It I~'~-F,-- · increases with height and unstable when potential temperature decreases with...

TECHNICAL REPORT RR-83-2

WIND SPEED, STABILITY CATEGORY, ANDATMOSPHERIC TURBULENCE AT SELECTED LOCATIONS

Oskar M. Essenwanger and Dorathy A. Stewart

Research DirectorateUS Army Missile Laboratory

May 1983

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WIND SPEED, STABILITY CATEGORY, AND ATMOSPHERICTURBULENCE AT SELECTED LOCATIONS

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CLI MATOLOGI CALATMOSPHERIC STABILITYTURBULENT WINDFLUCTUATIONS

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This report includes climatological information about wind speed,atmospheric stability, and turbulent wind fluctuations. It containsfrequency distributions of observed surface wind speeds at 35 stationslocated throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Observations from two Germanstations and one Korean station are classified as a function of wind speedand stability category. A procedure is developed to use these observationsto prepare seasonal climatologies of turbulent wind fluctuations. Our dataon Pasquill category and wind speed relationship are also compared with

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four locations in the United states described in the literature. Finally,the United States data were also used to compute an annual climatology ofturbulent wind fluctuations,

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors express appreciation to Mrs. Alexa Mims and Mr. Clarence

Wood for their work on the computer program to determine joint distributions

of Pasquill stability category and wind speed. Thanks also go to Mrs. Mona

White for her careful typing of the manuscript.

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~NDTI S' 'T 'EU

DTID~ELECTE C

SEP 1 5 1983 A Di~ t V, _3.AvI :./ u r

Dist

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II~1 ii__

CONTENTS

Section Page

I INTRODUCTION ......................................... ...... .. 5

II PASQUILL STABILITY CATEGORIES ................................... 6

III ESTIMATION OF TURBULENT FLUCTUATIONS ............................ 8

IV CLIMATOLOGY OF TURBULENT FLUCTUATIONS ........................... 11

V SUMIMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .......................................... 13

APPENDIX ........................................................ 33

REFERENCES .......................................... ........... 59

1 1

LIST OF TABLES

Table Title Page

1. Pasquill stability category as a function of wind

speed and net radiative index ...... .......... 14

2. Number of observations at 0000 GMT as a functionof Pasquill stability category and windspeed at Frankfurt ..... ................ ... 15




6. Number of observations at 0000 GMT as a functionof Pasquill stability category and windspeed at Hahn ...... .................. ... 19




10. Number of observations at 0000 local time as afunction of Pasquill stability categoryand wind speed at Osan ....... .............. 23


1?. Number of observations at 1200 local time as afunction of Pasqjill stability categoryand wind speed at Osan ....... .............. 25


14. Parameters needed for the computation of u.from wind speed at Z = 10m when Z= 0.5m, . . . 27

2

"-- --. > -

LIST OF TABLES

Tah l e Title Page

15. Computed estimates of the mean friction velocityas a function of wind speed and Pasquillcategory ....... ..................... .... 28

16. Percentage frequency of au at Frankfurt as afunction of time and season .............. .... 29

17. Percentage frequency of au at Hahn as a functionof time and season ..... ................ ... 30

18. Percentage frequency of a at Osan as a functionof time and season ..... ................ ... 31

19. Annual percentage of standard deviations 4n eachclass estimated from Pasquill and wind datarecorded by Reiquam (1980) .... ............ .... 32

Al. Cumulative distributions of wind speed (m/s) forSJanuary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 34Jaury............... , .............. .3

A2. Cumulative distributions of wind speed (m/s) forFebruary ....... ..................... .... 35

A3. Cumulative distributions of wind speed (m/s) forMarch ....... ....................... ... 36

A4. Cumulative distributions of wind speed (m/s) forSApril . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Api................................ .3

A5. Cumulative distributions of wind speed (m/s) forMay ........ ........................ ... 38

A6. Cumulative distributions of wind speed (m/s) for7June ....... ....................... .... 39

A7. Cumulative distributions of wind speed (m/s) forJuly ....... ....................... .... 40

A8. Cumulative distributicns of wind speed (m/s) forAugust ......... ... ...................... 41

A9. Cumulative distributions of wind speed (m/s) forSeptember ...... ..................... .... 42

AID. Cumulative distributions of wind speed (m/s) forOctober ............ ...................... 43

All. Cumulative distributions of wind speed (m/s) forNovember ......... ..................... .... 44

A12. Cumulative distributions of wind speed (m/s) forDecember ....... ..................... .... 45

A13. Elevation, location, and period of record forstations included in Tables 1-12 ......... ...... 46

- --, , --- -A. . .

I. !NTRODUCTION

This report contains climatological information about three atmosphericcharacteristics: mean wind speed, turbulent fluctuations of wind, andatmospheric stability. Wind speeds have been measured and recorded systemat-ically at many locations throughout the world. The Richardson number, astability parameter, can be computed from radiosonde data, but it is alsopossible to infer atmospheric stability from standard surface meteorologicalmeasurements by calculations of the Pasquill index. Surface data are readilyavailable for numerous stations, but data for the calculation of theRichardson numbers are limited. When wind speed and stability are known,a good estimate of turbulent wind fluctuations, which are always present tosome degree, can be made.

In order to extend the usefulness of this study, monthly frequencydistributions of surface wind speeds at different locations in the NorthernHemisphere are included in the appendix.

Pasquill classes are widely used to estimate the degree of stability ofthe atmosphere from surface observations. The determination of these classesdepends upon wind speed and heating or cooling by radiation. Heatingduring the day depends upon insolation which is a function of solar angle andamount and type of clouds. Cooling at night is estimated from cloud & a. Theanalysis in Section II shows that the atmosphere is unstable or neutralduring the day and is stable or neutral after sundown. Neutral conditions

"a are normally associated with the highest wind speeds at all hours.

Stewart (1981) reviewed and summarized earlier measurements of intensityof atmospheric turbulence in the planetary boundary layer. The magnitudeof turbuint fluctuations varies in space and time. Turbulence is usuallymore intense over land than over water, and rough land surfaces cause moreturbulence thai. smooth terrain. Intensity of turbulence is normally greaterunder unstable conditions than under stable conditions. The intensity ofturbulence, which is the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean windspeed, tends to decrease as mean wind speed increases. Wind speed normallyincreases with altitude in the atmospheric boundary layer, and intensity ofturbulence typically decreases rather rapidly with altitude in the lowest20m. Decreases are slow above this level.

As poinred out, direct measurements of atmospheric turbulence are notavailable from any location for a long enough period to establish aclimatology. Therefore, needed climatological information must be inferredfrom available meteorological data. The relationship between readilyavailable meteorological data and turbulent wind fluctuations is described inSection III. The magnitude of turbulent fluctuations which are associatedwith a given wind speed depends upon atmospheric stability and is larger underunstable conditions. Section IV contains climatologies of turbulent windfluctuations. These fluctuations are represented by o which is the standardu

deviation of tha longitudinal component of the wind. Most u 'S are less than

2 m/s except during the day in the summer.

SOM& n U.MwW RIM

II. PASQUILL STABILITY CATEGORIES

When detailed measurements are available from special studies ofturbulence, the most commonly used stability parameter is the Richarson number,Ri. This dimensionless number is usually defined by

LOaRi = ()

where g is the acceleration due to gravity, 0 is the potential temperature,z is the altitude, and ýu/ýz is the vertical wind shear. Richardson inter-preted this as a characteristic ratio of work done against gravitationalstability to energy transferred from mean to turbulent motion (Huschke, 1959).The atmosphere is gravitationally stable when the potential temperatureincreases with height and unstable when potential temperature decreases withheight. Theoretical studies have indicated that the critical Richardsonnumber is between 0.25 and 2 (Huschke, 1959), and Hansen (1977) believes thatit is unity. However, some evidence supports the belief that the criticalRichardson number is lower. Businger (1973) suggests 0.20-0.21, and Estoque(1973) even recommends the negative value -0.03. Values of Ri below thecritical value are associated with instability, i.e., turbulence increaseswith time. Turbulence decreases with time for larger values of Ri, and theatmosphere is stable.

