ISTANBUL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF AERONAUTICS...
Transcript of ISTANBUL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF AERONAUTICS...
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ISTANBUL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF AERONAUTICS AND ASTRONAUTICS
GRADUATION PROJECT
JANUARY, 2020
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS AND TESTING
OF HIGH PERFORMANCE AMMONIUM NITRATE BASED
SOLID ROCKET PROPELLANT
Thesis Advisor: Assist. Prof. Dr. Kemal Bülent YÜCEİL
Ege TÜRKYILMAZ
Department of Astronautical Engineering
Anabilim Dalı : Herhangi Mühendislik, Bilim
Programı : Herhangi Program
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JANUARY 2020
ISTANBUL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF AERONAUTICS AND ASTRONAUTICS
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS AND TESTING
OF HIGH PERFORMANCE AMMONIUM NITRATE BASED
SOLID ROCKET PROPELLANT
GRADUATION PROJECT
Ege TÜRKYILMAZ
(110140104)
Department of Astronautical Engineering
Anabilim Dalı : Herhangi Mühendislik, Bilim
Programı : Herhangi Program
Thesis Advisor: Assist. Prof. Dr. Kemal Bülent YÜCEİL
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Thesis Advisor : Assist. Prof. Dr. Kemal Bülent YÜCEİL ..............................
İstanbul Technical University
Jury Members : Assist. Prof. Dr. Kemal Bülent YÜCEİL .............................
İstanbul Technical University
Prof. Dr. Alim Rüstem ASLAN ..............................
İstanbul Technical University
Dr. Bülent TUTKUN ..............................
İstanbul Technical University
Ege TÜRKYILMAZ, student of ITU Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics
110140104 successfully defended the graduation entitled “Performance Analysis
and Testing of High Performance Ammonium Nitrate Based Solid Rocket
Propellant” which he/she prepared after fulfilling the requirements specified in the
associated legislations, before the jury whose signatures are below.
Date of Submission : 2 January 2020
Date of Defense : 20 January 2020
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To the people who changed my life,
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FOREWORD
I would like to thank my family, my friends and my soulmate for supporting me in
each of my life decisions which have brought me to present.
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to my thesis adviser Assist. Prof. Dr. Kemal
Bülent YÜCEİL for his time, as well as his guidance, and encouraging behavior. His
experience and eagerness of teaching had been my compass for completing this
research.
Additionally, I would like to thank Deniz Özbarlı and Barış Daryal for helping me
with the logistics and chemistry , and sharing the warm and joyful working
environment.
January 2020
Ege TÜRKYILMAZ
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1 1.1 Reason of Research ............................................................................................ 1
1.2 Purpose of Research ......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2. PROPELLANT OVERVIEW ..................................................................... 9 2.1 Fuel Selecting ................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.1.1 Neoprene ................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.2 Additives .......................................................................................................... 11
2.2.1 Aluminum ................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.2.2 Sulfur ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.3 Chemical Characteristics .................................................................................. 12
2.3.1 Challanges of ammonium nitrate usage .................................................... 12 2.3.2 Challanges of aluminum usage ................................................................. 12
3. DEFINING PROPELLANT SPECIFICATIONS ................................... 12 3.1 Propellant Composition .................................................................................... 13
3.2 Solid Rocket Propellant Performance Analysis Program................................. 13 3.3 Finalizing Propellant Calculations ................................................................... 13
4. PROPELLANT MIXING .......................................................................... 22 4.1 Preparing Chemicals ........................................................................................ 22
4.2 Mixing and Finalizing ...................................................................................... 22 4.2.1 Mixing strategy for the perfect mixture .................................................... 22
4.2.2 The hydraulic press issue .......................................................................... 22
5. BURN RATE CALCULATIONS .............................................................. 24 5.1 Determining Burn Rate Constants .................................................................... 24
5.2 Strand Burner System Design .......................................................................... 24
5.3 Manufacturing and Finalizing Strand Burner ................................................... 24
6. TESTING AMMONIUM NITRATE BASED SOLID ROCKET
PROPELLANT ........................................................................................................ 26 6.1 Strand Burner Testing ...................................................................................... 26 6.2 Expected Impulse ............................................................................................. 26 6.3 Calculated Results ............................................................................................ 26
6.4 Launch .............................................................................................................. 26
7. RESULTS .................................................................................................... 26 8. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................... 26 9. FUTURE WORK ........................................................................................ 26
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ABBREVIATIONS
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
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LIST OF FIGURES
Page
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Performance Analysis and Testing of High Performance Ammonium Nitrate
Based Solid Rocket Propellant
SUMMARY
This research primarily performed for developing high power solid rocket propellant for
especially amateur model rocketry. Some of the countries does not have any regulation about
model rocketry and this deficiency results with a challenge of finding rocket motors for
academic rocket flight. Purchasing of rocket motors from another countries nearly impossible
due to the danger of transporting these chemicals. If the researchers decides to prepare their
own solid rocket motor it is also challangetive to find correct chemicals or supply them. In this
study, high performance solid rocket propellant created with slightly less hazardous chemicals
and with minimizing risks. The aim is helping the people with less risky propellant
compositions and prevent them to hurt themselves.
