Israel in space

Dr. Fred Ortenberg

Israel in Space Twenty Years of Exploration

(1988-2008)

Haifa, 2009

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Israel in Space Twenty Years of Exploration

(1988-2008)

Copyright © 2009

By Dr. Fred Ortenberg, ASRI, Technion

July 2009

This full-colour, beautifully illustrated book presents, in the form of brief press excerpts in chronological sequence, the most spectacular achievements of Israel’s space industry over the last two decades. In timeline course of space events you’ll read brief excerpts from hundreds of news articles reporting on important achievements in space flight. Key trends are described in the leading civil and military space programmes – Earth observations, telecommunications, technologies, manned space flight, and navigation. Aspects of the space markets, budget dynamics, collaboration initiatives, policies - are analysed. Moshe Guelman’s preface takes a look at what lies ahead. The authors hope that Israel’s forthcoming space projects, timely and successful, will simulate the advance of space technology both locally and the world over.

Printed at Technion Press

ISBN: 987-965-555-457-1

Asher Space Research Institute, Technion

Technion City, Haifa, 32000, Israel

http://www.technion.ac.il/ASRI

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Contents

Preface (by Prof. M.Guelman) 4

1. Israel space venture – a brief history 9

2. Earth observation missions 13

3. Communication and experimental satellites 24

4. Main features and development trends 34

5. Space market 38

6. Observation and communication – a top priority 41

7. Space security strategy 48

8. Space research 58

9. Space starts 67

10. Technology and collaboration 74

11. National distinctive feature 77

12. Conclusion 82

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Preface

This book recounts the fascinating events of Israel’s venture into space, and acquaints the reader with the early steps and the subsequent stages up to the present. It chronicles an outstanding project initiated in the 1980’s by a small band of pioneers - engineers, scientists and military personnel, thanks to whom the country is now a leader in Earth observation, space communication, development of small satellites, etc. Beside these past successes, it discusses the development prospects in the country’s astronautics. Information is provided on achievements in space on the technology over the last 20 years and on the obstacles to be overcome for these successes to continue. It is not only a story of past success, but also an analysis of the trends and prospects in our national astronautics. The unavailability, to date, of a comprehensive history of Israel’s space venture has several explanations: • Twenty years are too short a period; • Shortage of competent historians capable of describing technical progress; • Shortage of preserved documentation. Hence the timeliness of this book, written by a staff member of the Asher Space Research Institute with 40 years’ experience in the field in question in the former Soviet Union. Traditionally, the first presentation of a phenomenon is often due to an “outsider”. In it there is a logic. For example, linguists consider that the first comparative grammar of language a Hebrew has been created by the Persian. There are well-known, the geographical, ethnographical, and artistic descriptions of new lands – all have been provided by foreign travelers. The same trend can be seen here, in that

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the first compact account of the first stage of Israel’s space venture is due, not to an actual participant but to a newcomer – a repatriate. It is true that a period of 20 years can only represent the incubation phase of something new on the social scene. Still, concurrent examination of the origins of the process in question would be extremely valuable – first, because events are liable to be forgotten and lost to future researchers; secondly, because many formative factors ensued during this very period. With this in mind, further developments can be more clearly envisaged, more exactly predicted, and regulated if and when necessary. Regrettably, serious publications on the history of technology mostly deal either with very narrow aspects, or with the contribution of outstanding personalities in specific fields – and thus are of interest only to specialists; at the same time, popular publications mostly are rather superficial and offer minimal technical information, itself of dubious accuracy. This book is situated “halfway” between these extremes. It contains important authentic technical details, but these are not onerous and anyone interested in space research and/or in Israel’s history in this field can read it without undue difficulty. It is highly readable, written in an ironic narrative format. The advent of Israel’s Space Agency; the technological problems mastered; the unimaginable achievements; the current state of our space industry and its international standing; trends and prospects – all these are described by the text and the accompanying illustrations, demonstrating both our to-date progress in space and in parallel our increasing dependence on it. The book contains occasional controversial statements which, however, do not detract from its high-level objectivity and professionalism. Its contents derive from a variety of sources – journal articles, Internet messages, scientific reports, market surveys, etc. – which, put together, analyzed and generalized, paint an integrated picture of Israeli astronautics. It is an encyclopedia

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of sorts of novel phenomenon of Israel’s space life. I believe that it can become an aid for students in acquiring the skills of space design. The space systems already in operation permit communication with various parts of the Earth; monitoring of the weather; airplane navigation; protection of the Earth’s resources; last not least, timely alertness to terrorist activity. At the same time, most people outside the immediate “space community” are unaware of the need for further progress and of the vast advantages already gained. This can be remedied by availability of suitable literature, and I feel that this book provides convincing proof of how space achievements have made life safer and more comfortable, both in the global context and within the boundaries of our own small country. Its main virtue, as I see it, is that it concentrates on the next stage of the space venture, sharpening the vision on future developments already under way in Israel. It is hoped that the ideas outlined here will help the state agencies, the industry and the scientific community in assessing the political, economic and societal aspects of future programmes and opting for decisions whereby the effectiveness of space utilization will be enhanced. I would also like to contribute to the search for optimal solutions, and accordingly offer a personal take on Israel’s space programme: Some people ask, given Israel’s continuous struggle, why we should care about space. We believe that this is a practical matter of great significance for our present wellbeing and an essential part of our future. There can be nothing more important to our nation now than an inspired dream. Space exploration and its use is not a dream; it is a reality, a reality that can be built into a better future for all of us. We use our minds every day to survive and to overcome physical, social, emotional, and intellectual challenges. Exploring and using space will require all of these capabilities, applied in a new environment. Space activities provide goals for education, new scientific knowledge, new technologies, which in turn can be adapted for new uses here on Earth, new markets for the tools we create, new

