logical entity from the viewpoint of theuser, who sees a single document on his or her computer monitor.

Explain data control measures

Data control measures ensure that data storage is complete, correct, and secure. A DBMSshould have built-in control and security features, such as subschemas, encryption,passwords, and backup and recovery procedures. A subschema allows you to limit file access

to specific users in order to protect stored data. Encryption is the process of converting datainto unreadable characters in order to prevent unauthorized access to the data. Backupcopies of system files and databases should be made regularly and retained for a specificperiod of time. Recovery procedures can be used to restore a file or database to its currentstate at the time the last backup was made.


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Chapter 7

Explain the concept of user interface design and human-computer interaction,including the basic principles of user-centered design

The user interface, orUI, describes how users interact with a computer system. A userinterface is based on the basic principles ofhuman-computer interaction (HCI). The UI

consists of the hardware, software, menus, screens, functions, and features that are involvedin two-way communications between the user and the system. The main objective is to designa UI that is easy for users to learn and use. In fact, experts say that the most effect userinterface is one that the user does not even notice. Good UI design is based on eight basicprinciples of user-centered design, which dictate that IT professionals should understand theunderlying business functions of a system, maximize graphical effectiveness, profile thesystem's users, think like a user, use prototyping, design a comprehensive interface, continuethe feedback process, and document the interface design.

List specific guidelines for user interface design

There are eight basic guidelines to follow when creating a user interface. Focus on basicobjectives of the system in order to improve efficiency and minimize user errors. Build aninterface that is easy to learn and use through clear graphics, instructions, and easy

navigation. Provide features that promote efficiency such as shortcuts, menu lists, searchfeatures, and natural language features. Make it easy for users to obtain help or correct errorswith data confirmation prompts, hypertext links to Help topics, and properly-labelled Helppages. Minimize input data problems with data validation checks and event-driven messagesand reminders. Provide feedback to users so that they know if tasks or operations weresuccessful or not. Create an attractive layout and design to highlight different areas of thescreen and promote consistency throughout the interface. Finally, use familiar terms andimages to make the interface clear and understandable.

Describe user interface techniques, including screen elements and controls

Control features allow users to interact with a system easily and efficiently. Controls includemenu bars, command buttons, dialog boxes, text boxes, toggle buttons, list boxes, drop-downlist boxes, option buttons, check boxes, and calendar controls. These elements are used incombination to create interfaces that are attractive, easy to use, and workable. Keep in mindthat the opening screen is especially important because it introduces users to the applicationand the main options of the interface.

Explain input design concepts, techniques, and methods

The main goal of input design is to ensure the quality, accuracy, and timeliness of input data.IT professionals know that the best time to avoid problems is when the data is entered, whichis sometimes referred to as the garbage in, garbage out(GIGO) concept. One of the mainobjectives of input design is to select a suitable input and data entry method. Input data canbe captured, as with a credit card scanner, or entered in the system in the form of mouseclicks or keystrokes. Analysts must study business operations to determine how and whendata should enter the system, using methods such as batch input and online data entry.Batch input refers to data entry that is performed on a specified time schedule. Online dataentry is validated immediately as it is available. Source data automation is a popular onlineinput method that combines online data entry and automated data capture using inputdevices such as swipe scanners ormagnetic data strips. Other input design objectivesinclude the following: reduce input volume, design attractive data entry screens, usevalidation checks to reduce input errors, design required source documents, and developeffective input controls.


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Describe guidelines for data entry screen design

Data entry screen design, which refers to systems that receive repetitive data entry input fromusers, has special consideration. User access should be restricted to screen locations wheredata is entered. You should provide a descriptive caption for every field, and indicate thelocation and length of each field with white boxes, video highlighting, underscores, or other

features. If the user must enter values in a specific format, display a sample format that theuser can follow as a guide. Require an ending keystroke for every field, such as the ENTERkey or the TAB key, to signify the end of the field entry. Do not require users to type leadingzeroes for numeric fields or trailing zeroes for numbers that include decimals. Display defaultvalues so that users can press the ENTER key to accept a suggested value, and use adefault value when a field value will be constant for successive records. Provide meaningfulerror messages if a user enters an unacceptable value for a field, or provide a drop-down listfrom which users may choose an acceptable value for the field. Provide a way to exit the dataentry screen at any time without entering the current record into the system, and provideusers with an opportunity to confirm the accuracy of input data before entering it. Provide ameans for users to move among fields in a standard order, or in any order they choose, andallow users to add, change, delete, and view records. For consistency purposes, design thescreen form layout to match the layout of the source document. Finally, provide a method toallow users to find specific information in the system.