The study was firstly started with designing a small booster. However, the increasing necessity
of a more powerful motor leads to find new chemicals with higher energy. Classically, first
booster was planned made with KN (Potassium Nitrate) as an oxidizer. Past experiences
simply leads to understand KN will not be enough powerful. Nevertheless, the real solid
propellants’ main oxidizer Ammonium Perchloride is extremely dangerous and totally hard to
find. After reviewing the literature it is seen that AN (Ammonium Nitrate) also powerful if
every small details take into consideration.
Unfortunately, AN can not be used with common binders. AN is an oxidizer which is really
hard to use because of its phase change characteristics. For this study Neoprene based contact
cement is used after a few tries. As additives Aluminum and Sulfur is used. Aluminum is the
best performance increasers. Actually, when the oxidizer is AN, Mg would be a better effect.
However in this project Al is preferred because the ease of supply when compared the Mg.
Sulfur is an essential in Al added propellants for activating Al.
After deciding the ingredients, PROPEP free program is used for finding the best composition.
Trial and error method is used to find the best percentages and getting chemical specifications
for calculating the expected result. With using these datas, a MATLAB program is writed and
optimized. The program is firstly asking the boundary conditions and taking users grain
specifications which is coming from PROPEP and combustion chamber design. Program
performs a thousand iterations and gives the pressure, mass flow rate through nozzle, mass
generation rate of combustion products, burning time and more, then calculating thousand of
instant impulse values. Finally, giving a thrust and pressure curve depends on time, average
thrust, total impulse, nozzle dimensions, Isp values. This program’s results accelerate the
design of combustion chamber and grain dimensions designs. It has been easy to discuss the
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expected results and shaped the grain and determining minimum thickness of combustion
chamber.
Mixing of propellant is also quite challenging. AN is extremely hygroscopic chemical which is
bad characteristic for a propellant oxidizer. Before use it, nearly 2 hours of warming in oven at
100 degrees is an essential progress. While AN is heating up leaving all the water inside of it,
other ingredients should be weighed and prepared. AN must be used quickly to prevent
moistening. AN is grinded in coffee grinder and weighing. After Sulfur is also grinded and
putting together with Al. This powder is mixed gently and binder (which is also the fuel) is
added. Last steps before waiting 12 hours to get dry the contact cement is mixing well the
whole composition. After 12 hours, mixture grinded in coffee grinder again and shaped in a
mold and finally pressed in hydraulic press.
Next step after propellant sample is ready is burn rate measurements. It is critical for using the
MATLAB program. Strand Burner System is designed just for this study. An inch thickness of
pipe pressurized and thin strand of propellant sample placed in it. At least 3 thermocouple
sensors are connected to the pipe and touching the sample. While the strand is burning
thermocouples taking signal and burn rate can be measured with this data. After, the data is
processed burn rate constant is calculated and the MATLAB program runs with totally correct
data.
Finally, the solid motor placed in a small rocket and tested and results discussed.
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Yüksek Güçlü Amonyum Nitrat Bazlı Katı Roket Motorlarında Performans
Analizi ve Testleri
ÖZET
Bu çalışmanın yapılmasının temel amacı ülkesinde roket motorları üzerine çalışmak istemesine
rağmen gerekli düzenlemelerin olmaması sebebiyle roket motoru temin edemeyip çalışmalarını
durdurmak veya tehlikeli bir şekilde ilerletmek zorunda kalan araştırmacıların güvenli bir ve
yeterince performanslı bir roket motoru geliştirmesini esas almaktır. Yurtdışındaki sınırlı
sayıda tedarikçi taşımacılığın riskli olduğu bu kimyasalları gönderememektedir. Yakıtı kendisi
hazırlamak isteyen araştırmacı ise üst düzey kimyasallara güvenlik sebebiyle rahatça
erişememektedir.