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jobs and career paths, answers to key questions about the origins, prevalence, and durability of life in the universe. Israel is strongly committed to the use of robotic vehicles to provide the necessary means for remote sensing, communications, navigation. Israel succeeded, in the more than twenty years since its inception, to establish a space program on a firm basis. The three basic legs on which a scientific technological program stands, education, research and development, are now in place and working. Academic Institutions, Research Centers and Industry are all well established and functioning. The industrial basis with its major components Israel Aircraft Industry at its helm, Rafael and Elbit/ElOp lead the work. The Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, through the educational activities of its unique Faculty of Aerospace Engineering and its research activities under the leadership of the Asher Space Research Institute, provide the long-term capabilities of an ambitious space program. Israel developed its competency in the field of launchers, small satellites, electro-optical instruments, developed space operation centers, the treatment of information, as well as advanced space components. It also has a vibrant program of research on new and advanced technologies such as electric propulsion, inter-satellite laser communications and ranging. It has a deep scientific involvement in planetary sciences, atmospheric studies, astrophysics and microgravity. While robots might give us technical information, they cannot reason as humans, react as quickly as humans, or make up connections or theories as humans do. They may provide the facts, but it takes a human mind looking at those facts to make sense of them. Sometimes we can learn more and much more quickly by being there, on site. For this purpose Israel is obliged to continue further to participate in piloted flights. Mastery of space and its technologies, as well as the means to reach space are and remain part of the elements of national sovereignty. This

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is a basic element of independence as well as the strategies of defense, science and its applications, in particular, remote sensing, communications and navigation. Professor Moshe Guelman, Head of Asher Space Research Institute, Haifa, July 2009

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1. Israel space venture – a brief history

The official date of Israel’s accession to the Space Age is September 19, 1988 – the day on which its first satellite, OFEQ-1, was launched by means of the three-stage Shavit rocket. Thus Israel joined the prestigious club of states engaged in space activity and capable of creating both the spacecraft and rocket launcher (at that time, seven in number – the USA, Russia, Great Britain, France, China, Japan and India). The launch also marked the birth of the country’s space industry and was the culmination of the process of development and testing of the satellite and its carrier rocket – initiated in 1981 with the endorsement of the space programme by Prime Minister Menahem Begin. In 1983 the Israel Space Agency (ISA) was founded. It was headed by the late Prof. Yuval Ne’eman, a graduate of the Technion and an eminent physicist who combined decades-long research activity (quark theory) which earned him prestigious prizes and membership of learned societies – with an intensive army, academic and political career1. The basic function of the Agency consisted in support for private and university projects in the title field; coordination of defence and industrial research; initiation and promotion of international activities; dissemination of achievements. Its work expanded from year to year. At first, of the 50 million dollars spent in Israel on space projects, only about one-tenth was budgeted by the Agency. In 1984, the Space Research Institute was founded at the Technion and named for its sponsors – the Asher family. Its terms of reference are, in parallel, solution of scientific, engineering and design problems – and training of manpower in the field in question. The Institute’s

1 Deputy Commander, IDF Intelligence Corps; Military Attaché, London; Chief Scientist, Ministry of Defence; President, Tel-Aviv University; Member of the Knesseth, and twice a member of the Cabinet.

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programme is being shaped through regularly held international meetings, interdisciplinary research, co-optation of specialists from other local universities. A later contributor to the national space activity is the Fisher Brothers Institute of Air and Space Strategic Studies in Herzliya, likewise through regular public events, conferences and meetings, information material and papers on space projects. The institute promotes formation of the national space programme and consolidation of the scientific, technical and military public around space problems. Without belittling the value of the above activities, it should be emphasised that the space programme became feasible mainly through the deployment of special production capabilities, testing equipment, launching and flight control stations, etc. Moreover, the breakthrough would not have been achieved but for the recruitment and training of hundreds of gifted engineers, technicians, workers, all of them dedicated to the goal. The basic projects were realised by the Israel Aircraft Industry (IAI) and the Armament Development Authority (Rafael). For the inhabitants of Earth, the Space Age was inaugurated in 1957 with the first Soviet Sputnik. Its “beep-beep” carried the message that space now belongs to Mankind, and that its conquest is the destiny of the future generations. The space age has begun. However, each history has its own prehistory. It is asserted that America and Russia are obliged for the first successes in space to the scientists and engineers taken out to these countries from Germany after the Second World War. There was even a joke. The Soviet Sputnik and American Explorer met somehow in orbit early in the space age. The Russian greeted its American partner in English, and was answered: «Do not strain, colleague. Let's speak German – after all, we both know it much better».

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Over the last half-century, astronautics has covered a vast distance, reaping along the way the best achievements of scientific and technological progress. People of various nations and from various lands contributed to the breakthrough into space. By the time our young state began planning its space activity, the leading countries had already reached impressive achievements in the closer and more remote regions of space, and in manned flights. The decision to “join the club” could not be taken offhand, especially considering the multitude of critical and urgent problems Israel was facing. The motivation stemmed initially from defence considerations, mainly on the intelligence front, and the project evolved on the basis of the experience accumulated in missile technology. This weaponry included the ballistic “Jericho-2”, which became the prototype for the “Shavit” carrier rocket. All three stages of “Shavit” use solid propellants and the launcher has been employed in all of Israel’s indigenous satellites that started from Israeli territories. The creation and launching of the first satellites would have been impossible without prior high-tech advances in electronics, computers, electro-optics and imaging, and the outstanding achievements of Israeli engineers in miniaturization of space equipment. Thanks to this, Israel’s satellites belong to the lightweight class and are small in size. Lighter satellites are more efficient and save hundreds of thousands of dollars per launch. Naturally, the country cannot afford the budgets at the disposal of the veteran members of the club. For example, the USA is now investing 35 billion dollars annually in its civilian and military space programmes (including more than 16 billion for NASA alone); the European Union invests 10 billion dollars (almost exclusively for civilian projects), and the Federal Space Agency in Russia disposed in 2007 of an annual budget of 1.34 billion dollars with most of them being allocated to civil programmes. Lately Israel’s annual government investment does not exceed an average of 100 million dollars. Israel is wonderland, and in spite of such a modest budget it is