Pasquill (1961) outlined a procedure by which stability can be estimatedfrom standard surface meteorological measurements. Six stability categoriesare specified in terms of wind speed, insolation, and state of the sky.Surface wind speeds are measured at the standard anemometer height of 10 m,and therefore these speeds give an indication of the wind shear in the lowest10 m of the atmosphere, because it is assumed that the wind speed at groundlevel is zero. Insolation heats the surface, and surface heating causessteeper lapse rates to develop. If the insolation is large enough, thepotential temperature may even decrease with altitude. Cooling of the sur-face at night causes a less steep lapse rate to develop, and a temperatureinversion often forms. The amount of heating during the day and cooling atnight depends upon the amount of cloud cover.

The six Pasquill categories ace designated by the indices A through F.Categories A, B, and C are very unstable, moderately unstable, and slightlyunstable, respectively. A neutrally stable atmosphere is indicated by D.Category E is moderately stable, and F is very stable.

Luna anJ Church (1972) processed standard burface weather observationsto obtain Pasquill categories for 2461 cases. For each of these caseswinds at 40 m and temperatures at 3 and 40 m were used to determine stabilityfrom a finite-difference form of the Richardson number which they called S.In their discussion Luna and Church implicitly assume that the criticalRicharson number is zero, and that the neutral category of S should becentered at zero. Although the categories are established in the propersequence, Luna and Church are concerned because approximately half theobsei'vations fall in the D (neutral) Pasquill category, but fewer than 6 per-cent of the computed S values are between -0.01 and +0.01. For practical

purposes, it seems reasonable to allow a wider range of S velves to be in theneutral category. Furthermore, if Estoque's (1973) recommended criticalRichardson number of -0.03 were used, a larger percent of S values would fallbetween -0.02 and -0.04. If a wider range is also assumed, it is realisticto conclude that between 20 and 30 percent of the S values fall in the neutralcategory. Luna and Church pointed out other small discrepancies which may beimportant in dealing with individual cases, but which should be much lessserious when dealiag statistically with large data collectives.

Pasquill stability indices in this report were determined according to theprocedure outlined in Chapter 15 of Duncan (1981), Information from Duncan'sTFable 15-9 is listed here in Table 1, which contains the Pasquill index as afunction of wind speed (V) and net radiative index (NRI). The net radiativeindex depends upon the mean cloud cover and height in the second layer and uponthe solar angle. lhe solar angle (a) is a function of latitude, time of day,and time of year. Details of the computational method to obtain the solar anglecan be obtained from a standard reference such as the Smithsonian MeteorologicalTables (List, 1958)

When a <0, NRI depends upon the mean cloud coler (C) of the second layeraccording to the synoptic code and the mean cloud height (H) in hundreds offeet (1 ft = 0.3048 m). If C is 9 or 10, NRI = 5. When C = 8, NRI is 5 if

H < 7 and 6 if H > 7. For a C of 4-7, NRI - 6, and if C is 0-3, NRI = 7.Thus, at night NRI varies from 5 to 7.

When a > 0, NRI depends upon C, H, and a parameter s which is a functionof a. Furthermore, when a > 0, NRI cannot be greater than 4. If NRI is"computed to be greater than 4 when a > 0, it must be set equal to 4. The

quantity s = 1 for 0 < a < 15, s = 2 for 15 < a < 35; s = 3 for 35 < a < 60;and s = 4 for 60 < a < 90. When C = 0 through 4, NRI = 5-s. NRI = 4 forC = 9-10. For C = 5-7, NRI varies as tollows: (1) if H < 7, NRI - 7<s;(2) if H = 7-16, NRI = 6-s; and (3) if H > 16, NRI - 5-s. When C = 8, NRI - 4if H < 7. For C = 8, NRI = 7-s for H = 7-16 and NRI - 6-s for H > 16.

Table 2 contains monthly summaries of the number of observations invarious Pasquill categories as a function rf wind speed at 0000 GMT inFrankfurt, West Germany. From the previous discussion it follows that onlycategories D, E, and F can occur at 0000 GMT at Frankfurt throughout the year.The very stable F category contains the largest number of observations through-

out the year. In all months except November and December there are more ob-servations classified as F than as D and E combined. Furthermore, wind speedsat Frankfurt are low near midnight. Annually, more than 70 percent of thewind speeds are less than 7 knots (3.6 m/s).

Observations of wind speed and Pasquill stability index at 0600 CMT atFrankfurt are shown in Table 3. Because the solar angle is negative in winterand positive in summer at this hour, all Pasquill indices had to be includedin the table. In May, June, and July, the atmosphere at Frankfurt is nruier-ately unstable at 0600 GMT more than one-third of the time, and in Augustmore than one-fourth of the observations were il'ade during moderately unstableconditions. During the months November through February the stabilit) con-ditions at 0600 GMT are similar to those at 0000 GlT. Wind speeds are slightlyhigher during the early morning than near the middle of the night.

: 7

Data from Frankfurt at 1200 GMT are listed in Table 4. During the monthsNovember through February approximately one-third of the observations occurredunder neutral stability, and fewer than one-third were moderately or veryunstable. In June and July only a few percent were neutral, and more than70 percent of the observations were at least moderately unstable. Wind speedsare higher in the middle of the day than at earlier hours throughout theyear.

Table 5 contains Pasquill and wind speed data for 1800 GMT at Frankfurt.No observations were more than slightly unstable (C). During the summer morethan two-thirds of the observations were made under neutral conditions. Inwinter a large majority of the observations were made under stable conditions.Wind speeds are comparable to those at 0600 GMT at Frankfurt.

Tables 6-9 consist of data for Hahn, West Germany, similar to the datafor Frankfurt in Tables 2-5. Wind speeds are higher at Hahn in winter thanin summer. A stable atmosphere is much more common than a neutral atmosphereat Hahn at 0000 GMT in the warmer part of the year, but in December andJanuary neutral and stable conditions are almost equally probable. At 0600 GMTconditions are neutral approximately half the time during December throughApril, but during May through September about half of the observations areslightly unstable. At 1200 GMT the atmosphere is unstable more often thanit is neutral throughout the year. However, the degree of instability is muchgreater during the warmer months. It fact, during June and July the atm.osphereis in the highly unst~hle A category approximately one-third c1 the time. At1800 GMT not one observation is more than slightly unstable in any month.Most observations are neutral during April through August, and most are verystable in March and September. In late fall and winter neither neutral norstable observations are in an overwhelming majority.

Finally, data for Osan, Korea, are listed in Tables 10-13. Very stableconditions occur more Lhan 85 percent of the time in every month at 0000 localOsan time. At 1200 local time unstable conditions predominate throughout theyear, and during summer more than two-thirds of the observations are in thevery unstable A category. %t 0600 local time few observations are in theneutral D category. Most conditions are classified as very stable when the

* solar angle is negative, and most are classified as having some degree of- I instability when the solar angle is positive at 0b00. Neutral stability

occurs more frequently at 1800 hours. In May and in July a majority ofobservations are neutral at this t'me, and a large number are neutral in themonths April through August.

The inforitation in this section will be used later to establish aclimatology by a procedure discussed in Section III.

111. ESTIMA',ION OF TURBULENT FLUCTUATIONS

In the present study the standard deviations of the u and v componentsof the wind are estimated from formulae recommended by Weber et al. (1982).The u component is in the direction of the mean horizontal air motion, andthe v component is in the direction of the horizontal coordinate perpendicularto the mean motion. The standard deviatiuns of the u and v components aredenoted by a and o , respectively.