Bu çalışmanın ilk amacı küçük bir model için basit bir roket motoru geliştirmektir. Ancak
sonradan daha güçlü bir motora duyulan ihtiyaç Potasyum Nitrat gibi alışılagelmiş
oksitleyicilerin yeterli olmamasına ve daha enerjik malzemelerin arayışına yol açmıştır.
Amonyum Perklorat tedariğinin müthiş derecedeki zorluğu ve kullanımındaki hayati risklerden
ötürü tercih edilmemiş, literatür araştırmaları sonucu Amonyum Nitrat’ın umut verici
çalışmaları olduğunu açığa çıkarmıştır. Doğru kullanıldığında oldukça güçlü olan Amonyum
Nitrat’ın ortaya çıkardığı zorluklar faz değiştiren ve nem çekmeye çok yatkın olan bir kimyasal
olmasıdır. Bu sebeple standart bağlayıcılarla kullanılamamaktadır. Amonyum Nitrat'ı’
fazlarıyla ilgili problemlerin aşılabileceği anlaşılınca kullanılmaya karar verilmiştir. Bağlayıcı
olarak Neoprene seçilmiştir ancak sadece katı halde bulunması ve en iyi çözünmeyi Toluen
gibi riskli bir kimyasalla vermesi sebebiyle Neoprene bazlı kontakt yapıştırıcıların
denenmesinin uygun bulunmasına sebebiyet vermiştir. Isp artışı için Mg AN özelinde en iyi
sonucu vermektedir ancak fazla aktif olması ve araştırmacıların yeterince tecrübesi olmaması
sebebiyle Al’ye karar verilmiştir. Sülfür ise Al’nin görevini tam yapması açısından oldukça
kritiktir. Al taneciklerinin dışındaki korozyonu bozarak yanmalarını kolaylaştırmaktadır.
Yakıtın bileşenlerine karar verildikten sonar ücretsiz am agüvenilir bir program olan
PROPEP’te yanma sonuçlarına bakılmış ve farklı yüzdelerde karışımlar denenmiştir. En
yüksek yanma sıcaklığının olduğu kompozisyon seçilmiş ve MATLAB’te bu çalışma için
yazılmış olan programda ortalama yanma hızı değerlerinde sonuçları incelenmiştir. Program
yanma odası ölçüleri ve yanma odasının maksimum dayanma basıncı, yakıt lokmalarının
ölçüleri ve yakıtın kimysal özelliklerini alarak 1000 iterasyon adımında 1000 farklı itki
değerini toplayarak total itli, anlık itki, Isp, yanma süresi ve basınç-zaman ve itki-zaman
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grafikleri çıkarmaktadır. Bu sayede sıradaki adımlar tamamen öngörülere değil hesaplamalara
da dayandırılmıştır.
Yakıtın fiziki olarak hazırlanmasında kritik noktalar mevcuttur. AN çok hızlı nem çeken bir
kimyasal olması sebebiyle karışımların hızlı oluşturulması gerekmektedir. AN 100 derecelik
fırında yaklaşık 2 saat kurumaya bırakılır ve bu esnada Al ve Sülfür hazırlanır. AN fırından
alınır alınmaz kahve öğütücüde öğütülür ve Al ve Sülfürle birleştirilerek nazikçe karıştırılır.
Oluşan bu toz karışıma bağlayıcı (aynı zamanda yakıt) Neoprene bazlı yapıştırıcı eklenir ve 12
saat kurumaya bırakılır. 12 saatin sonunda tekrar öğütücüde parçalanır ve hidrolik preste kalıba
dökülür.
Yakıtın yanma hızının bilinmesi performans hesaplamaları için gerekli olduğundan bu çalışma
için bir strand burner düzeneği tasarlanmış ve üretilmiştir. Bu düzenek pirinç bir borunun
delinerek en az 3 tane sıcaklık sensörü bağlanmasıyla oluşturulur. 1 inç kalınlığındaki borunun
içine yakıt örneği konularak basınçlandırılır ve farklı basınçlarda sıcaklık sensörlerinde zaman
bağlı alınan veriler işlenir. Çıkan basınç hız grafiğinden yanma hızı sabitleri belirlenir ve
MATLAB programında eksiksiz bir şekilde hesaplamalar yapılır. Sonucunda uygun basınç
belirlenir ve roket motoru son halini alır. Uçuş için mini rokette test edilir ve sonuçlar tartışılır.