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one of the few countries with autonomously achieved space goals, including placing of the spacecraft in orbit by a locally-produced carrier. In the beginning Israel’s space activity had a pronounced military orientation. Later, with the advent of communication satellites, satellites for space research and commercial satellites for Earth observation, an impressive balance was created between the military and civilian aspects of the space programme. The “first-born” of Israeli astronautics, the OFEQ-1, was launched from the Palmakhim Space Centre (south of Tel-Aviv) and placed in a low elliptic (250X1150km) orbit at the unusual inclination of 143°. Ofeq is the Hebrew word for Horizon. It is recollected that this launch was reported in the Soviet mass media in laconic, but friendly terms. Inter alia, it was noted that the launch was directed westwards unlike the universally accepted eastward course. One commentator, apparently an inveterate joker, saw in this a possible analogy with the right-to-left course of Hebrew texts, as against that of the Russian and other European alphabets. Indeed, this inclination indicates that, like its successors deployed from Israeli territory, OFEQ-1 was launched in a westerly direction counter to the Earth’s rotation – unlike the generally practiced easterly scheme. Its flight trajectory passes over the Mediterrean, the straits of Gibraltar, and the Atlantic, so that its spent stages were jettisoned over water. This scheme, with its obvious disadvantages in terms of the payload (reduced carrier potential), was the only available option: in the alternative scheme, the trajectory would pass over actively or passively hostile territory. Due to the payload penalty associated with a retrograde orbit, the westward launch constraint is usually seen as a severe handicap for Israel. However, the resulting east-to-west orbit at

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143 degrees inclination can be phased so as to provide exceptionally good daylight coverage of the Middle East. The OFEQ’s orbit is phased accordingly, and it makes a half-dozen or so daylight passes per day over Israel and the surrounding countries. The USA and Russian spy satellites achieve only one or two passes per day from their higher-inclination orbits. Nevertheless, because of this constraint, and as the geosynchronous orbit essential for communication satellites is beyond the capacity of our present rocket arsenal – Israel now makes more and more frequent use of the facilities of other countries. In the two decades since the first launch, our specialists have created numerous prototypes of space technology and launched space vehicles of different designations. The history of the launches – those already realised and those scheduled for the near future – is presented in the attached insert (Table 1). In it, the inscriptions adjoining each event contain the name of the satellite and the location of the launch site. Achieved missions are rose-coloured, satellites still operative – blue, scheduled launches – yellow, failed launches – grey. The main features of the vehicles in the insert are described below in chronological order, beginning with the camera-equipped category. These are followed by their experimental and communication counterparts. The reconnaissance and civilian ground-sampling category are arrayed to the right of the event dates, and the experimental and communication ones – to their left.

2. Earth observation missions

The first two OFEQ’s did not carry photographic equipment. OFEQ-3 (Fig.1) was the first to be equipped with an electro-optical device, and thus became Israel’s first operational satellite, providing Earth imaging of excellent quality. After 7 years of operation the satellite more than

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Communication and Satellites Earth Observation Missions

for Investigations Site Rock. Satellite Years Satellite Rock. Site

AMOS-6 2011 Souz - Fregat

French Guiana or

AMOS-5 2011 2010 VENUS

PSLV Sriharikota, India

AMOS-4 2012 2010 EROS-C Start-1 Svobodny, Russia

Baikonur, Kazakhstan

Dnepr INSA-1 2010 OPTIC. SAT

Sriharikota, India

Indian GSAT

Telescope TAUVEX

2010 2008 TECSAR PSLV Sriharikota, India


Zenith-3SLB

AMOS-3 2008 2007 OFEQ-7 Shavit Palmachim, Israel

French Guiana

Ariane SLOSH SAT

2005 2006 EROS-B Start-1 Svobodny, Russia


Soyuz Fregat

AMOS-2 2003 2004 OFEQ-6 Shavit Palmachim, Israel

Kennedy, Florida,US

Shut. Col.

STS-107, I. Ramon

2003 2002 OFEQ-5 Shavit Palmachim, Israel


Zenith TECH SAT-2

1998 2000 EROS-A Start-1 Svobodny, Russia

French Guiana

Ariane AMOS-1 1996 1998 OFEQ-4 Shavit Palmachim, Israel

Plesetsk, Russia

Start TECH SAT-1

1995 1995 OFEQ-3 Shavit Palmachim, Israel

1990 OFEQ-2 Shavit Palmachim, Israel

1988, Sept., 19

OFEQ-1, First Sat

Shavit Palmachim, Israel

Color’s legend

Color Mission status

Completed missions

Satellites still operational

Planned missions

Satellite launch failure

Table 1. Chronicle of the satellite launches

Color Site Israel Russia Kazakhstan India France USA

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Fig.1. Pioneer satellites OFEQ-1, -2 and -3

Fig.2. EROS-A satellite

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doubled its expected lifespan and then burned out in the atmosphere on its return flight. The attempt to launch the next imagery intelligence satellite OFEQ-4 with cost $50 million was unsuccessful. While the first stage of the rocket performed nominally, problems caused operation to be terminated two minutes into flight. EROS-A (Earth Resources Observation System) – the first generation of civilian observation satellites, an internal project for commercial purposes (Fig.2). It was based on the military reconnaissance satellite OFEQ-3 previously built, also by IAI and El-Op, for Israeli government use. The satellite (weight 250 kg) moves in sunsynchronous orbit at altitudes of 480 km to 510 km, sending to ground stations black-and-white images that are captured at the same local times of day and are suitable for cartography, town planning, etc. The video transmission rate is 70 Mbit per second. In the standard mode of operation the achieved spatial resolution at nadir is better than 1.8 m, the imagery swath width 12.5 km. The resolution can be improved through a proprietary processing method that the firm calls hypersampling. The hypersampled mode provides customer-specified image acquisitions at better than 1.2 m resolution in a reduced, 9.5 km swath. Satellites can be manoeuvred to up to 45 degrees in any direction from nadir, which allows imaging of many different areas during the same pass. The imaging system also provides an Earth vertical profile separation of 5 m, permitting accurate mapping and stereo terrain-modelling capability. OFEQ-5 – a second-generation reconnaissance vehicle (Fig.3). Although its precise resolution capabilities remain classified, experts familiar with collected imagery maintain that the satellite has detected objects as small as 0.5 m in size from an orbiting altitude about 500 km. Under the same conditions satellite provides colour imaging with resolution better than 1m. The 300 kg OFEQ-5 orbited the Earth on a course with a perigee of 262 km and an apogee of 774 km,

