IST 4 Information and Logic - California Institute of ...vigeland.caltech.edu/ist4/lectures/lect...
Transcript of IST 4 Information and Logic - California Institute of ...vigeland.caltech.edu/ist4/lectures/lect...
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IST 4 Information and Logic
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midterms
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Boolean Proofs: Axioms + Fun
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A1-A4
L1 T1
T2
T3
L2
T4
T0
Proof Dependency
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Review of Quiz #6 What is the complement of
Use the following DeMorgan Laws:
And the axioms:
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What is the complement of
DeMorgan Laws:
And the axioms:
DM
DM
A4
A4 A3
A2 A3
A1
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Syllogism to Algebra George Boole, 1847
George Boole 1815 –1864
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George Boole Early Days
George Boole 1815-1864
Born in Lincoln, England an industrial town
His father was a shoemaker with a passion for mathematics and science
When George was 8 he surpassed his father’s knowledge in mathematics
By age 14 he was fluent in Latin, German, French, Italian and English… and algebra…
When his was 15 he had to go to work to support his family, he became a math teacher in the Wesleyan Methodist academy in Doncaster (40 miles away…)
Lost his job after two years….
Lost two more teaching jobs…
When he was 20 he opened his own school in his hometown - Lincoln
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source: wikipedia
George Boole 1815-1864
Born in Lincoln, England an industrial town
In 1841 (26) he published three papers in the newly established Cambridge Mathematical Journal
In 1844 (29) he published “On a General Method of Analysis” The paper won the first (newly established) Gold medal for Mathematics awarded by Royal Society
In 1846 (31) he applied for a professor position in the newly established Queen’s College – 3 campuses in Ireland
In 1847 (32) ‘while waiting to hear from Ireland’, he published “The Mathematical Analysis of Logic”
George Boole Early Career
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George Boole 1815-1864
Born in Lincoln, England an industrial town
In 1847 (32) ‘while waiting to hear from Ireland’, he published “The Mathematical Analysis of Logic”
In 1849 (34), his was offered a position of the first professor of mathematics at Queen’s college at Cork
He married Mary Everest (1832- 1916) in 1855 (23,40) and they had five daughters Niece of George Everest (Mt. Everest…) led the expedition to map the Himalayas
8848 m 29,029 ft George Boole Ireland
source: wikipedia In 1864, died of pneumonia (49)
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The heritage continues…
Mary Ellen Margaret
Mary Everest Boole George Boole
Ethel Alicia Lucy
Geoffrey Everest Hinton
U of Toronto Google Brain Team
(deep learning)
great-great-grandson
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Born in Lincoln, England an industrial town
1849-1864, taught at at Queen’s college in Cork
George Boole Geography
source: wikipedia
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Cork, Ireland Source: www.flickr.com
1849-1855: lived here until got married
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Boole was never a student at a university… only a professor…
Leibniz never held an academic position…
George Boole 1815-1864
Gottfried Leibniz 1646-1716
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It is all about Algorizmi 780-850AD Gottfried Leibniz
1646-1716
George Boole 1815 –1864
??? Binary
Boolean
Shannon 1916-2001
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Boolean Algebra Boolean is not Binary...
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Two-valued Boolean Algebra
Boolean Algebra: set of elements B={0,1}, two binary operations OR and AND
xy OR(x,y) 00 01 10 11
0 1 1 1
xy AND(x,y) 00 01 10 11
0 0 0 1
0 iff both x and y are 0 1 iff both x and y are 1
We proved it is a Boolean algebra
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Four-valued Boolean Algebra
Two-valued Boolean Algebra: set of elements B={0,1}, two binary operations OR and AND
Four-valued Boolean Algebra: set of elements ?? two binary operations ?? and ??
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Elements:
0-1 vectors:
(10) (00) (11) (01)
operations?
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+
Elements are: (00), (11), (10), (01)
00 01 10 11
00
01
10
11
01
01
11
11
10 11
11 11
10 11
11 11
00
01
10
11
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+
Elements are: (00), (11), (10), (01)
00 01 10 11
00
01
10
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10 11
11 11
10 11
11 11
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Bitwise OR
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+
Elements are: (00), (11), (10), (01)
00 01 10 11
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10 11
11 11
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Bitwise OR xy OR(x,y) 00 01 10 11
0 1 1 1
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Elements are: (00), (11), (10), (01)
00 01 10 11
00
00
00
00
00
01
00
01
00 00
00 01
10 10
10 11
00
01
10
11
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Elements are: (00), (11), (10), (01)
00 01 10 11
00
00
00
00
00
01
00
01
00 00
00 01
10 10
10 11
00
01
10
11
Bitwise AND
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Elements are: (00), (11), (10), (01)
00 01 10 11
00
00
00
00
00
01
00
01
00 00
00 01
10 10
10 11
00
01
10
11
Bitwise AND xy AND(x,y) 00 01 10 11
0 0 0 1
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Elements:
Operations:
(10) (00) (11) (01)
Bitwise AND Bitwise OR
Is it a Boolean algebra?