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1. INTRODUCTION
From the ancient times to the present, space always be an object of interest for
humankind. At the beginning, humans were just watching with their eyes and
understand the movements in space. Invention of telescope was a milestone for these
researches. However, curiosity of humankind always stayed in the same level. As
they found new methods of discovery, they also found more and more mystery to
solve. Hence, telescopes started to be insufficient to answer people’s questions and
humans invented rocket technologies. Rockets changed all humankind’s life forever.
Today, rockets using for placing satellites to the Earth for communication, GPS
systems, and exporation for military and ciwil services. Moreover, rockets used for
deep space exploration missions with carrying surface rovers, telescopes, data
collecting devices and so on. Furthermore, not only in space, also in the Earth rocket
technologies used for defense systemes as missiles in air, land, and under the seas.
In addition to the usage of rockets by itselves, because of its complicated designs of
rocket systemes, lots of new technology has been discovered in areas like electronics,
strength of materials, even in daily life of people called spin-off products. Rocket
propulsion and its necessities in other subsystems are one of the most complicated
research topics in the world.
In this study, development of an ammonium nitrate based solid rocket propellant,
which is a specific propellant composition for a specific propulsion type, is the main
topic. The need of this kind of propellant, the purpose of a new study about solid
rocket propellants, design steps, calculations, programs which are used and just
writed for this research, subsystems and its designs will be discussed in this paper.
1.1 Purpose of Research
Nowadays, huge projects come alive by private sector in space industry. Besides
governments, these private companies which are working on rocket and space
technologies impressing more and more people everyday with their strong mediatic
force. Thus, especially in universities, students leading space industry and trying to
work on rocket systemes in school projects and international or national rocket
enginnering competitions. Some of the countries have special laws for these kind of
events named ”Model Rocketry Laws”. In this countries, it is easy to obtain ready to
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ignite solid rocket motor kits in different specifications. Also, launching a rocket is
possible with some permissions and licenses. Nevertheless, most of the countries
does not have regulations for these studies and it is nearly impossible to find a rocket
motor for testing or using in a real model rocket. This problem leads researchers to
design and prepare their own motor which is a good thing for people to learn. But
finding purchasing necessary chemicals generally really hard and sometimes
expensive. Same laws which is restricting to obtain rocket motor affects also the
chemicals. Another significant point is working with these chemicals is extremely
dangerous. These hazardous chemicals can ignite easliy by themselves and can burn
vigorously. Also, some of them is dangerous to smell and touch.
As a result, main purpose of this study is making a solid rocket propellant that is
relatively high power class with Ammonium Nitrate. The reason behind choosing
ammonium nitrate will discussed future chapters. All the chemicals used in this
research tried choose from easy obtainable ones. Also, all the safety precautions
mentioned to help unexperienced reader. At the end of this study, how to make
amateur level homemade solid rocket propellant and its output calculations tried to
be shared for the people who are working on model rocketry and having a hard time
about where to start, safety problems and performing combustion and thrust
calculations.
1.2 Rocket Propulsion Basics
Rocket engines or motors (depends on propulsion type) work with Newton’s Second
Law of Motion, simple momentum. Rocket propellant basically consists of two main
ingredients which are oxidizer and fuel. Combustion occurs with these two or more
chemicals in a combustion chamber which should be durable to increasing pressure
depends on the propulsion system. The reaction of oxidizer and fuel generally occurs
in high temperatures about 1500 – 10000 K in different kinds of propulsion systems.
This chemical reaction increses the pressure of combustion chamber and products of
the reaction goes through a nozzle and throwing away from the rocket. This
phenomenon called thrust, and denoted by F. Thrust is vectoral quantity and through
the backward of the rocket. The products go out from the engine with high speeds
pushes the system in the opposite direction. This is the simplified expression of the
thrust mechanism. In Fig.1, it can be seen that the simple section view and important
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variables of an engine. Thrust’s unit is N and it is instantaneous quantity. The total
thrust equals to
Thrust Formula
Fig.1
Specifications of a rocket engine simply can be expressed as “thrust, total impulse,
specific impulse or effective exaust velocity”. Thrust can be vary with time.