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Fig.3. OFEQ-5 satellite

Fig.4. EROS-B satellite

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inclination around 143.5 degrees. In the course of its mission, its perigee was raised to 369 km and its apogee lowered to 771 km, in an attempt to prolong its lifespan. Designed for a service life of about 4 years, it is still operational. Unfortunately, the start of the next spy satellite OFEQ-6 was unsuccessful. Owing to a malfunction in the third stage of its Shavit carrier rocket the satellite (cost 100 million dollars) crashed into the Mediterranean. EROS-B – a second-generation satellite (Fig.4), likewise a lightweight (290kg) commercial vehicle, operated by the international ImageSat consortium. Its is launched in sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of 508 km. It carries a digital camera for panchromatic images. It has an increased onboard storage capacity, which combined with its agility permits collection of 190km-long strip scenes at any angle to the ground track. The data transmission rate is 280 Mbit/s. It produces images with very high resolution (70-80cm at nadir) in a wide range of application. Satellites EROS designed for fast maneuvering between imaged targets. Like EROS-A, EROS-B satellite expected service life is 8-10 years. The scheme provides customers with near-real-time imagery, which is processed and distributed from a local ground station during the satellite’s overflight of the area. OFEQ-7 – a 300-kg third-generation reconnaissance satellite with unprecedented observation capability over sunlit tracts (Fig.5). It has advanced imaging equipment, improved software, and expanded possibilities of management. Its length is 2.3 m, diameter – 1.2 m. Its imaging performance is superior to the EROS-B satellite. Orbiting, it is capable of distinguishing objects 70 cm in size and even smaller from about 500 km altitude. Like its predecessors, it will be able to store images taken during its flight and download them via downlink when flying over the IAI-run ground station. The satellite has a projected

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Fig.5. OFEQ-7 satellite

Fig.6. TECSAR satellite

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four-year operational life. Its intended dual use should enable it in the future to render services both to the defence establishment and the civilian market. In compliance with the official policy of space launch self-reliance, it was launched using an improved version of the homegrown launcher Shavit. Due to its improved operational capabilities, it made a strategic contribution to Israel’s security. TECSAR – the first Israeli satellite equipped with synthetic-aperture radar (SAR), capable of round-the-clock reconnaissance even under overcast conditions (Fig.6). The radar, operating in a multimode regime in the X-band, uses electronic beam steering and produces high-resolution images with large area coverage. It utilizes the latest radar technology developed by IAI subsidiary ELTA. Like its counterparts, it is a lightweight vehicle (280 kg). It was successfully launched as exclusive payload on the Indian PSLV carrier and all its subsystems are functioning properly. Despite the advantages of the Indian carrier over a Shavit rocket, the policy of the Ministry of Defence - preservation of Israel's independent launch capability - remains unchanged. Transfer of images from the satellite is carried out according to plan at the ground control centre in Yehud. It is capable of imaging with a resolution of up to 10 centimetres; the maximum resolution is believed to be around 1 m. With TEСSAR operative, Israel has become one of the leading countries of the world in development of satellite technologies. IAI is developing a future reconnaissance vehicle, tentatively named OPTSAT, on the basis of the new standardized platform OPSAT-2000 BUS, used earlier for TECSAR. OPTSAT is to be equipped with a telescope of advanced design which would improve image quality without a significant increase in weight (Fig.7). The sampling apparatus is to consist of a panchromatic camera and a multispectral one, unified in a single optical assembly and capable of simultaneous operation.

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Fig.7. OPTICAL SATELLITE

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The same standardised platform OPSAT-2000 BUS is intended for the next-generation commercial Earth observation satellite EROS-C, to be launched early in the next decade. EROS-C (Fig.8) is offering higher quality resolution and a higher data link rate than EROS-A and EROS-B, as well as multispectral imagery capabilities. It will weigh 350 kg at launch and will orbit in a sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of about 500 km. It will be equipped with a camera with CCD/TDI (Charge Coupled Device/Time Delay Integration) sensors, producing both panchromatic imagery at a very high resolution of 0.70 m, and multispectral imagery at a medium resolution of 2.8 m, with a swath of 11 km at nadir. The camera system will provide 20,000 pixels per line, compared with 7,000 pixels/line on the current EROS version. The data transmission rate will be 455 Mbit/s. The expected lifespan of EROS-C is ten years. VENUS (Vegetation and Environment New Micro Satellite) – a joint Israel/France scientific and technological project (Fig.9). It is designed for high-definition photography of agricultural tracts as a means of ecological control. It is also to make use of the above standardised platform and to carry a multispectral camera (El-Op) and a low-thrust electrical reactive system (Rafael). It will fly in a near polar sun-synchronous orbit at 720 km. The camera features 12 narrow spectral bands in the visible and near-infrared with high spatial (5.3 m) resolution at 27.5 km swath width. The propulsion system comprises the Ion Hall-Effect Thruster, which generates about 13 mN thrust, operating at 300 W anodic power. Earth monitoring by camera permits observation of the vegetation condition over land surfaces and of water quality over coastal zones and inland water bodies. Multispectral imaging is a novel technology with a vast range of applications – inter alia, detection of overfertilization in agriculture (with the attendant pollution of the groundwater) and chemical analysis of soils. Satellite data will be received by a tracking station in Sweden and forwarded to the Space Centre in Toulouse. There they will be processed and made

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Fig.8. EROS-C satellite

Fig.9. VENUS satellite

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available to more than 50 scientific teams who have already placed orders. Israel will spend about $20M on this project with France adding another $13M. The programme includes development, production, launch and operation of satellite. VENUS is currently in the manufacturing phase and will be launched in 2010 by a French or Indian rocket. Its launch weight is 260 kg, its intended lifetime in space more than 4 years. A tentative model is shown in the accompanying figure.