Use validation checks for reducing input errors

A data validation check tests the data and rejects any entry that fails to meet specifiedconditions. There are at least eight types of data validation checks, which include sequencechecks, existence checks, data type checks, range checks, reasonableness checks, validitychecks, combination checks, and batch controls.

Design effective source documents and input controls

A source document is a form used to request and collect input data, authorize an inputaction, and provide a record of the original transaction. Good form layout makes the formeasy to complete and provides adequate space for users to enter data. Most sourcedocuments are organized into six zones that define the placement of information on a form.

These zones include the heading zone, control zone, instruction zone, body zone, totalszone, and authorization zone. Input control refers to measures that ensure that input datais correct, complete, and secure. Input controls include audit trails, data security policiesand procedures, and records retention policies.

Discuss output design issues and various types of output

In order to design output, you must determine the purpose of the output, how the output willbe used and by whom, what information will be included in the output, if the output will beprinted, viewed on-screen, or both, the necessary timing of output and updates, and whetheror not security or confidentiality issues exist? Types of output include traditional screen andprinted output, in addition to output delivered by means of the Internet, e-mail, audio output,automated facsimile, computer output microfilm (COM)computer output to laser disk(COLD), and other specialized methods. The type of output and the technology needed is

determined by the requirements of the user.

Design various types of printed reports and suggest output controls and security

Printed reports vary, dpending on their function. For example, a detail report generates oneor more lines of output for each record processed. An exception report displays only recordsthat meet a specific condition or conditions. A summary report presents total figures, withoutincluding supporting details. Output controls are used to maintain output integrity andsecurity. For example, reports should include a title, report number or code, printing date, the


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time period covered, consecutive page numbers, and a clearly-labelled end of the report.Output security measures include limiting the number of printed copies, tracking each copy,delivering printed copies to authorized recipients only, storing printed copies in secure areas,and shredding sensitive reports.


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Chapter 8

Provide a checklist of items to consider when selecting a system architecture

Seven specific issues affect the choice of system architecture. Enterprise resourceplanning (ERP) is the process that establishes a company-wide strategy for IT resources.Total cost of ownership (TCO) evaluates the costs for acquiring and maintaining the system,

taking into account any new information that has been gathered during the design process.Scalability is the measure of a system's ability to expand, change, or downsize in order tomeet the changing needs of the business. Web integration refers to whether or not a systemwill need to work with Web-based components, such as e-commerce. Legacy systeminterface requirements refers to whether the new system will have to interface with oldersystems that typically run on mainframe computers, called legacy systems. In planning thearchitecture, designers also must consider system security needs and processing options.

Describe servers, server-based processing, clients, and client-based processing

A serveris a computer that supplies data, processing services, or other support to one ormore computers. The computers that receive the services or support are called clients.Server-based processing allows users to enter and access data from anywhere in theorganization, regardless of where the centralized computer is located. A firm might use a

combination of PCs, handheld computers, and other devices that allow users to interact with acentralized server. In client-based processing, an individual LAN client has copies ofapplications installed locally, while the data is stored on a central file server. The userperforms the processing locally, but then returns the data file to the central file for storing.This configuration is called a file serverdesign or a file sharing architecture.