Generally, average thrust or maximum thrust make sense for the engineers. Total
impulse, denoted by “It” and unit is “N.s”, is the total power of the rocket engine and
calculated with integrating the thrust over time. Specific impulse generally represents
the performance of the engine and denoted with “Isp”. Isp is the total impulse per unit
weight of the consumed propellant and unit of it is “s”. Effective exhaust velocity “c”
is telling the same parameter with Isp but in a different way. It is the ideal velocity of
combustion products while going off from the engine at the nozzle’s outlet. The
formulas of It, Isp and c can be seen below:
Total impulse
Specific impulse
Effective exhaust velocity
Effective exhaust velocity
In this study, 220 s of Isp tried to be reach by solid rocket propellant. [1]
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1.2.1 Rocket Propulsion Types
Even there are more rocket types than 3, in this study only most common chemical
ones will be discussed.
Liquid propellant rocket propulsion systems are the most common used systems for
space missions. Generally known systems like Falcon 9, Saturn V are liquid
propellant systems. Liquid systems work with pumping liquid propellant with a
turbopump with passing through an injector to a combustion chamber. There are two
different types of liquid systemes. First one is bipropellants which means there are
two tanks one of them contains fuel and the other one is oxidizer. With different
pumps eject these liquids in a correct mass flow rate to the combustion chamber. In
monopropellants only one tank used and that contains both fuel and oxidizer. A
bipropellant system can be seen in Fig. 1.2:
Second system is hybrid propellant rocket propulsion system. This system is
relatively new when compared to liquid and a promising system for future space
missions or satellite launch systems. The reason for calling this system to hybrid is
being fuel and oxidizer in a different phase. Generally fuel is solid and stays inside
the combustion chamber and oxidizer ejected from a tank like in the liquid systems.
This is relatively less complex and more safe in contrast to liquid systems. Hybrid
systems also more environmentally friendly against the other systems. There is also
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inverse hybrid propulsion system which fuel is liquid in the thank and oxidizer is
solid and stays in the combustion chamber.
RESİM
Generally solid rocket propellants mentioned first however solid systems are the
main subject and will be discussed more detailed. Solid propellant propulsion
systems are the less complex ones. First rocket systems in the history were solid
propulsion type. They have some advantages and disadvantages compared to
systems are spoken before. In solid systems fuel and oxidizer stays in the combustion
system mixed and ready to ignite in a solid state. Because of there are no tanks or
complex systems solid systems are lighter and smaller. Mostly used in military
systems like air missiles or boosters for space mission rockets. Unfortunately, this
propulsion type can not be stopped when the combustion starts and because of its
ready to ignite can be ignited with static electric or a small sparkle as an accident.
Hence, should be extremely careful when dealing with solid rocket propellants. In
amateur model rocketry nearly all the studies performed with solid rocket
propellants.
TABLE
1.2.2 Combustion Theory
Combustion is the exothermic reaction which is occurs in the combustion chamber
with the igniter provide enough activation energy needed for burn. The basic
principle behind the combustion is converting the heat energy results from the
exothermic reaction to the kinetic energy comes with high pressure. The particle
moves towards to the nozzle exit because of this pressure difference.
The most complex part of designing a propulsion system is derivating the full
combustion equation. This is a hard subject and need a good chemical knowledge to
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make it perfect. Also because of its based on many assumption experience is an
important factor. After determining many products and sub products mole numbers
should found.
Many reactants come out with reversible reactions which means reaction goes both
ways, reactants and products. If the process is reversible more constants should be
calculateb like equilibrium contstants.
Next step is finding balanced equation. After that enthalpy of the products and
reactants should be determined and energy of the reaction should be calculated. With
using tables from chemistry databases combustion temperature will be determined.
This is a really complicated and tedious work to do. It is easy to make mistakes
without awaring. Hence, there are some computer programs automatically performs
all these things (and more) and give results with a great flexibility. Using this kind of
programs recommended in early stages. For this study PROPEP 3 had been used and
way of using will be discussed later on this paper.
1.2.3 Nozzle Theory
Nozzles are characterizing the flow in the propulsion systemes. Nozzle flow can be
defined as “steady one-dimensional compressible flow”. Hot exhaust gases and solid
particles goes through the nozzle. Generally nozzles are designed in convergent-
divergent model. In this model, nozzle area decreases until the place called throat and
then area increases. Flow is subsonic till the throat and that is the reason for
converging structure of the nozzle because subsonic flow getting faster if the area is
decreasing. In throat, flow reaches 1 Mach speed and becomes supersonic. Hence,
nozzle starts diverging because of the different characteristic of supersonic flow. The
aim is increasing the nozzle exit velocity as possible. This is directly proportional to
the thrust as mentioned before. All these processes can be proved with
thermodynamic relations.