3. Communication and experimental satellites

The AMOS (Afro-Mediterranean Orbital System) family is a series of geosynchronous telecommunications vehicles developed, launched and controlled by IAI. They are placed in orbit near 4° W. longitude over the Atlantic. AMOS-2 (Fig.11) is located at a mere 3 miles’ distance from AMOS-1 (Fig.10), the first of the series launched in 1996. AMOS-1 was built in partnership with Alcatel Espace of France and Daimler-Benz Aerospace of Germany. The total cost of the first communication satellite is estimated at $210M, 40M of which was paid for the launch by a French carrier rocket. The satellite was designed for 10 years of service, and from the technical point of view has worked faultlessly to this day. The transponder on board AMOS-2 is more powerful by one-half than that of its predecessor, permitting TV and radio broadcasts and services for individual houses, cable companies and communication networks throughout Israel, the Middle East, certain European countries and the East Coast of the USA. AMOS-2 is expected to operate in orbit till 2016. The transponders of both satellites are loaded to more than 90% capacity. The revenue from AMOS services in 2006 and 2007 was about $56m annually, according company reports and management statements.

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Fig.10. AMOS-1 satellite


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TECHSAT (the Technion satellite) – initiated in the 1990’s as an undergraduate project. With the cooptation of immigrant scientists from the former Soviet Union, it soon became a fully–fledged professional programme, placing the Technion among the world leaders in the design, manufacture, testing and control of small satellites. Cube-shaped with 50 cm sides, it was launched in July 1998 by means of the Russian “Zenith” rocket at the Baikonur cosmodrome in Kazakhstan into a circular orbit at about 820 km altitude, together with German, Chilean, Thai and Australian counterparts of 50 kg each – none of which survived for long (Fig.12). It contains service equipment which orients it in space, provides power and maintains communication with the Earth – as well as instrumentation which is conducting extremely interesting experiments beyond the capacity even of large satellites. The Columbia space shuttle, launched by NASA in January 2003, was manned by a crew of seven including the first Israeli astronaut Ilan Ramon (Fig.13). Their 16-days sojourn in space was devoted to research. The crew perished on February 1, when the shuttle disintegrated during its re-entry into Earth’s atmosphere. SLOSHSAT – a minisatellite (129 kg) carrying a 33.5 load of liquid water in a smooth 87-litre tank (Fig.14). A joint Netherlands/Israel project, it was implemented by the Netherlands National Aerospace Laboratory NRL, Rafael, and the Technion. The 8-day-long experiment provided information on the behaviour of water sloshing around in a state of weightlessness. TAUVEX (Tel-Aviv University Ultra-Violet Explorer) – a scientific ensemble manufactured by El-Op for obtaining images of astronomical objects in the 1400-3200 Å range (Fig.15). It comprises three identical UV telescopes for different intervals of the wavelengths.

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Fig.12. TECHSAT-2 satellite

Fig.13. Logo of Shuttle Columbia STS-107 mission

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Fig.14. SLOSHSAT satellite

Fig.15. TAUVEX-GSAT-4 mission

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The instrument’s field of view is 54’, spatial resolving power of 6-10’’ depending on the wavelength. Unfortunately, TAUVEX launch was repeatedly postponed. Recently it is supposed that ensemble will be put into a geostationary orbit in beginning 2010 as part of the Indian GSAT-4 mission. Its multi-year flight permits imaging in part of the sky, of different types of hot stars and young massive stars, which emit large amount of ultraviolet radiation and ionize the interstellar medium and are thus important in star formation processes. Results expected to provide information on the evolution of the Universe.

On April 28, 2008, ten days before Israel’s 60th anniversary, the 1300 kg geostationary AMOS-3 (Fig.16) was launched at Baikonur. This was the first application of the Zenith-3SLB Land Launch system, comprising the reliable Zenith-3SL Sea Launch rocket and the subsidiary booster as third stage. The satellite is located at 4° W longitude alongside its first and second predecessors, and is to replace AMOS-1 when the latter is withdrawn. AMOS-3 (weight 1270kg, carrying 250 kg of equipment, cost $170M) is the first of four new telecommunications spacecraft which satellite-fleet operator Spacecom hopes to deploy in the next four years. Like the rest of the series, it is the property of Spacecom. Satellite’s successful launch enhances the reputation of Israel Aerospace Industries Ltd. (IAI) as a builder of satellites whose launch mass is unusually small versus their performance in orbit. AMOS-3 is expected to operate for up to 18 years – six years longer than its heavier predecessor AMOS-2, despite the fact that it carries 45 percent less onboard fuel than the former. By the design-efficiency criterion accepted in this area for communications satellites – bandwidth units per kg – AMOS-3 will be among the most advanced commercial satellites anywhere for its size. Equipped with a steering antenna, 12 active high-power transponders 72MHz in the Ku-bands, two wide Ka-bands beams, it provides services similar to those of its predecessors. It is supposed to extend the coverage of the retranslators, ensuring high-quality communication and broadband data transmission over the Middle East, Europe, Africa and parts of the Americas. It is also capable of transmitting to the Earth

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images obtained by low-orbit reconnaissance vehicles. Almost all of its capacity was spoken for before the launch. Over the next few years, Spacecom expects to see growth in its commercial business, primarily in direct-to-home television broadcasting, as well as in its U.S. Department of Defence business. Its supposed income during the satellite service life (planned to last until 2024) is $500 million. Spacecom provides broadcasting and communications services to TV broadcasters and programmers, debug service operators, government organizations, private miniature terminals networks and others. Its two biggest customers are the YES and BOOM satellite-television platforms in Israel. For the near future it is planning the medium-sized AMOS-4 (Fig.17) communication satellite carrying more than 20 high-power transponders in the Ka and Ku bands. Satellite’s launch weight will be approximately 3.4 tons. AMOS-4 is a dual-use vehicle – its communication power has been reserved in part by Israeli military customers. The multi-band satellite will be situated between 64° and 76° E longitude in a geostationary orbit (different than AMOS-1, -2 and -3) allowing for the provision of service to a wider array of customers in Asia. . It is a communication satellite of a new generation, with new technologies. It has a big platform, broadband transponders, and its possibilities in compared with the satellites created by Israel until recently are wider. Satellite’s life cycle is planned to be approximately 12 years. For its development, manufacture and launch a $365M contract was signed in 2007 with IAI, the government contributing $265M and Spacecom the balance. Such a considerable proportion of public investment demonstrates the high national priority accorded to the project. Under the agreement IAI will deliver AMOS-4 to Spacecom after its placement in its orbital slot, at third quarter of 2012 and subsequent to the end of the testing phase in orbit.