Explain client/server architecture, including tiers, cost-benefit issues, and performanceconsiderations

Client/server architecture generally refers to systems that divide processing between acentral server and one or more networked clients. Early client/server designs were referredto as two-tierdesigns, which means that the client handles the user interface, the dataresides on the server, and application logic is run on either the server, the client, or dividedbetween the two. Another form of client/server architecture recently has become possible,which includes a middle layer between the client and server that provides the applicationlogic, orbusiness logic, required by the system. The middle layer is an application serverthat processes the client requests and translates them into data access commands that canbe understood by the server. Client/server architecture of this form is called a three-tierdesign, or, when more than one middle layer is used, an n-tierdesign. Special utility softwarecalled middleware enables the tiers to communicate and pass data back and forth.Client/server computing is cost-effective because it can work across multiple platforms,reduces network load, and improves response times. Furthermore, it is easier and lessexpensive to adjust the processing functions of clients, rather than alter the capability of alarge-scale central server. While client/server architecture has many cost-benefit issues,analysts should follow certain guidelines pertaining to performance issues caused by theseparation of server and client functions. For example, systems should be designed so theclient contacts the server only when necessary, with as few trips as possible. Furthermore,using a distributed database management system (DDBMS) often is an efficient way tostore data in more than one location in client/server systems.

Describe the impact of the Internet on system architecture

The Internet has dramatically affected system architecture, and IT groups must consider alloptions thoroughly when determining system architecture for an e-commerce business. Oneoption is to develop e-business systems in-house, which can require a greater initialinvestment, but provides more flexibility for a company that changes quickly in an e-commerce environment. Another option is to select from packaged solutions and e-commerce


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service providers. Many application service providers (ASPs) offer complete Internet businessservices for companies that opt to outsource these functions. A third option is to work withinthe design of a portal, which is an entrance to a multifunction Web site. A corporate portalcan provide access for customers, employees, and the public to navigate to a destinationusing various tools and features.

Explain the difference between online and batch processing

An online system handles transactions when and where they occur and provides outputdirectly to users. It is interactive, which means that it avoid delays and allows a constantdialog between the user and the system. In a batch processingsystem, the data is collectedin processed in groups. When large amounts of data must be processed on a routineschedule, batch processing is more efficient than interactive online processing.

Define network topology, and provide examples of hierarchical, star, bus, and ringnetwork models

Network topology refers to the way a network is configured. In a hierarchical network, onecomputer (a mainframe) controls the entire network. A star network has a central computer

with network devices connected to it. The central computer that manages the network, calledthe hub, is located at the center of the star. A bus network involves a single communicationpath that connects the mainframe computer, server, workstations, and peripheral devices. Aring networkresembles a circle of computer that communicate with each other, and theprocessing is performed at local sites rather than at a central location.

Explain network protocols and licensing issues

A network must use a protocol, which is a set of standards that govern network datatransmission. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is a popularnetwork which is the backbone of the Internet. When selecting software, it is important to takeinto account software licensing restrictions. Some vendors limit the numbers of users or thenumber of computers that can access the program simultaneously. It is also important toensure that the network software you are licensing can handle the anticipated system activity

and traffic.

Explain system management tools and techniques, including performancemanagement, system security, fault management, backup, and disaster recovery

Performance management tools and techniques are designed to collect information aboutsystem resources and activity levels. For example, a performance management tool canmonitor system usage, capacity, and trends, while performance management techniques areused to fine-tune the network configuration to optimize performance. System security involvesassigning controls, such as user IDs and passwords, to users. Another aspect of systemsecurity is the capability to protect against viruses and detect any unauthorized access to thesystem. Fault management is the process of monitoring the system for signs of trouble,logging system failures, diagnosing system problems, and applying solutions. System designmust include a disaster recovery plan, which includes provisions for data backup and

recovery. Backup which refers to copying data, while recovery is the process of restoring thedata and restarting the system after an interruption.

Describe the systems design specification and explain the contents of each section

The systems design specification is a document that presents the complete design for thenew system. The executive summary section provides a brief overview of the project forupper management, outlining the development efforts to date, and summarizing the currentstatus. The system components section contains the complete design for the new system,


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including the user interface, outputs, inputs, files, databases, and network specifications. Thesystem environment section describes the constraints affecting the system, including specialrequirements of the system. The implementation requirements section specifies plans forstartup processing, initial data entry, user training, and software testing. The time and costestimates section provides detailed cost estimates, schedules, and staff requirements for the

systems development phase, as well as current projects for the remainder of the SDLC.Finally, any appendices include supplemental materials, such as reference copies from thedocuments from the first three phases.