The ciritical point is determining throat and nozzle exit area in rocketry. For these
some preknowns needed like combustion temperature and specific heat ratio which
are coming from combustion calculations. The formulas are:
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NOZZLE EXİT VELOCİTY FORMULA
ALAN ORANLARI FORMÜLÜ
After determining nozzle exit and throat area most of the work is done. Next step is
deciding the lengths of convergent and divergent parts. When the simple covergent-
divergent nozzle designed there is thrust loss due to the conical structure of the
outlet. Flow goes paralel to the nozzle walls and thrust losses like sinx times
calculated thrust as can be seen in figure:
RESİM
This loss will be smaller if the nozzle length becomes longer, nozzle will be getting
heavier and some point it does not worth to gained thrust.
Different kind of nozzle types like bell nozzles redirect the flow and keep the whole
thrust without loss. Also, aerospike type nozzles are exist which are always acting
like ideal in every ambient pressure. Every nozzle is designed for a specific ambient
pressure and gives best performance when the conditions are ideal. Hence, while
designing nozzles and whole system the main mission should be keep in mind and
designed the nozzle according to the mission.
1.3 Reason of Choosing Ammonium Nitrate as an Oxidizer
Oxidizer is the important ingredients which determines the characteristics of the solid
propellant. In military service missiles and rocket boosters which used in space
missions Ammonium Perchloride (AP) used as an oxidizer. AP is the most powerful
oxidizer which has proven performance. AP can burn very fast and gives high
combustion temperature. However it is extremely hard to supply even for the
commercial companies. Also, AP generally works with HTPB fuel and in this case
cyanide will be needed for curing HTPB. AP is very active and really easy to ignite
with a mistake. Thus, AP is not the case of this study even it is so suitable for rocket
systems.
Potassium Nitrate (KN) is relatively easy to find against AP. Safety concern is more
reasonable and most of amateur rocket projects’ small boosters made with KN. As a
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fuel, epoxy or sugar can be used simply. Unfortunately it has really low energy when
compared with others and for a high power solid rocket propellant KN is not enough.
There are rare choices like Nitro-glycerin, however these chemicals are extremely
dangerous to use and can never be the oxidizer of an amateur rocket propellant.
Final choice is Ammonium Nitrate (AN). AN is middle of the AP and KN about
supply resources. However, it is totally more powerful than KN even if not as much
as AP. AN can not be ignited by itselves in normal conditions which is exactly the
most important value for amateur rocketry. All details about AN will be discussed in
this study. Because of safety and performance factors AN is choosed for oxidizer of
high power amateur solid rocket propellant.
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2. PROPELLANT OVERVIEW
Ammonium Nitrate is a promising solid rocket propellant oxidizer for many
researchers. Its complicated structure makes difficult to work with AN. Nevertheless
with correct fuel selection and necessary additives it is possible to take performance
from AN. In the table it can be seen that the different Isp values taken from very
professional AP oxidized propellants.
In this study, main goal is passing 220 Isp with considering every small detail and
create safe, cheap and powerful solid propellant. 220 Isp value has performed before
with AN using best methodologies by Richard Nakka. After him new studies have
performed but not all of them calcualte Isp with real tests. It should be keeped in
mind that, main goal is creating a propellant composition and manufacturing tests for
beginner researchers. For the best performance AP used instead of AN, also in AN
based compositions different additives would be choosed.
2.1 Oxidizer
Ammonium Nitrate is an important ammonium resource. Its main usage area
fertilizers and explosives like most of the other oxidizers. It was discovered in 1659
by Glauber. In explosives, AN has been using in Gunpowder, nitroglycerin and TNT
as an additive for a long time. In rocket propellants its usage restricted because of its
complicated characteristics. Even tough, its price, its accessibility and totally
environmentally smokeless combustion products are making AN is so attractive for
new generation oxidizer with the developing technology and new methods. Its
drawbacks starts with its low energy capability compared to perchlorides. But most
important problems with AN is its hygrospic structure and phase transformation
behaviour. These problems not directly effect the performance, nevertheless making
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the perfect composition becomes harder in terms of mixing. Properties of AN can be
sen in table.
TABLE
Disposition of AN to self-extinguish is challengetive factor to overcome. Because of
water that occurs while decomposition process, combustion process slows down.