8

S... 4l~ • D-,

Under stable conditions

o - 2.0u* (t-z/h) (2)

and

Cv " 1.3u* (1-z/h) (3)

where u* is the friction velocity, z is height, and h is the scale height of

the stable boundary layer. h is proportional to (u*L/f)•, where L is theMonin-Obukhov length (see p. 10) and f is the Coriolis parameter (defined as2 •: sir: ý where 0 is the angular velocity of rotation of the earth and 4ý is

latitude, •2 - 7.2921 (10-5) radians per second). There are several estimatesof the constant of proportionality: 0.22 by Wyngaard (1975); 0.4 or greaterby Nieuwstadt and Tennekes (1981); 0.6 by Mahrt et al. (1982); and 0.4 to 0.7by Caughey et al. (1979). Apparently the constant of proportionality dependsupon the state of development of the stable boundary layer. In this reporth is computed by

h - 0.5 (u.L/f)½ (4)

Under neutral conditions3

j 2.0u, [exp (- • fz/u*)] (5)

and

ci 1.3u* [exp (-fz/u*)] (6)V

Under unstable conditions

,1 .. . u, (12-0.5 z1 /L) l/ 3 (7)

where z Is the depth of the mixed layer. Empirical evidence indicates that

z may vary from less than 1.0 km to more than 2.0 km (Lenachow et al., 1980;

Panofsky et al., 1977; Garrett, 1981; Kaimal et al., 1982). Considerabledisagreement exists concerning parameterization of the height of the unstableboundary layer (Zilitinkevich, 1972; Deardorff, 1972, 1973, 1974; Tennekes,1973; Wyngaard, 1973; Clarke and Hess, 1973; Benkley and Schulman, 1979;HOjstrup, 1982), Therefore, it was decided to use a constant value of 1500 mfor zi.

The friction velocity u* can be obtained from the equation

u- - (8)

9

L

--- _ _

where U is a time average of u, k is the von Karman constant, z is the0roughness length, and ip is a stability parameter. If z/L is zero, ' - 0.Otherwise, one of the following equations is applicable:

'p -4.7 z/L for z/L > 0 (9)

or

1- 2 In [(txX)/21 + In [(l+X 2)/2] - 2 tan- 1 (X) + !L for jy < 0 (10)2 [ 5o

where X [1-15 (z/L]1/4 (Businger, 1973; Paulson, 1970). Wind speeds from

a standard anemometer at 10 m can be used for Ur, and therefore z in (8) is10 m. The von Karman constant is now customarily taken to be 0.4. The rough-ness length z° has somewhat arbitrarily been chosen as 0.5 m. This seemed

reasonable for the environment of an airport where meteorological measurementsare normally made. By comparison, a city typically has a z of 1-4 m, and z

0 0

over ice may be a small fraction of a centimeter.

The remaining parameter which must be determined is the Monin-Obukhovlength L. L is positive for stable conditions and negative for unstable con-ditions. The magnitude of L is seldom less than 10 m (Tennekes and Lumley,1972), and no upper limit exists. Large magnitudes are associated with

approximately neutral conditions, and L- 1 0 is the condition for completeneutrality. Weber et al. (1982) consider Iz/LI < 0.05 as the criterion fora nearly neutral planetary boundary layer. According to Wyngaard and Clifford(1977) L z 50 m represents moderately stable conditions; L " -50 m is assoc-iated with a moderately unstable atmosphere; and a very unstable atmosphere

has L near -13 m. According to Blackadar et al. (1974) L-I can be estimatedas a function of Pasquill category and 7o, and they provide a figure for

doing this. From all of the above information, it was possible to estimate an

average value of L for each Pasquill category. Column 2 of Table 14 liststhe values which were chosen.

It is now possible to obtain u, from (8). Columns 3, 4, and 5 of

Table 14 contain z/L, ý(z/L), and (1/k) [in (z/z ) - IP (z/L)] which are needed

for each Pasquill category. Table 15 records the magnitudes of u* which are

computed for each combination of wind speed and Pasquill category which ispermitted according to the classification scheme used in this report. Theoriginal data were recorded to the nearest tenth of a meter per second.Therefore, the mean wind speed for each speed category is the mean of themeter-per-second values which are permitted in that category. It was assumedPthat all values in each category were equal to the mean value for V < 12 knots(6.1728 m/s). The category V > 12 knots is open-ended, and it is not realisticto let one value represent the whole category. It was assumed that half of theobservations were represented by each of the two values of u for V > 12 knots.

10n

The effect of these assumptions can be seen by making a sample calculationfrom Table 4 for Frankfurt at 1200 GMTr. Consider the number of au greater

than 2.0 m/s for fall (September, October, and November). All 21 observationsfor which the Pasquill category is B and 6 < V < 7 are classified as Ou >2.0 m/s because the computed a associated with the u* from Table 15 is 2.02 m/s.

U

No attempt is made to represent a distribution of values over the wind speedcategory or over the stability category. In addition, 16 other observationsfrom category B and 13 from category C fall into the group au > 2.0 m/s,

which is a total of 50. In category D there are I11 observations for which12 < V in fall. Half of these (rounded to 56) were counted as a = 1.96 m/s

and half (55) have a 11 2.14 m/s. Thus, in our tabulation (Table 16) 105 ofu

601, or 17.5 percent, of the observations were placed into the groupa > 2.0 m/s. If all Ill observations for 12 < V had to be classified as

Uau > 2.0 m/s, we would have to add 56 more into the group au > 2.0 m/s, which

amounts to a total of 26.8 percent. It would be an extreme case, however, ifall 56 observations would have to be counted into the a > 2.0 m/s class.

uThus, our estimates in the a > 2.0 m/s class could have been somewhat higher,

Ubutothrs lacd ito he u> 2.0 m/s group may be lower than 2.0 m/s. Thus,

the statistical estimates by our simplified method are reasonable.

The theoretical framework developed in this section was applied to"observational data in Section II to obtain frequency distributions of thestandard deviation of the wind which are presented in the next section.

IV. CLIMATOLOGY OF TURBULENT FLUCTUATIONS

Stewart (1981) reviewed and summarized measurements of the intensityof turbulence in the planetary boundary layer. The intensity of turbulence isgenerally greater over rough surfaces than over smooth surfaces, and turbulenceis normally stronger under unstable conditions than under stable conditions.Unfortunately, routine measurements of turbulence characteristics have notbeen made at any one location for a long enough period to establish aclimatology.

Because measurements are not available, it is necessary to estimateclimatological information, and the method described in Section III is usedhere. Seasonal frequency distributions of au for Frankfurt are given in

Table 16. More than half of the standard deviations are less than 0.5 m/sduring all seasons at 0000 GMT, during fall and winter at 1800 GMT, and duringwinter at 0600 GMT. At 1200 GMT fewer than 15 percent of the standarddeviations are below 0.5 m/s during all seasons. During summer at 1200 GMT57.4 percent of the standard deviations are greater than 2.0 m/s, and duringspring 37.1 percent of the a 'a are greater than 2.0 m/s. During fall anduwinter at 1200 GMT the majority of the standard deviations are between 1.0and 2.0 m/s.

Table 17 contains the seasonal frequency distributions of a for Hahn,uand they are quite similar to those at Frankfurt. Turbulence is greater at

1. 11

Hahn than at Frankfurt at all hours in winter, but there is no consistentpattern to the small differences during the other seasons.

Data from Osan, Korea, are shown in Table 18. There are more values ofa less than 0.5 m/s at Osan than at either of the German stations at all

Utimes throughout the year. One of the biggest reasons that wind fluctuationsare smaller at Osan is that wind speeds are smaller than at the Germanstations.

Annual frequencies of standard deviations of the u component of the windspeed at some other locations can be estimated from Reiquam's (1980) data.Categories E and F are combined in Reiquam's data, but this does not pose aserious problem. The E-F observations in the 0-3 mi/hr (0 - 1.34 m/s) speedcategory are F, and those in the 7-10 mi/hr (3.13 - 4.47 m/s) category areE. It was decided that observations in the E-F stability category and the 4-6mi/hr (1.79 - 2.68 m/s) wind speed category should be equally divided betweenE and F.