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AMOS-6 is planned for launching in 2011 to the 4˚W orbital location, where it will be co-located with AMOS-2 and AMOS-3. It will provide Ku-band and Ka-band coverage over Europe, the Middle East and the US East Coast with a combination of fixed and steerable beams. Given the experience in communication satellites gained by Israel, it could be expected, that their successors will also be developed by Israel’s prime space contractor and leading satellite manufacturer - IAI. However, in 2008 Spacecom, which provides services for Israel’s communications satellites, unexpectedly decided to order the next vehicle in Russia instead of producing it locally. A contract was signed with the “Information satellite systems im. A.F. Reshetnev” (Zheleznogorsk, Krasnoyarsk Province) for AMOS-5 (cost $157m, guaranteed minimum service life 14 years), and the required permits were obtained from the Russian and Israeli authorities. Spacecom retains the right to revoke the contract right until the launch date. Delivery deadline – March 31, 2011. For the Russian contractor, this agreement is evidence of the demand for its products: it is a powerful enterprise, which has created most of Russia’s telecommunications space systems, and the order will facilitate its access to the international market of space services. For the Israeli counterpart, the advantages are availability of an experienced manufacturer and the saving in expenditure, as analogous American and European satellites cost $200-300 m. While the products of the Hughes Company, for example, run as high as $500m. AMOS-5 complements Spacecom’s existing satellite constellation. By the launch AMOS-5 the coverage is expanding to the farthest reaches of Africa. At 17° East, AMOS-5 will deliver high-power C-band and Ku-band capacity to the entire African continent (Fig.18). Note that AMOS-5 C-band and Ku-band capacity over Africa is already prepaid for. With AMOS-4 and -5 operational,

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a b

Fig.18. Africa fixed C-band beam service (a) and steerable Ku-band beam (b) of AMOS-5 satellite

Fig.19. INSA-1 nanosatellite

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Spacecom will become a major player in the satellite communication market, as will have opportunity to broadcast in any point on globe. Two 5 kg nanosatellites, INSAT-1 and -2, are currently in the planning stage by the Israel Nanosatellite Association (INSA). On them, new industrial components will be tested under real outer-space conditions before they are installed on satellites worth tens and even hundreds of millions of dollars. For the tests INSAT-1 (Fig.19) is to carry a miniature atomic clock and a GPS receiver. Its launch is planned for 2010.

4. Main features and development trends

Thus, from Israel’s first orbiting satellite with its hand-to-mouth capability to the launch of the power communication satellite in the jubilee year 2008, seventeen starts have been carried out. Of Israel’s twenty five space missions described above (including eight launchings planned for the next few years), three aborted due to carrier rocket failure, and five were successfully completed with the flight programmes realised in full – some of the satellites far exceeding the guaranteed service life. The remaining nine satellites are still active at the time of writing: three (including the radar satellite) reconnaissance vehicles; two civilian ground samplers; three geostationary communication vehicles; and a small long-life experimental vehicle by now more than 10 years in operation. This distribution of Israel’s space missions is presented on graph (Fig.20) also in percentage of the total launches, including those forthcoming soon. The classification history in Table 1 shows also the proportions of optical and radar observation satellites (a total of 13) on the right of the figure and of communication (6) and explorer (6) satellites on the left. This statistics are presented in percentage of the total launches on Fig.21.

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Completed missions

20%

Satellite still

operational

36%

Planning missions

32%

satellite launch

failure

12%

Completed missions Satellite still operational

Planning missions satellite launch failure

Fig.20. Breakdown of satellite missions

Remote sensing

52%Communication

24%

Space

exploration

24%

Remote sensing Communication Space exploration

Fig.21. Breakdown of missions by its destination

Fig.22. Fields of Israel space activity

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It is instructive to compare the scope of Israel’s space activity against Russia’s current achievements, and the successes of the British Surrey Satellite Technology Limited (SSTL) firm, developers and suppliers of small satellites throughout the world. According to Prof. Anatoly Perminov, head of the Russian Space Agency, their operational satellite strength in 2008 exceeded 100 vehicles. As for SSTL, they currently have a staff of more than 200, employed in 23 space missions using their own small satellites. These basic data suffice for the conclusion that Israel occupies a worthy position in the space sector. A glance at Table 1 shows that satellite launchings over the past 20 years were made more or less in regular intervals without lengthy gaps; however, a slight increase of the intervals is noticeable after a failed launching. The anniversary year 2008 is characterised by two opposite trends in Israel’ space activity: on the one hand, no launches took place (as against about 100 attempts throughout the world); on the other, two vehicles began to operate successfully in orbit: TECSAR, carrying a state-of-the-art imaging system, and the advanced communication satellite AMOS-3. They contribute less than 2% to the international space activity of that year. While the space programmes of the major powers are influenced by a variety of factors - science, politics, prestige, economic policies, etc. (for example, the “when-and-how” of flights to the Moon or to Mars) - Israel’s priorities in this context are dictated by the immutable facts of its existence. Accordingly, emphasis is on the defence, ground-sampling, communication and navigation aspects, while outer space and independent manned missions are excluded and only limited resources are allocated for space projects. The areas of Israel’s space activity are outlined in Fig.22 by oval. The current effort and the new-generation state projects include defence programmes, optical and

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radar Earth observation satellite systems, telecommunications and navigation, as well as new initiatives in space science and exploration. What is Israel’s position vis-à-vis the other Space Powers, and what are its expectations in the coming decades? The Futron Corp. undertook an independent assessment of our competitiveness in this field, based on a specially designed set of criteria. The relative supremacy of 10 powers (Brazil, Canada, China, Europe - as an integrated entity, India. Israel, South Korea and the USA) was determined in joint terms of three primary metrics (state financing, human resources, industrial capacity) and forty secondary ones. Below are the positive factors that made possible Israel’s accession to the leaders’ club, and will affect its competitiveness and progress in the future: - Continued contributions to space policy, to specialised know-how and infrastructures. - Rapid development of information- and communication technologies, and their incorporation in the space products. - Creation of guidance and control devices (communication, remote sensing, tracking) for military and civilian ground applications. - Shifting of in-orbit observation of the Earth from the military to the civilian and commercial sectors. - Development of small satellites by space industry manufacturers. - Creation of less expensive and more advanced technologies and standardised miniature components with improved application and maintenance. - Contribution to globalised space conquest through participation in international projects and membership of international space agencies. - Evolution of a national-achievement strategy based on clear-cut and sound policies – with emphasis on partnership of other space countries, on intensive training programmes, and judicious adoption of novel technologies. - Ability to achieve and maintain the correct balance between competition and collaboration in assessing the risks of prospective space ventures – versus discrete limited projects.