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Chapter 9

Explain the importance of software quality assurance and software engineering

Software quality assurance is vastly important in today's competitive marketplace. Softwareengineering is a software development process that stresses solid design, effective structure,accurate documentation, and careful testing. The software engineering approach improves

the quality of the finished system. The Software Engineering Institute (SEI) is a leader insoftware engineering and provides standards and suggestions for software developers andsystems analysts. Another quality assurance framework is the set of guidelines released bythe International Organization for Standardization (ISO) for developing and maintainingsoftware, called ISO 9000-3.

Describe the application development process

Application development is the process of constructing the programs and code modulesthat are the building blocks of the information system. The first step in applicationdevelopment is the documentation review. The documentation you have made during priorSDLC is the basis for drawing structure charts. From that point, the system can be broken intosmaller pieces that programmers can translate into programs and modules. A moduleconsists of related program code that is organized into small units that are easy to understand

and maintain. The final steps in application development include integration testing, systemtesting, and documentation.

Draw a structure chart showing top-down design, modular design, cohesion, andcoupling

A structure chart shows the program modules and the relationships among them. In a top-down design, also called modular design, the analyst defines the overall objectives of thesystem and then breaks them down into subsystems and modules. This process is calledpartitioning, and is similar to constructing a leveled set of DFDs that show individualelements in a complete, working structure. Cohesion measures a module's scope andprocessing characteristic. A high degree of cohesion is desirable, which means that a modulethat performs a single function, making it easier to code and reuse. Coupling describes therelationships and interdependence among modules. Modules that are independent areloosely coupled, which is desirable. If one module refers to internal logic contained inanother module, the modules are said to be tightly coupled. Tightly couple modules are lessdesirable because a logic error in one module affects the other module's processingsequence.

Explain the coding process and how code is generated

Coding is the process of turning program logic into specific instructions that the system canexecute. A programmer uses a system design as the basis from which to transform programlogic into code statements. Various tools can be used to produce code directly from programdesign specifications, including application generators, report writers, screen generators,fourth-generation languages, and other CASE tools. There also are commercial applicationsthat can generate editable program code directly from keystrokes, macros, or mouse actions.Each IT department has its own programming environment that dictates what codingprocesses will be used.

Explain unit testing, integration testing, and system testing

Unit testing refers to the testing of an individual program or module in order to eliminateerrors that could have been missed during desk checking. Test data should contain bothcorrect and erroneous data and should test all possible situations that could occur.Integration testing, orlink testing, refers to testing two or more programs that depend oneach other. Integration testing is important because testing independent programs does not


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guarantee that the data passed between them is correct. System testing involves the entireinformation system. A system test includes all typical processing situations in order to assureusers, developers, and managers that program meets all specifications.

Differentiate between program, system, operations, and user documentation

In order for a system to operate and be maintained successfully, there must bedocumentation that explains the system and helps people interact with it. Programdocumentation describes the inputs, outputs, and processing logic for all program modules.System documentation summarizes the system's functions and how they are implemented.Operations documentation contains all the information needed for processing anddistributing printed output. Finally, user documentation includes the instructions andinformation for users who will use the system, such as user manuals, Help screens, andtutorials.

List the main steps in system installation and evaluation

There are several system installation and evaluation tasks that should be performed for everyinformation systems project. The first step is to prepare a separate operational and test

environment. Second, provide training for users, managers, and IT staff. Next, perform dataconversion and system changeover. Then, carry out a post-implementation evaluation of thesystem. Finally, present a final report to management.

Develop an overall training plan with specific objectives for each group of participants,compare in-house and outside training providers, and describe effective trainingtechniques

The first step in creating a training plan is to identify who should receive training and whattraining is needed. The three main groups for training are users, managers, and IT staff. Theobjectives for each group are different. For example, managers do not need to understandevery single technical feature of the system, but they do need a general overview of thesystem to ensure that users are being trained properly. Users, on the other hand, need toknow the detailed system

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