Table 19 contains estimates of the annual percentage of the a inu

different categories for four locations in the United States. One locationis Moorcroft, Wyoming, and a second is a project site approximately 80 kilo-meters away. A third location is Farmington, New Mexico, and a fourth is aproject site nearly 65 kilometers from Farmington. In New Mexico and inWyoming the more rural project sites have higher a 's even though neither

Moorcroft nor Farmington is a large city which would be expected to alter theenvironment drastically. Moorcroft has an annual average similar toFrankfurt. None of the American stations is similar to Osan where nearlytwo-thirds of the a 's are less than 0.5 m/s. It is difficult to form tooU

many conclusions from Reiquam's data because it is for only one year and isnot broken down by time of year or time of day.

12

V_

S" . . ... . . .. . . . . .. . . .. . .. . . - . .

V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This report includes climatological information about wind speed, atmcs-pheric stability, and turbulent wind fluctuations.

The appendix contains frequency distributions of observed surface windspeeds at 35 stations located throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Asexpected, the frequency distributions are normally asymmetrical and skewed tothe right in all seasons. The overall average mean is 10 percent greaterthan the median. The ratio of the standard deviation to the mean is between0.4 and 1.0 for almost every frequency distribution. Mean wind speeds aregenerally larger in the cooler part of the year than in the warmer part of theyear.

In Section II observations from two German stations and one Koreanstation are classified as a function of wind speed and stability category.The classification of atmospheric stability was made by means of the Pasquillmethod, which uses standard surface meteorological data. At night, conditionsare stable or neutral, and in the middle of the night stable conditions pre-dominate at all stations. In the middle of the day, the atmosphere is unstablemore often than it is neutral throughout the year, and in the summer nearlyall observations are unstable. The highest wind speeds occur during the dayand under neutral or slightly unstable conditions.

In Section III, a procedure is outlined to estimate standard deviationsof turbulent wind fluctuations from wind speed and stability, and in Section IVturbulence climatologies are estimated by this procedure. More than 90 percentof the au's are less than 2.0 m/s between sunset and sunrise throughout theyear. Near the middle of the day approximately half of the oa's are greater

u

than 2,0 m/s in summer, and more than one-third are greater than 2.0 m/s inspring. It is hoped that more stations can be examined in the future.

731 _ _ _.. . .4 .

TABLE 1. Pasquill stability category (A through F) as a function of windspeed (V) in knots (I knot = 0.5144 m/s) and net radiative index (NRI).

WIND SPEED NRI(KNOTS) 2 __3 4 5 6

O<V<2 A A B C D F F

2<V<4 A B B C D F F

4<V<6 A B C D D E F

6<V<7 B B C D D E F

7<V<8 B B C D D D E

8<V<10 B C C D D D E

10<<V<11 C C D D D D E

11 < V < 12 C C D D D D D

12<V C D D D D D D

I

1Jti

TABLE 2. Number of observations at 0000 GMT as a function of Pasquill stabilitycategory and wind speed at Frankfurt for the period 17 February 1969through 31 March 1977. V is in knots (I knot = 0.5144 m/s).

MONTHPASQUILL WINDCATEGORY SPEED JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

D O<V<2 4 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 11 4 42<V<4 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 4 2 34TV<6 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 36<V<7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 07<V<8 6 8 6 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 6 88<V<1O 3 7 11 6 4 3 3 3 3 6 9 13

10(V<11 0 4 5 4 2 1 0 0 2 2 6 311<V<12 3 5 3 1 1 3 4 1 1 2 4 512KV 24 8 13 12 5 1 1 0 4 8 26 18

TOTAL 42 34 38 25 15 10 11 6 11 37 60 57

E 4<V<6 25 16 17 3 13 5 7 1 11 11 14 166<V<7 5 7 11 8 2 1 0 2 0 6 2 77<V<8 1 6 0 5 3 2 2 4 0 5 5 88<V<10 9 7 8 7 10 8 4 8 6 4 7 9

10<V<11 4 4 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 4 3TOTAL 44 40 39 25 29 17 14 16 18 28 32 43

F O<V<2 48 40 38 27 27 24 23 28 49 35 40 362KV<4 38 35 31 18 15 24 21 20 21 43 28 414TV<6 15 8 14 16 8 8 15 12 6 16 12 86(V<7 4 4 5 5 8 5 1 12 2 4 9 7TOTAL 105 87 88 66 58 61 60 72 78 98 89 92

1?1

I. _ _ __ _ _ _

TABLE 3 . Number of observations at 0600 GMT as a function of Pasquillstability category and wind speed at Frankfurt for the period17 February 1969 through 31 March 1977. V is in knots (I knot =0.5144 m/s).

PASQUILL WIND MONTH

CATEGORY SPEED MONTHJAN FEB---MAR--APR- A---TJUN JUL AU - --GS OC-T-----NO-V DECA osV<2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 02•V<4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 040v<6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0TOTAL 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0B OV<2 0 0 1 8 35 30 37 23 9 3 0 02SV<4 0 0 1 10 27 28 34 24 1 3 0 04SV<6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 060V7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 07V<8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 08<V<10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0TOTAL 0 0 2 18 62 58 71 47 10 6 0 0C OýV<2 0 0 42 29 2 2 1 17 62 13 0 02ýV<4 0 0 55 23 1 1 0 16 36 15 0 04ýV<6 0 0 1 5 31 36 39 18 0 0 0 06ýV<7 0 0 0 4 24 15 19 12 0 0 0 07V<8 0 0 0 5 16 12 21 6 0 0 0 08SV<IO 0 0 0 7 14 15 11 8 0 0 0 0IOSV<I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0"11SV<12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 012SV 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0TOTAL 0 0 98 73 88 81 91 77 98 28 0 0D OV<2 8 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 5 52!V<4 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 6 44ýV<6 2 1 34 16 3 0 0 19 39 13 5 56ýV<7 0 0 15 13 1 1 0 6 12 4 0 07SV<8 3 2 9 9 1 0 0 6 8 5 6 108ýV<10 7 7 20 11 1 1 0 9 12 5 16 12I0V<011 1 4 15 13 6 5 4 4 3 4 7 51%IV<12 4 2 7 4 3 4 6 2 4 3 9 512SV 28 19 18 17 9 11 7 1 10 9 25 21TOTAL 56 44 118 83 24 22 17 47 88 61 79 67E 4ýV<6 14 15 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 7 176ýV<7 6 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 7 87SV<8 5 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 4 88SV<10 7 11 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 12 12lOV<ll 8 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 1 5TOTAL 40 39 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 36 31 50OSV<2 57 41 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 25 38 422SV<4 45 41 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 39 31 344SV<6 15 24 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 18 9600 6 6 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 12 13TOTAL 123 112 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 84 99 98

16

L -'.

TABLE 4. Number of observations at 1200 GMT as a function of Pasquill stabilitycategory and wind speed at Frankfurt for the period 17 February 1969through 31 March 1977. V is in knots (1 knot = 0.5144 m/s).