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It can be stated without hesitation that fostering of this potential – civilian, military and commercial – is in our national interest. By now, it has become obvious to most Israelis that the aerospace potential makes, defines and maintains our country as a military, economic, scientific and political power.

5. Space market

Exploration of space and operation in it are both a strategic consideration and a matter of international prestige. We see many countries spending vast sums on space activity, aware that its success means future prosperity. The Space Foundation Company estimates the global space revenue from government and private sources at above $250 billion, representing 4% of the overall activity. By way of illustration, the accompanying table lists the planned annual budgets for 2009 in several leading countries (Table 2). At the same time, funding of military programmes is significantly higher. The Pentagon budget, for example, exceeds $40b.

Table 2. Space Budget

State, Union Agency Budget, b $ US NASA 17.614 Russia FSA 3.201 EU ESA 2.997 Japan JAXA 2.178 France* CNES 1.883 Italy* ASI 1.458 Germany* DLR 1.247 India ISRO 0.933 Canada CSA 0.357 Brazil AEB 0.130

* Not including funds assigned to ESA budget.

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Regrettably, in Israel, state funding of civilian projects chronically lags behind the needs. The “priority” assigned to astronautics is reflected in the very fact that the Israel Space Agency (ISA) has been affiliated with the poorest Ministry – that of Culture, Science and Sports. According to the Agency, were the Government to allocate $100 m to civilian astronautics, the revenue from this investment would be $5 b. Israel possesses a sound academic infrastructure and an advanced industry, but current investments in space activity do not suffice for harmonious developments. These investments come from state- and private sources, the latter being mainly firms with interests in applied programmes (communication, navigation, Earth observation) or in space testing of new technologies, materials, etc. While these private firms operate on equal terms with the state agencies, the inflow of private capital is hampered in part by lack of a clear notion of future developments. The remedy lies in a detailed programme of projects, applied and research-oriented, which would be presented to potential investors. The Ministry of Defence should in the future make wide use of commercial assets, similar to the current investments in the AMOS and EROS series. The ability to maintain a continuous presence in space (through multiple uses of satellites of the same class) will largely be governed by economic factors. In the beginning the civilian space activity was totally chaotic: should Israel engage in it at all and if so – in which direction, and on what scale? All these questions received the most conflicting answers. Given that the world space market at that time amounted to $20-30b per year, and assuming that expenditure should be proportional to the volume of industrial business or to the size of the population – the annual amount for Israel was estimated at $100m. The attempted forecasts, as reported in the Proceedings of the International Workshop, Haifa, March 1988, “CIVILIAN SPACE APPLICATION, Israel’s Role” are now irrelevant. One of the participants in the discussion saw no prospect for space activity in Israel, unless

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prioritised directions were chosen and realistic funding sources found in the immediate future. Otherwise, the most that could be achieved would be production of kosher foods for American astronauts of Jewish persuasion! This truly witty assessment corresponded to the current situation and to a state of mind. In spite of this initial uncertainty, the presented narrative of space achievements during the past two decades proves that Israel's has overcome both the early difficulties and the subsequent problems. The necessary infrastructures were established, and Israel vital significant state projects, both military and civilian, were realised with priority given to small purpose-oriented satellites. Israel has demonstrated its independent space launch capability. Earth-observation vehicles are producing images in maximal achievable detail. Commercialisation of space is taking place successfully. Israel has come through the world boom in satellite communication technology and retained its important role in it. The achievements of its space industry can be rated as impressive. Long-term trends and prospects for the future have been outlined. Correct marketing analysis of Israel’s space activity is rather problematic, in the absence of comprehensive long-term documentation. However, local sample data and available international surveys of state space ventures yield an indirect estimate of Israel’s basic indicators. From 2000 onwards, the global space market has achieved a steady annual increase of 5-10% on the average. Like all leading countries, Israel has increased its space investments for civil and defence purposes. The “Space News” journal publishes an annual marketing survey of the leading countries and firms specialising in the relevant manufacturing and service – mainly on the basis of financial data provided by the firms in question or by the official regulatory agencies. According to the latest published data, the space sales of IAI were $ 190 and 222 million in 2007 and 2008 respectively, including manufacture of satellites and launch vehicles, satellite and rocket components, ground systems, engineering services and software. The

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Israel Aerospace Industries ranks 38th among the 50 world's top space companies. The marketing surveys have noted budget cuts in the military sphere, following the failure of OFEQ-6. Another noted consequence of this failure was abandonment of the military communication satellite project. By now, OFEQ-6 has been replaced by two surveillance satellites, and its loss no longer affects Israel’s space market.

6. Observation and communication – a top priority

Earth-observation systems may be classified, according to purpose and to spectral range, as follows: � High-resolution (HR) sensors (1 m) for civil safety and emergency responses. � Very-high resolution (VHR) apparatus (<< 1 m), in particular for military purposes, usually providing panchromatic (PAN) images. � Multispectral (MS) scanner operating in a variety of relatively coarse bands of the electromagnetic spectrum (0.3 to 14 µm, covering the UV, visible, and near-, mid-, and thermal IR regions; suitable for agrarian purposes. � Hyperspectral (HS) sensors operating in numerous very narrow, contiguous bands, also throughout the entire spectrum, collecting data in hundreds of bands for every pixel in the scene; effective, as an example, for fast response in environmental monitoring. � Systems operating in the microwave region (1 mm to 1 m), as Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) is indispensable for night- and bad-weather conditions. All these observation facilities are available to Israel - optical (PAN, MS and HS) as well as SAR; most of them already in orbit, others in the closing stages of development and preparation for launching.