0 1
Bitwise Complement
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+ 00 01 10 11
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+ 00 01 10 11
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+ 00 01 10 11
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+ 00 01 10 11
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We can prove it!
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Elements:
Operations:
(10) (00) (11) (01)
Bitwise AND Bitwise OR
It is a Boolean algebra!
0 1
Bitwise Complement
In general: 0-1 vectors a Boolean algebra?
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Elements:
Operations:
(001) (000) (111) (010)
Bitwise AND Bitwise OR
0 1
Bitwise Complement
True for a two-valued Boolean algebra
True for any Boolean algebra with 0-1 vectors and bitwise OR and AND??
0-1 vectors Boolean algebra
(011) (100) (101) (110)
n=3
n=1
arbitrary finite n
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|s|
Idea 1: Any identity that is true for 0-1 is true for 0-1 vectors with bitwise OR/AND
Idea 2: Axioms are identities True for 0-1 à true for 0-1 vectors
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The 0-1 Theorem 0-1 Theorem:
An identity is true for 0-1 vectors with bitwise OR and AND if and only if it is true for two valued (0-1) with bitwise OR and AND
Proof: The easy direction
Assume an identity true for 0-1 vectors
True for 0-1
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The 0-1 Theorem 0-1 Theorem:
Proof: The non-obvious direction
Assume an identity true for 0-1
Need to prove true for any 0-1 vectors
An identity is true for 0-1 vectors with bitwise OR and AND if and only if it is true for two valued (0-1) with bitwise OR and AND
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Example:
Theorem 2:
Proof:
0 + 0 ⋅ 0 = 00 + 0 ⋅1 = 01 + 1 ⋅ 0 = 11 + 1 ⋅1 = 1
The identity is true for 0-1
Need to prove it for 0-1 vectors
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Theorem 2: Proof (for 0-1 vectors): If an identity is not true in general; then there is an assignment of elements that violates the equality
Hence, there must be a position in the binary vector that is violated
There exists a 0-1 assignment to the identity that violates the equality, CONTRADICTION!!
By contradiction Assume true for all 0-1 assignments and not true for some other assignment
Example:
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Recap: The 0-1 Theorem An identity is true for 0-1 vectors with bitwise OR/AND if and only if it is true for two valued (0-1) with OR/AND
Proof: The easy direction • Assume an identity true for 0-1 vectors • 0-1 is a special case: True for 0-1
Q The non-obvious direction • Assume an identity true for 0-1
• Need to prove true for 0-1 vectors
• Assume there exists a general ‘identity violating’ assignment • Show that there is a 0-1 ‘identity violating’ assignment
CONTRADICTION!!
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Operations: Bitwise AND Bitwise OR Bitwise
Complement
It is a Boolean algebra for any finite n
0-1 vectors of length n, there are 2n vectors Elements:
Application of the the 0-1 Theorem
It is a Boolean algebra with for n=1
By the 0-1 Theorem:
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Boolean Algebra Two-value? Or not?
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Prove or Disprove
At least one of the following is true:
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Prove or Disprove
At least one of the following is true:
xy OR(x,y) 00 01 10 11
0 1 1 1
True for two-valued Boolean algebra
Is it true for 0-1 vectors Boolean algebras?
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+ 00 01 10 11
00
01
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10 11
11 11
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Prove or Disprove
At least one of the following is true:
Is it true for 0-1 vectors Boolean algebras?
NO
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If
Then or
Claim is NOT TRUE in general!
The 0-1 Theorem: True only for identities!!!
+ 00 01 10 11
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Examples ‘other’ Boolean Algebras
• 0-1 vectors
• Algebra of subsets
• Arithmetic Boolean algebras
next
next
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Boolean algebra subsets of a set |s|
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Algebra of Subsets S is the set of all points
Elements: all possible subsets of a set S How many elements? 2|s| 8
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Algebra of Subsets S is the set of all points
Elements: all possible subsets of a set S
+ is union of sets is intersection of sets
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Algebra of Subsets S is the set of all points
Elements: all possible subsets of a set S
+ is union of sets is intersection of sets
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A boring example:
Elements:
S =
Operations: union and intersection
Complement:
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Elements:
Corresponding 0-1 vectors:
(10) (00) (11) (01)
S =
Algebra of subsets is isomorphic to the algebra of 0-1 vectors, it is a Boolean algebra!
Is the algebra of subsets a Boolean Algebra? YES
syntax the same – different semantics
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01 11 00 10
00
10
01
11
Elements are: (00), (11), (10), (01)
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01 11 00 10
00
10
01
11
Elements are: (00), (11), (10), (01)
00 10 01 11
10
11
01
10 11 11
11
11 11 11
11 01
Union Bitwise OR
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Elements are: (00), (11), (10), (01)
01 11 00 10
00
10
01
11
00 00 00 00
00
00
00
10 00 10
00
10 01 11
01 01
Intersection Bitwise AND
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(110) (011) (111)
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(110) (011) (010)
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Boolean algebra Boolean integers |s|
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Euclid, 300BC
405 297 27
884 68 612
Interesting triples??