MONTHPASQUILL WIND ________ MAY______________________CATEGORY SPEED JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

A O<V<2 3 0 7 10 15 9 8 14 15 4 2 12?ýV<4 0 0 0 0 3 26 7 0 0 0 0 04<V<6 0 0 0 0 8 37 18 0 0 0 0 0TOTAL 3 0 7 10 26 72 33 14 15 4 2 1

B O<V<2 30 20 6 0 0 0 1 0 0 29 20 212•V<4 28 23 33 21 19 0 12 21 40 28 20 244(V<6 0 1 28 23 25 1 23 28 32 1 2 16<V<7 0 0 10 7 13 19 17 19 21 0 0 07<V<8 0 1 8 10 10 13 15 13 15 0 1 18-<V<10 0 0 0 0 7 22 17 0 0 0 0 0TOTAL 58 45 85 61 74 55 85 81 108 58 43 47C O<V<2 6 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 6 72<V<4 7 5 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 54<V<6 28 29 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 23 296<'V<7 13 16 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 19 6 207<V<8 10 18 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 20 168<V<0 20 20 33 17 13 0 16 28 20 33 29 23

1OZV<11 0 0 8 14 15 13 10 5 4 0 0 011(V<12 0 0 6 11 9 6 4 6 9 0 0 012EV 0 0 0 0 16 25 10 0 0 0 0 0TOTAL 84 91 79 42 53 44 40 39 33 91 85 100

D 4<V<6 9 7 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 76<ýV<7 2 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1. 37-ýV<8 4 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 38";V <10 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 510V<11 11 12 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 15 1811V<12 10 13 5 1 0 0 0 0 0 5 14 10120V 35 35 48 59 19 2 9 26 32 29 50 32

TOTAL 73 73 60 61 19 2 9 26 32 46 84 78

17

i.iZ.

iz~~z-

TABLE 5 . Number of observations at 1800 GMT as a function of Pasqui1 stabilitycategory and wind speed at Frankfurt for the period 17 February 1969through 31 March 1977. V is in knots (1 knot = 0.5144 m/s).

MONTH

PASQUILL WINDCATEGORY SPEED JAN FM MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT 0NO0 -C

A O<V<2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 02KV<4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 04(V<6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0TOTAL 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

S O<V<2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 02FV<4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 04<V<6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 067V<7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 07<V<8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 08-V<10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0TOTAL 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

C 0<V<2 0 0 0 8 20 15 12 19 0 0 0 02KV<4 0 0 0 17 24 20 20 27 0 0 0 04(V<6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 064V<7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 07(V<8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 08VV<10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

10V4<11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 011(V<12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 012(V 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

TOTAL 0 0 0 25 44 35 32 46 0 0 0 0

D C<V<2 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 22•V<4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 04<V<6 0 1 0 18 22 37 24 26 0 1 0 46-V<7 0 0 1 18 12 10 12 8 0 0 0 C7(V<8 3 2 4 13 13 14 11 5 3 1 6 68KV<10 10 6 7 16 16 13 17 13 2 6 4 8

10•V<11 3 1 2 4 7 5 7 7 0 1 1 411(V<12 8 6 12 8 8 10 2 3 2 2 10 612ZV 21 20 18 16 13 8 9 6 3 14 27 20

TOTAL 48 37 44 93 91 97 82 68 10 30 55 50

E 40V<6 14 8 13 1 0 0 0 0 3 5 16 246(V<7 3 7 6 0 0 0 0 0 2 5 2 107<V<8 6 5 7 2 0 0 0 0 5 5 3 58<V<10 12 13 13 4 0 0 0 0 8 8 12 15

10<V<11 3 2 7 3 0 0 0 0 5 1 4 5TUTAL 38 35 46 10 0 0 0 0 23 24 37 60

F O<V(2 48 39 28 6 0 0 0 0 26 38 34 362<V<4 43 47 31 9 0 0 0 0 18 30 29 3947V<6 16 15 18 5 0 0 0 0 20 16 15 96(V<7 6 7 5 3 0 0 0 0 11 6 3 1TOTAL 113 108 82 23 0 0 0 0 75 90 81 85

' 13

i4

TABLE 6 . Number of observations at 0000 GMT as a function of Pasquill stabilitycategory and wind speed at Hahn for the period 11 March 1969 through31 December 1976. V is in knots (I knot = 0.5144 m/s).

MONTH

PASQUILL WINDCATEGORY SPEED JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

D O<V<2 3 1 4 1 0 0 1 0 3 2 6 02(V<4 4 2 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 3 5 34(V<6 8 4 4 2 1 1 0 1 1 6 1 56<V<7 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 57#V<8 8 10 6 5 13 5 2 1 2 11 7 88(V<1o 18 9 9 7 6 3 4 3 6 5 9 22

10V<11 1 1 2 3 0 1 0 1 1 3 1 011ýV<12 9 5 6 4 0 4 2 2 1 3 10 1112TV 30 22 11 9 6 3 1 0 7 7 24 18

TOTAL 81 54 43 32 27 18 10 9 22 41 64 72

E 4<V<6 8 15 13 10 11 5 1 11 11 6 11 106TV<7 5 4 7 3 4 3 1 2 0 1 2 57TV<8 10 10 8 14 9 11 2 8 3 12 13 78<V<10 15 17 10 11 6 8 6 9 5 11 16 12

10ýV<11 6 2 4 2 0 3 0 0 0 2 1 3TOTAL 44 48 42 40 30 30 10 30 19 32 43 37

F O<V<2 14 12 26 31 31 36 46 54 51 20 15 82ýV<4 10 17 27 33 34 44 49 44 33 29 17 204ZV<6 11 10 17 23 38 30 26 34 16 11 23 186ZV<7 6 5 11 7 12 8 11 6 7 10 9 4TOTAL 41 44 81 94 115 120 132 138 107 70 64 50

19

TABLE 7. Number of observations at 0600 GMT as a function of Pasquill stabilitycategory and wind speed at Hahn for the period 11 March 1969 through31 December 1976. V is in knots (I knot = 0.5144 m/s).

MONTH


A O<V<2 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 020V<4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 04<V<6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0TOTAL 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

B 0<V<2 0 0 0 1 31 18 18 13 2 0 0 02TV<4 0 0 3 9 27 42 43 23 5 2 0 04TV<6 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 06<V<7 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 07•V<8 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0C8V<1O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0TOTAL 0 0 3 10 59 63 64 36 7 2 0 0

C OV<2 0 0 28 22 3 1 2 24 47 2 0 02ZV<4 0 0 21 24 1 2 0 28 35 3 0 04ZV<6 0 0 2 12 46 38 41 22 5 0 0 06<V<7 0 0 1 4 15 14 13 2 0 0 0 07<V<8 0 0 0 3 14 14 11 6 1 0 0 08<V<1O 0 0 2 3 18 20 14 9 0 1 0 01OV<11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 011<V<12 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 012•V 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

TOTAL 0 0 54 68 97 90 81 91 88 6 0 0

D O<V<2 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 12ZV<4 7 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 24<V<6 3 1 21 29 2 3 5 28 32 7 5 136<V<7 3 4 8 12 1 2 4 6 9 3 1 47<V<8 12 14 14 9 4 6 3 6 8 6 7 78(V<10 14 16 19 20 5 3 3 11 11 18 17 12

10<V<11 3 3 6 3 1 2 0 0 4 5 4 311TV<12 10 14 7 5 5 4 1 4 3 6 8 13124V 32 16 13 14 8 3 3 3 9 9 34 30

TOTAL 87 75 88 92 26 23 19 58 76 57 82 85

E 4<V<6 8 4 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 7 96<V<7 5 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 5 67<V<8 7 5 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 11 108ZV<10 14 13 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 9 9

IO0V<VI 4 7 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 6TOTAL 38 33 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 24 37 40

F 0<V<2 7 16 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 21 192<V<4 17 16 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 22 184<V<6 9 10 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 16 146<V<7 6 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 7 2TRTAL 39 45 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 77 66 53

420

Se

TABLE 8 . Number of observations at 1200 GMT as a function of Pasquill stabilitycategory and wind speed at Hahn for the period 11 March 1969 through31 December 1976. V is in knots (1 knot = 0.5144 m/s).