There are two reactions that occur simultaenously.
REACTIONS
As a result of these reactions in atmospheric pressures combusiton temperature can
not go beyond its melting temperature. However, in rapid burns at high pressures like
in the rocket motor, decomposition becomes different and gives products of nitric
acid and ammonia. The phase table of AN can be seen below:
TABLE
AN is a hard to use oxidizer because of these characteristics. The chemical structure
of the oxidizer should be examined well for not missing any point in combustion
process to get higher performance from the propellant. In future works, Phase
Stabilized Ammonium Nitrate would be used. It is hard to find and need a difficult
process to produce.
In this study standart AN is used. It saflık derecesi vesaire
GÖRSEL
2.2 Fuel Selecting
Fuel selecting issue is as much as complicated with learning of proper use of AN.
Especially, for a researcher which is dealed with more simple propellants should be
try standart fuels. However, because of decomposition characteristic of AN those are
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not work. Sugar and epoxy fueled propellants with the oxidizer KN is breaking the
AN and ammonia comes out which blocking a proper combustion.
HTPB and CTPB (hydroxyl and carboxy terminated polybutadiens) are generally
used with AP. Because of curing agents are hazardous HTPB and CTPB did not have
an option for any kind of amateur rocketry. According to the experiments of Richard
Nakka also polyurethanei silicone polyester does not work by only themselves. Cl
has a violating effect of combustion of AN. Hence, polychloroprene (C4H5Cl)n
which is known as Neoprene can be considered as a fuel. Cl atoms inside of the
neoprene naturally makes the same effect of using NaCl or any Cl compounds.
RESİM
Pure Neoprene is not so hard to find however generally can be found in solid phase.
Solvents of Neoprene are Methil Ethil Ketone, benzene, or toluene. Most suitable
one is MEK because of safety concerns. However, it takes time to completely solved
in. Therefore, industrial contact adhesives are started to examine because most of
them contains Neoprene and easily can be found in industrial zones which is for
mostly car and motorcycle repairs. These contact adhesives have nearly %20-25 of
neoprene and after the curing percentage of neoprene will increase because the other
chemicals will fly away. While using contact adhesive it is important to know the
percentage of neoprene inside it and mixing enough neoprene in the composition.
For this research, pure neoprene tried to be solved but could not be used. Best results
have taken with Würth’s Contact Adhesive.
FOTO
2.3 Additives
Besides oxidizer and fuel mostly solid rockcet propellants contains additives to
increase the efficiency and/or power of the propellant. These additivies sometimes
have direct effects to the performance, and sometimes has effects of working easier
and affects not directly the propellant but the other ingredients. Generally, in standart
rokcet propellants Al, Mg, Zc can be used as performance enhancers. These are
chosen from metals and increase directly the Isp of the propellant with increasing
combustion temperature and mass flow rate. There are also additives in categories of
12
binder (generally fuel), plasticizers and so on. These are giving the mechanical
properties to the grains to keep the propellant safe, long lived, and easy to placed in
the rocket motor.
2.3.1 Aluminum
2.3.2 Sulfur
2.4 Chemical Characteristics
2.4.1 Challanges of ammonium nitrate usage
2.4.2 Challanges of aluminum usage
3. DEFINING PROPELLANT SPECIFICATIONS
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Figure 2.1 : Advanced structures.
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13
3.1 Propellant Composition
3.2 Solid Rocket Propellant Performance Analysis Program
3.3 Finalizing Propellant Calculations
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Table 2.1 : Table captions must be ended with a full stop.
Column A Column B Column C Column D
Row A Row A Row A Row A
Row B Row B Row B Row B
Row C Row C Row C Row C
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14
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15
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Figure 3.1 : Neuron cell, adapted from Zadeh(1965).
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EXAMPLE
FIGURE
16
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ttt yy 11 . (3.1)
Parameters are explained individually.
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Equation numbers are bold and right-aligned.
Also see for support:
http://support.microsoft.com/kb/313017
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Figure 3.2 : For multi-line figure captions, it is important that all the lines of the
caption are aligned.
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Figure 3.3 : Figure captions must be ended with a full stop.
, min , ( , )A B A A B B A BD C C X C X C d X X (3.2)
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EXAMPLE
FIGURE
19 11
Figure 3.4 : Landscape-oriented, full-page figure.