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Euclid, 300BC
405 = 3x3x3x3x5
297 = 3x3x3x11 27 = 3x3x3
884 = 2x2x13x17 68 = 2 x 2 x 17
612 = 2x2x3x3x17
Greatest Common Divisor
Application: Simplifying fractions
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Euclid, 300BC
405 = 3x3x3x3x5
297 = 3x3x3x11 4455 = 3x3x3x3x5x11
884 = 2x2x13x17 7956 = 2x2x3x3x13x17
612 = 2x2x3x3x17
Least Common Multiple
Application: Adding fractions
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Euclid, 300BC
297x405 = 120,285
gcd(297,405) = 27 lcm(297,405) = 4455
Least Common Multiple
Greatest Common Divisor
27x4455 = 120,285
gcd(a,b) x lcm(a,b) = a x b
405 = 3x3x3x3x5
297 = 3x3x3x11
405 = 3x3x3x3x5
297 = 3x3x3x11
A fun fact:
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Arithmetic Boolean Algebra
lcm = lowest common multiple gcd = greatest common divisor
The set of elements: {1,2,3,6}
The operations: lcm and gcd
1 is Boolean 0 6 is Boolean 1
George Boole 1815 –1864
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What is the complement?
1 2
3 6
The set of elements: {1,2,3,6}
The operations: lcm and gcd
1 is Boolean 0 6 is Boolean 1
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The set of elements: {1,2,3,6}
The operations: lcm and gcd
1 is Boolean 0 6 is Boolean 1
Elements: Set of all the divisors of an integer n
Is it a Boolean algebra?
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Is it a Boolean Algebra?
6 = 3x2
3 = 3
2 = 2
1 = 1
11
00
10
01
LCM GCD
11 01
Bitwise OR Bitwise AND
YES
For which n does it work?
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The complement?
The set of elements: {1,2,4,8}
The operations: lcm and gcd
1 is Boolean 0 8 is Boolean 1
1 2
4 8
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The set of elements: {1,2,3,6}
The operations: lcm and gcd
1 is Boolean 0 6 is Boolean 1
For which n does it work?
Elements: Set of all the divisors of an integer n
Prime factors appear at most once in n
Square-free integers, Boolean integers
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Bunitskiy Algebra 1899
Elements:
The set of divisors of a Boolean integer
{1,2,3,5,6,10,15,30}
The operations: lcm and gcd
The 0 and 1 elements: 1 and 30
Boolean Integers 2 x 3 x 5 = 30 2 x 3 x 7 = 42
Every prime in the prime factorization is a power of one (square-free integer)
Euclid, 300BC George Boole 1815 –1864
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+ 00 01 10 11
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1 2 3 6
1
1 2 3 6
1 2 3 6
2 2 6 6
3 6 3 6
6 6 6 6 1 2 3 6
1 1 3 3
1 2 1 2
1 1 1 1 1
2
3
6
2
3
6
lcm gcd
Bunitskiy algebra is isomorphic to the algebra of 0-1 vectors, it is a Boolean algebra!
syntax the same – different semantics
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Boolean algebra an amazing theorem
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Examples of Boolean Algebras
• 0-1 (two valued) Boolean algebra OR / AND • 0-1 vectors bitwise OR / bitwise AND • Algebra of subsets union / intersection • Arithmetic Boolean algebras lcm / gcd
Size 2k They are isomorphic!
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Representation Theorem (Stone 1936): Every finite Boolean algebra is isomorphic to a Boolean algebra of 0-1 vectors
Algebra 1 Algebra 2
elements elements
operations operations
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Representation Theorem (Stone 1936): Every finite Boolean algebra is isomorphic to a Boolean algebra with elements being bit vectors of finite length with bitwise operations OR and AND
Two Boolean algebras with m elements are isomorphic
Provides intuition beyond the axioms: We can ‘naturally’ reason about results in Boolean algebra
Every Boolean algebra has 2 elements k
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Marshall Stone Marshall Stone
1903-1989
Proved in 1936 90AB = years After Boole The Boolean Syntax invented in 1847 has a unique representative semantic!!!
Harlan Fiske Stone 12th Chief Justice of the US 1941-1946
Marshall entered Harvard in 1919 intending to continue his studies at Harvard law school; fell in love with Mathematics, and the rest is history…
Marshall had a passion for travel. He began traveling when he was young and was on a trip to India when he died....
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One week!
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2 symbol adder c
s
d1 d2
c
parity
majority
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1 2
3
4
Prove 1 Prove 2
multiply
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1 2
3
4
Prove 1 Prove 2
multiply
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Need to provide a complete proof No duality arguments
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Sum of products (no need to expand to DNF)
See the solution to Quiz #6