MONTH


A O<V<2 2 0 13 12 11 11 8 12 18 2 1 12(V<4 0 0 0 0 8 23 23 0 1 0 0 04<V<6 0 0 0 1 13 34 21 1 0 0 0 0TOTAL 2 0 13 13 32 68 52 13 19 2 1 1

B O<V<2 10 7 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 8 9 52<V<4 14 7 29 12 16 1 8 23 27 20 21 194ZV<6 2 1 20 32 21 0 19 36 36 3 4 360V<7 1 1 6 15 18 18 8 19 17 2 2 37ZV<8 4 0 13 21 24 30 30 18 8 1 2 88TV<10 0 0 0 0 10 30 22 0 1 0 0 0TOTAL 31 16 70 80 89 80 87 96 89 34 38 38

C O<V<2 2 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 52ZV<4 1 2 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 5 4 44ZV<6 11 20 14 2 1 0 2 1 1 34 21 226TV7 6 9 2 1 2 1 0 0 1 9 10 107ZV<8 13 9 7 0 0 1 0 2 1 19 15 88-V<10 35 31 33 43 25 0 11 28 28 27 26 24

10<V<11 2 0 6 8 8 6 5 9 5 0 0 1I1ZV<12 4 2 4 11 6 10 6 14 5 0 0 0

12ZV 0 0 1 0 6 12 7 0 0 0 0 0TOTAL 74 74 68 66 50 30 33 55 41 94 77 74

D 4<V<6 2 2 2 0 0 0 2 1 0 4 1 46<V<7 5 4 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 2 2 3

S7TV<8 2 1 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 4 5 58<V<10 4 6 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 1

i0(V<11 8 7 1 0 1 0 0 2 1 4 3 811(V<12 18 9 4 0 1 0 0 0 0 10 15 912<V 30 30 26 28 8 0 2 17 19 24 43 38

TOTAL 69 59 37 33 11 0 4 21 20 51 72 68

211} 7 iii.

TABLE 9 • Number of observations at 1800 GMT as a function of Pasquill stabilitycategory and wind speed at Hahn for the period 11 March 1969 through31 December 1976. V is in knots (I knot = 0.5144 m/s).

MONTHPASQUILL WINDCATEGORY SPEED JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV EC

A OV<2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 02<V4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 04<V<6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0TOTAL 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

B O<V<2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 02<V<4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 04<V<6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 06<V<7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 07<V<8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 08<V<10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0TOTAL 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

C O<V<2 0 0 0 22 24 12 24 29 3 0 0 02•V<4 0 0 0 28 36 31 38 55 6 0 0 04(V<6 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 06<V<7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 07<V<8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 08<V<10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

10<V<11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 011<V<12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 012<V 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

TOTAL 0 0 0 51 60 44 62 85 9 0 0 0

D O<V<2 I 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 6 02<V<4 4 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 34<V<6 7 3 0 33 50 49 46 45 6 2 6 76(V<7 2 2 0 10 15 23 22 14 2 3 0 77<V<8 6 5 6 17 24 21 15 25 6 12 4 98<V<10 13 6 7 28 19 23 15 16 4 11 6 1910TV<11 5 1 0 2 2 5 4 0 1 1 1 31L`V 12 15 8 5 6 7 9 4 4 4 6 6 13

12<V 30 19 15 14 8 6 2 3 6 11 34 31TbTAL 83 49 34 110 125 136 108 107 29 48 65 92

E 4(<V<6 14 6 11 3 0 0 0 0 7 7 8 864V<7 1 4 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 3 57ZV<8 8 12 15 0 0 0 0 0 3 14 10 48<V<10 15 8 15 1 0 0 0 0 8 16 19 20

10(V<11 5 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 3 4TVTAL 43 33 45 4 0 0 0 0 21 39 43 41

F O<V<2 18 20 28 5 0 0 0 0 46 28 12 192ýV<4 9 19 45 2 0 0 0 0 33 31 25 94<V<6 11 23 22 5 0 0 0 0 25 24 16 1360V<7 7 11 7 0 0 0 0 0 5 5 10 6TOTAL 45 73 102 12 0 0 0 0 109 88 63 47

22

TABLE 10. Number if observations at 0000 local time as a function of Pasquillstability category and wind speed at Osan for the period 1 January 1973 through31 December 1979. V is in knots (1 knot = 0.5144 m/s).

PASQUILL WIND MONTHCATEGORY SPEED JAN- •FE MAR APR MAY JUN JUL A9--SEP OCT NOV DEC

D O<V<2 1 0 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 3 0 12•V<4 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 04TV<6 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 06<V<7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 07(V<8 1 2 2 3 2 4 0 3 2 1 0 38<V<10 1 2 1 2 2 1 0 2 1 0 5 1

10V<11 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0l1<V<12 3 1 2 0 3 2 1 0 0 2 3 212TV 0 1 0 2 3 0 1 2 i 1 3 1

TOTAL 7 6 7 8 15 8 5 8 5 7 13 8

E 4<V<6 4 9 5 6 4 5 7 6 4 3 7 46KV<7 2 2 11 1 1 1 2 1 0 0 17<V<8 4 3 4 3 1 3 1 0 1 5 2 18ZV<1O 6 4 4 0 1 2 2 0 0 0 3 3

I0lV<11 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0TOTAL 16 19 14 11 8 11 12 9 6 8 13 9

F O<V<2 121 101 125 109 150 142 140 154 161 137 122 1232,V<4 39 44 44 52 25 33 44 33 30 49 48 624(V<6 15 10 9 12 9 1M 10 9 5 10 9 126ýV<7 2 6 0 4 Q 1 3 1 1 2 2 ?"TOTAL 183 161 178 177 184 187 197 197 197 198 181 199

23

"t

• L- -

TAKLE 11. Number of observations at 0600 local time as a function of Pasquillstability category and wind speed at Osan for the perird 1 January 1973 through31 December 1979. V is in knots (1 knot O.5144 m/s).

PASQUILL WIND MONTHCATEGORY SPEED JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

A O<V<2 0 0 0 0 2 1 2 3 0 0 0 02/V<4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 04<V<6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0TOTAL 0 0 0 (J 2 1 2 3 0 0 0 0

B O<V<2 0 0 1 0 107 122 104 28 8 7 0 02KV<4 0 0 0 2 36 28 51 10 1 0 0 04KV<6 0 0 0 0 0 i 0 0 0 0 0 06ýV<7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 07KV<8 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 08VV<10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0TOTAL 0 0 1 2 144 151 155 38 9 7 0 0

C O<V(2 0 16 135 113 18 2U 7 112 154 65 0 02ýV<4 0 2 41 41 10 10 10 34 26 11 0 04KV<6 0 0 0 0 12 14 27 3 1 kJ 0 06<V<7 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 C 0 0 0 07<V<8 0 0 0 0 5 2 3 1 0 0 0 08ZV<IO 0 0 0 0 3 3 2 I 0 0 0 0

-0KV<11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0::1VV12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0124V 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

TOTAL 0 18 176 154 49 50 51 151 181 76 0 0

S 0\V<2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 5 621V<4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1:V<6 0 3 14 20 5 2 1 12 5 1 0 06\V<7 0 0 1 7 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

0 3 1 3 0 0 0 0 3 2 3 2SIV<IO 2 1 6 4 2 1 1 4 2 0 3 1:V(11 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0:'1V<12 2 1 2 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 127V 1 0 0 3 1 1 1 1 3 0 1 2TOTAL 7 9 24 38 8 4 6 20 13 11 13 13

E 4V<6 4 6 0 C 0 0 0 0 0 3 6 76,4<7 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1.1V<8 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 2 137V<10 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0

:oV<11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0TOTAL 9 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 11 9

F ),V<2 124 102 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 85 127 1322'V<4 47 33 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 43 454ýV<6 13 9 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 10 5 13

1ýV<7 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 37TTAL 185 148 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 113 177 193

24I

TABLE 12. Number of observations at 1200 local time as a function of Pasquillstability category and wind speed at Osan for the period 1 January 1973 through31 December 1979. V is in knots (1 knot = 0,5144 mis).