EXAMPLE
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takimata sanctus est Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consetetur sadipscing elitr, sed
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Citation at
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Table 3.1 : Captioning in landscape-oriented pages: the most important aspect is to align the lines horizontally as given on this caption
example two lines.
Parametre
Column 2
Column 3
Column 4 Column 5
Sub-
column
Sub-
column
Sub-
column
Sub-
column
Sub-
column
Row 1 -7.680442 7.6986348 0.00 0.00 0.00 12 12
Row 2 140 - 0.50 0.00 0.00 0 0
Row 3 37.174357 37.16192697 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 24
Row 4 140 - 0.50 0.00 0.00 0 0
Row 5 37.174357 37.16192697 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 24
Row 6 140 - 0.50 0.00 0.00 0 0
Row 7 37.174357 37.16192697 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 24
Row 8 140 - 0.50 0.00 0.00 0 0
Row 9 37.174357 37.16192697 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 24
Row 10 140 - 0.50 0.00 0.00 0 0
Row 11 37.174357 37.16192697 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 24
Row 12 140 - 0.50 0.00 0.00 0 0
Row 13 37.174357 37.16192697 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 24
Row 14 140 - 0.50 0.00 0.00 0 0
Row 15 37.174357 37.16192697 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 24
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12
22
4. PROPELLANT MIXING
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4.1 Preparing Chemicals
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4.2 Mixing and Finalizing
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4.2.1 Mixing strategy for the perfect mixture
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4.2.2 The hydraulic press issue
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Figure 4.1 : Example figure.
This indicates that the ANN is accurate at base flow and flow height values lower then 3 m.
Table 4.1 : Example table.
Column A Column B Column C Column D
Row A Row A Row A Row A
Row B Row B Row B Row B
Row C Row C Row C Row C
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EXAMPLE
FIGURE
24
5. BURN RATE CALCULATIONS
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5.1 Determining Burn Rate Constants
In this thesis, the necessary steps for constructing an end-to-end streamflow forecasting system
were discussed. These steps include the use
5.2 Strand Burner System Design
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5.3 Manufacturing and Finalizing Strand Burner
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Figure 5.1 : Example figure in chapter 5.
EXAMPLE
FIGURE
25
This indicates that the ANN is accurate at base flow and flow height values lower then 3 m.
Table 5.1 : Example table in chapter 5.
Column A Column B Column C Column D
Row A Row A Row A Row A
Row B Row B Row B Row B
Row C Row C Row C Row C
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6. TESTING AMMONIUM NITRATE BASED SOLID ROCKET PROPELLANT
6.1 Strand Burner Testing
6.2 Expected Impulse
6.3 Calculated Results
6.4 Launch
7. RESULTS
8. CONCLUSION
9. FUTURE WORK
Figure 6.1 : Example figure in chapter 6.
This indicates that the ANN is accurate at base flow and flow height values lower then 3 m.
Table 6.1 : Example table in chapter 6.
Column A Column B Column C Column D
Row A Row A Row A Row A
Row B Row B Row B Row B
Row C Row C Row C Row C
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EXAMPLE
FIGURE
27
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28
REFERENCES
Abrahart, R. J., and See, L. (1998). Neural Network vs. ARMA Modelling: Constructing
Benchmark Case Studies of River Flow Prediction. In GeoComputation ’98.
Proceedings of the Third International Conference on GeoComputation,
University of Bristol, United Kingdom, 17–19 September (CD-ROM).
Abrahart, R. J., and See, L.(2000). Comparing neural network and autoregressive moving
average techniques for the provision of continuous river flow forecasts in two
contrasting catchments, Hydrolog. Process.,14, 2157–2172.
Acar, M. H. and Yılmaz, P.(1997). Effect of tetramethylthiuramdisulfide on the cationic
poymerization of cylohexeneoxide, The 2nd International Conferences on
Advanced Polymers via Macromolecular Engineering, Orlando, Florida, USA,
April 19-23.
Box, G. E. P., and Jenkins, J. M. (1976).Time Series Analysis: Forecasting and Control.
Holden-Day, San Francisco, CA.
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: Maps
32
APPENDIX A
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e)
(f)
Figure A.1 : Regional maps: (a)Precipitation. (b)Flow. (c)Evapotranspiration …
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“APPENDICES”, but must not be indicated in Table of
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Table A.1 : Example table in appendix.
Column A Column B Column C Column D
Row A Row A Row A Row A
Row B Row B Row B Row B
Row C Row C Row C Row C