PASQUILL WIND MONTHCATEGORY SPEED JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN- JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

A O<V<2 0 34 33 32 43 53 38 53 55 65 15 02 ZV<4 0 0 0 27 44 52 51 57 0 0 0 04<V<6 0 0 0 15 39 47 45 37 0 0 0 0TTAL 0 34 33 74 126 152 134 147 55 65 15 0

B O<V<2 51 7 6 2 0 1 0 0 1 5 33 622:V<4 33 36 31 14 7 3 0 3 52 45 47 374<V<6 0 25 41 12 6 2 2 3 48 32 4 96<V<7 0 6 12 10 18 16 20 11 15 14 3 07<V<8 0 15 13 18 14 12 16 15 9 18 5 08<V<IO 0 0 0 9 15 12 19 15 0 0 0 0TOTAL 84 89 103 65 60 46 57 47 125 114 92 99

C O<V<2 11 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 8 1420V<4 3 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 04<V<6 31 2 3 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 27 276<V<7 10 4 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 107<V<8 9 1 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 7 168<V<10 18 26 19 5 1 0 1 2 13 16 15 15

10<V<11 0 3 3 6 4 2 5 3 2 4 0 011(V<12 0 8 8 13 6 2 4 4 2 1 1 012<V 0 0 0 14 11 3 4 9 0 0 0 0

TOTAL 82 45 42 40 23 7 15 19 18 22 71 82

D 4<V<6 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 86(V<7 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 070<V8 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 38<V<10 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

I1•<V11 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 411<V<12 10 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 512ZV 22 14 28 16 1 1 0 0 9 13 17 13

TOTAL 41 17 30 17 1 1 0 0 9 13 31 33

25

TABLE 13. Number of observations at 1800 local time as a function of PasquillsýLability category and wind speed at Osan for the period 1 January 1973 through31 Dkcember 1979. V is in knots (I knot = 0.144 m/s).

PASQUILL WIND MONTHCATEGORY SPEED JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

A O<V<2 0 0 .0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 02<V<4 0 0 0 0 C 0 0 0 0 0 0 04ZV<6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0TOTAL 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

B O<V<2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 02(V<4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 04ZV<6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 06<V<i 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 07ZVe8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 09<i<10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0TOTAL 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

O<V<2 0 0 0 23 35 60 45 80 0 0 0 02<V<4 0 0 0 26 53 43 56 60 0 0 0 04<V<6 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 06-<V<7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 07<V<8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 08<V<10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

107<V<11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 011<V<12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 012KV 0 G 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

TOTAL 0 0 0 50 88 103 101 140 0 0 0 0

0 O<V<2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12-V<4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 04(V<6 0 0 0 23 58 51 62 29 0 0 0 06V<V7 0 1 0 8 17 19 15 4 0 0 0 07-V<8 0 2 3 15 17 13 17 7 5 0 4 38•OV<O 3 4 4 10 21 11 11 4 1 1 5 1

I0V<11 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0* 11ZV<12 4 3 6 6 2 2 1 1 0 0 1 1

12KV 1 3 6 9 4 2 2 1 1 3 1 3TOTAL 8 14 19 71 120 98 110 46 7 4 11 9

4<V<6 7 9 11 7 0 0 0 4 3 1 5 26<V<7 1 2 1 3 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 1

S7ZV<8 4 5 13 4 0 0 0 0 2 1 2 38<V<10 3 6 10 7 0 0 0 0 0 2 6 4100V<11 1 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2

rOTAL 16 22 39 21 0 0 0 4 6 6 18 12

F 00V<2 130 77 72 16 0 0 0 6 130 159 131 1442<V<4 33 41 36 22 0 0 0 10 48 32 35 374<V<6 13 26 33 15 0 0 0 6 17 11 9 116<V<7 5 4 7 4 0 0 0 1 0 2 4 2TOTAL 181 148 148 57 0 0 0 23 195 204 179 194

26

S .. ... .. -..... . ,_ --7

TABLE 14. Parameters needed for the computation of u. from wind speed atz lOm when zo 0.5m.

PASQUILL L-1 z 1() 1 [in (z) _ O. (-) ]CATEGORY (m-') P k Lz

A -0.08 -0.8 0.98 5.0

B -0.04 -0.4 0.68 5.8

C -0.01 -0.1 0.27 6.8

D 0.00 0.0 0.00 7.5

E 0.01 0.1 -0.47 8.7

F 0.05 0.5 -2.35 13.4

"•I

: • 27

TABLE 15. Computed estimates of the mean friction velocity u, in metersper second as a function of wind speed and Pasquill category.Urm is a mean speed for V<12 (see text).

WIND SPEED um PASQUILL CATEGORY(KNOTS) (m/s) A B C D E F

0 < V < 2 .50 0.10 0.09 0.07 0.07 0.042 < V < 4 1.55 0.31 0.27 0.23 0.21 0.124 < V < 6 2.55 0.51 0.44 0.38 0.34 0.29 0.196 < V < 7 3.35 0.58 0.49 0.45 0.39 0.257 < V < 8 3.90 0.67 0.57 0.52 0.458 < V < 10 4.65 0.80 0.68 0.62 0.53

10 < V < 11 5.40 0.79 0.72 0.6211 < V < 12 5.90 0.87 0.7912K< V 7.00 1.03 0.93

8.00 1.18 1.07

'I

--I i l

- - - '"rV- - .,

TABLE 16. Percentage frequency of ou at Frankfurt as a function of time andseason.

STANDARD DEVIATION SEASONGMT CATEGORY (m/s) WINTER SPRING SUMMER FALL

0000 O< ou< 0.5 54.8 55.6 72.7 63.4

0.5< Gu< 1.0 17.5 16.2 9.0 13.1

1.0< au< 1.5 16.2 19.1 14.6 13.5

1.5< au< 2.0 7.0 5.5 3.0 5.8

2.0< au 4.6 3.7 0.7 4.2

0600 0< ou< 0.5 57.6 22.0 21.7 48.2

"0.5< Ou< 1.0 14.3 34.5 25.2 26.6

1.0< Ou< 1.5 15.6 26.3 32.8 15.5

1.5< Ou< 2.0 7.3 13.6 18.6 6.3

2.0< 0 u 5.2 3.6 1.8 3.4

1200 O< ou< 0.5 13.9 6.6 6.4 13.0

0.5< Ou< 1.0 19.0 13.0 6.6 15.8

1.0< Ou< 1.5 29.4 5.2 6.6 17.5

1.5< ou< 2.0 29.7 38.1 23.0 36.3

2.0< 0u 8.0 37.1 57.4 17.5

1800 0< ou< 0.5 54.4 29.0 12.8 60.7

0.5< au< 1.0 15.2 30.8 51.1 11.1

1.0< ou< 1.5 16.4 23.8 25.6 14.6

-. 5< Ou< 2.0 8.9 11.4 7.5 8.7

2.0< ou 5.2 5.0 3.1 4.9

29

.74.

- -.----- - -

TABLE 17. Percentage frequency of au at Hahn as a function of time and season.

STANDARD DEVIATION SEASONGMT CATEGORY (m/s) WINTER SPRING SUMMER FALL

0000 O< ou< 0.5 31.4 58.9 79.1 56.5

0.5< 0 u< 1.0 20.4 17.3 9.3 14.9

1.0< Gu< 1.5 28.0 16.7 9.3 17.3

1.5< Ou< 2.0 12.7 4.8 1.8 6.9

2.0< Ou 7.4 2.4 0.6 4.3

0600 O< uu< 0.5 31.7 20.1 14.6 38.9

0.5< Ou< 1.0 17.4 31.2 35.4 26.6

1.0< Gu< 1.5 27.7 31.1 31.2 20.9

1.5< du< 2.0 15.4 14.0 16.9 8.4

2.0< Cu 7.9 3.6 1.9 5.2

1200 O< au< 0.5 6.5 6.9 6.1 7.2

0.5< au< 1.0 13.2 11.2 7.1 16.0

1.0< Gu< 1.5 23.7 6.6 9.6 18.6

1.5< Ou< 2.0 41.7 39.5 19.7 42.2

2.0< au 14.8 35.8 57.5 16.0

1800 O< au< 0.5 35.2 29.7 12.0 53.1

0.5< cu< 1.0 17.8 37.4 59.6 15.6

1.0< ou< 1.5 24.1 22.8 23.1 18.3

1.5< ou< 2.0 14.8 6.6 4.2 8.0

2.0< au 8.1 3.5 1.1 5.1

30

I ..•

TABLE 18. Percentage frequency of au at Osan as a function of time and season.

LOCAL STANDARD DEVIATION SEASONTIME CATEGORY (m/s) WINTER SPRING SUMMER FALL

0000 O< ou< 0.5 89.6 90.7 92.1 92.4

0.5< Ou< 1.0 4.9 4.3 4.3 3.7

1.0< Ou< 1.5 4.1 3.3 2.7 2.4

1.5< 0u< 2.0 1.2 1.2 0.6 1.0

2.0< Ou 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.6

0600 0< au< 0.5 91.7 62.9 63.1 86.8

0.5< au< 1.0 4.8 29.6 25.3 9.7

1.0< ou< 1.5 2.3 4.8 8.7 2.9

1.5< Ou< 2.0 0.8 2.0 2.4 0.3

2.0< Ou 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3

1200 O< ou< 0.5 29.5 19.2 23.2 29.0

0.5< au< 1.0 90.3 8.8 1.0 23.5

1.0< Ou< 1.5 15.8 13.0 25.9 7.1

1.5< Ou< 2.0 24.9 18.i 1.6 25.2

2.0< ou 9.4 40.9 48.3 15.1

1800 O< au< 0.5 86.9 42.9 33.3 91.7

0.5< au< 1.0 5.8 36.5 54.9 3.2

1.0< Ou< 1.5 4.8 15.2 10.4 4.1

1.5< au< 2.0 1.7 3.8 1.0 0.3

2.0<. ou 0.8 1.6 0.5 0.6

31

S 1.- _... _-

TABLE 19. Annual percentage of standard deviations in each c:ass estimatedfrom Pasquill and wind data recorded by Reiquam (1980).

STANDARD DEVIATION WYOMING NEW MEXICO(meters per, second) Moorcroft Project Site Farmington Project Site

0 < cru< 0.5 34.3 20.5 38.5 24.3

0.5 < au< 1.0 24.6 37.3 33.4 41.9

1.0 < au< 1.5 18.9 19.1 16.2 16.0

1.5 < Gu< 2.0 10.3 9.8 5.6 8.1

2.0 < yu 11.9 13.3 6.3 9.7

32

5' I'

1!7_

7-

APPENDIX

WIND SPEED DISTRIBUTIONS

In order to understand the relationship between turbulence, Pasquillindex and wind speed, it may be of interest to provide a survey on wind speeddistributions for a selected number of stations in the Northern Hemisphere.

The data in Tables Al-A12 were obtained from surface winds recorded asthe lowest level of radiosonde ascents. These surface winds were observed bycustome-y measurements with standard anemometers at each site. The standardheight of an anemometer is 10 m above the ground (Haynes, 1958, see p. 120).All data have been checked according to a procedure outlined by Essenwanger(1970) to assure good quality.

For many problems of the practitioner the higher probability thresholdsare particularly important, and therefore the following thresholds of thecumulative frequency are included in Tables Al-A12: 50.0, 84.1, 90.0, 95.0,97.7, and 99.0 percent. These tables also contain means, maxima, standarddeviations, and numbers of observations. The standard deviations listed inTables Al-A12 are computed from the observations and should not be confusedwith the standard deviations of turbulent fluctuations which are discussed inprevious sections. The station locations, elevations, and periods of recordsare listed in Table A13.

The station called Osan-Ni here is the same station referred to as Osan,Korea, in Sections II and IV. The frequency distributions for Osan-Ni inTables Al-A12 are for the period April 1957-April 1963. The wind data forOsan in the earlier sections are for the period January 1973-December 1979.The wind speeds are lower during the later period. This is probably an effectof urbanization. Empirical evidence cited by Landsberg (1981) shows that windspeeds become lower as a city grows. Landsberg illustrates that the meanwind speed decreased by 40 percent from 1945 to 1970 at one location. Koreahas indeed been industrializing rapidly (Young, 1982), and in recent years aconsiderable shift from the country to metropolitan areas has been observed.Young estimates that one-half of the Koreans now live in urban areas.

As expected and known from the literature (Stewart and Essenwanger, 1978),the frequency distributions are typically asymmetrical and skewed to theright in all seasons at most stations. The annual average mean of all stationsis 10 percent greater than the annual average median, and the monthly varia-tion of "he ratio of the two quantities is small. The mean wind speeds arelargest in wintr and smallest in summer. Most of the frequency distributionsare consistent with Hennessey's (1977) suggestion that the ratio of thestandard deviation to the mean should be between 0.4 and 1.0. A discussionof parameterization of wind frequency distributions is found in Stewart and

Essenwanger (1978).

33

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STATION ELEVATION {mJ_ LATITUDE LONGITUDE -PEP LOD OF RECORD

Akita 10 39043'N 1400061E Jan 56-Dec 6UAibrook 6 8059'N 79034'W Jan 56-Jul 63Albuquerque 1619 35003'N 106037'W Jan 56-Jun 63Alert 66 82030'N 620201W Jan 56-Cfc 60Anchorage 30 61010'N 149059'W Jan 56-Apr 63Bahrein 2 26016'N 50037'E Jan 56-Dec 60Barrow 8 71018'N 156 0471W Jan 56-Apr 63Barter Island 15 70008'N 143 0381W Jan 56-Dec 63Berlin 48 52029'N 13024'E Jan 56-Dec 60Chateauroux 162 46051'N 1043'E Jul 57-May 64Churchill 30 56057'N 94011'W Jan 56-Apr 63El Paso 1195 31048'N 106024'W Jan 56-May 63International Falls 360 48034'N 93023'W Jan 56-May 64Kadena 49 26021'N 127045'E Jan 56-Jun 63Kagoshima 5 31034'N 130"33'E Jan 56-Dec 63Keflavik 49 63057'N 22037'W Jan 56-0cý 63Kwajalein 11 8044'N 167 043'E Jan 56-Dec 62Miami 4 25049'N 80017'W a56Jl3Montgomery 61 32018'N 8624 Jn 56-May 64Moscow 186 55045'N 37034'E Jul 55-Jun 61Munich 526 48008'N 111042'E Jan 56-Dec 60New York 5 40040'N 730471W Sep 56-Dec 62Norfolk 9 36053'N 76012'W Jan 56-Dec 62Osan-Ni 15 37006'N 12700?'E Aor 57-Apr 63Peoria 201 40040'N 890411W Sep 56-May 64San Juan 19 18027'N 66006'W Jan 56-Apr 63Shemya 34 52043'N 174 006'E Jiil 58-Jul 63Stephenville 58 48c32'N 58033'W Jan 56-Feb 64Swan Island 10 17024'N 83056'W Jan 56-Jul 63Tatoosh Island 31 48023'N 124"441W Jan 56-May 64Thule 39 76033'N 68049*W *Jan 56-Felb 64Tripoli 11 32054'N 13017'E Jan 56-Dec 62Washington, D.C. 88 38050'N 76057'W Jan 56-May 64Wiesbaden 134 50000%N 8020'E Jan 51-Dec 57Zhana/Semey 206 50021'N 80015'E Nov 58-Oct 63

58

REFERENCES*

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I .7

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,'V

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• ' . . .+ , .. .. . . .. .. . .. .. = + : + + • ,..............

_T_

Stewart, D. A., 1981: A Survey of Atmospheric Turbulence Characteristics.

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62

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