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The space world-market for remote ground-sampling data has an income which is, at present, an insignificant fraction of the above estimates for the whole space activity. Analysts believe also that the currently initiated launching of remote-sensing satellites with very high resolution (VHR) will redistribute this income between the aerial-photography and space data (now about $5b versus about $500m) in favour of the latter category. The expected enhanced resolution of VHR-satellites to 0.25 m will also benefit military applications. The ground resolutions of the panchromatic images of the remote sensing satellites that were launched recently and would be launched in the nearest future are presented on Fig.23. The accelerated development trend of the market of imaging materials with meter- and submeter resolutions is distinctly apparent in the listed data. At least 5 orbital groups of remote sensing satellites are being formed. More and more countries are joining the Earth-monitoring “club”, and in the nearest future 22 countries will have their own equipment in orbit, 10 of them with VHR-capacity. Also observed is a steady trend towards radar satellites (SAR). Experts estimate the market demand for resolutions less than 1 m at 65%, 1 m – 25%, 2-3 m – 7%, 5 m – 3%. According to preliminary estimates, by 2012 the space-monitoring market will exceed $6b. In the past, large-scale dissemination of this information was restricted by its relatively high cost (before 2004 - $20-30 per sq. km, after standard processing). Realisation of even a part of the announced launches of new satellites is expected to cause further reduction of rates in the Earth-observation market, in view of the increased competition. Recently, some leading companies already announced reduction of their rates for satellite photography (e.g. to $7 per sq. km at 1 km resolution). VHR-remote-sensing satellites, downloading images of superior quality, are being developed in Israel for both military and civilian use

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(pay attention to tags in drawing Fig.23). The optical system carried by the OFEQ series is considered one of the most advanced in the world. These satellites are similar in quality to their overseas counterparts but considerably lighter, thus saving hundreds of thousands of dollars in launch costs. In fact, Israel’s mini-satellites have the best quality-vs.-cost index; in terms of the combination “cost-mass-spatial resolution”, the EROS holds a world record. Besides, Israel’s remote-sensing space ships have high reliability and most of them are still operational years after expiry of their guaranteed service life. The remote-sensing satellites will fill the gaps in covering distant areas, providing real-time intelligence on high-priority targets such as Iran. While there are no military observation satellites with 100 % capacity, each such satellite for reception of Earth images is capable of solving civil problems. For example, following the cataclysmic May 2008 earthquake in Sichuan province, Beijing appealed for help to disaster-control organisations. This help was provided in the form of regular satellite photography of the afflicted regions. Images with a regular revisit time, under complete coverage of the territory, were transmitted with 2 m resolution from the Taiwanese strategic reconnaissance satellite Formosat-2. This information enabled the local authorities to estimate the flood potential of a lake created by the numerous landslides in the course of the earthquake. Thus, a strictly peacetime problem – minimisation of damage due to the raging elements –was solved by a military satellite. This example shows that control of natural disasters anywhere calls for mobilisation of the entire reconnaissance fleet in orbit, both civilian and military. Regarding Israel’s OFEQ and EROS series, it can be predicted with confidence that these satellites will successfully accomplish their mission in detection of natural, technogenic or military threats. The following is a forecast by Euroconsult on developments in the Earth observation market in the next 10 years. In the short term a boom is expected, due to many countries initiating their own observing satellite systems with significant involvement of the private sector.

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This period is to see some 200 satellites launched, including 48 meteorological space ships in geostationary and polar low Earth orbit – almost double the number launched in the previous decade. Of the non-meteorologicals, 54 will belong to the veteran countries in the field - the United States, Russia, France, India, Israel and China - and 52 - to countries hitherto without independent facilities, such as Algeria, Chile, Iran, Nigeria, Turkey and South Africa. Dual-use (military/commercial) vehicles will number 16, and will be difficult to categorise as state- or private initiative. A similar trend prevails in Israel's space activity. A proposition was made to the Ministry of Defence (MoD) by ImageSat International, the owner and operator of the EROS series, for resale of imagery obtained from the OFEQ and future state-owned spy vehicles – in the commercial market. Revenues from these transactions will finance the development of future hybrid satellites combining OFEQ and EROS elements, both manufactured by the state-owned IAI. In view of the unsatisfactory record of the Shavit launcher, whose failures have already caused the loss of at least three satellites – the industry is planning to adopt more reliable, less expensive and commercially insurable launchers similar to Russian Start-1 rocket. The OFEQ accounts for the bulk of Israel's strategic intelligence needs, covering the Middle East at 90-minute intervals, while each polar-orbiting EROS covers Israel and its neighbours fours times daily. Resolution is a function of the satellite's camera and its orbiting altitude; so that when an OFEQ and an EROS operate under identical conditions, their resolutions will differ insignificantly. Thus, through the idea of combined requirements for the two VHR optical satellites, all three parties – the MoD, ImageSat and IAI – would benefit by having more satellites in orbit at any given time. Besides the equipment intended for reception of VHR images, like OFEQ and EROS, multispectral (МS) and hyperspectral (HS) apparatus, which will permit analysis of the spectral properties of the Earth images, is also being developed in Israel. A project of a space-

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based MS-scanner was initiated by Avi Har-Even, long-time head of the ISA at the turn of the Millennium. The proposed small satellite, given the Biblical name "David" and intended to carry an El-Op multispectral camera represented a substantial breakthrough in the remote-sensing field. However, it turned out to be too advanced to be assessed according to its merits and since the mechanism of joint funding (state, private, foreign) had not yet been perfected, the original project remained unrealised. It was revived later as the Venus satellite, whose mission and planned stages were described earlier. The comparison of satellite basic parameters with the characteristics of analogous projects elsewhere, shows it is superior parameter-wise to existing systems and not inferior to planned satellites in terms of the number and width of its bands, spatial resolution, imaged strip width, mass-energy- and information capacities. The 90-watt camera designed by El-Op weighs 45 kg and discriminates objects 5.3m in size from an altitude of 720 km, with 27.5 km–wide imaged strips. Photography is effected in 12 narrow spectral channels in the 415-910 nm range with each band pass variation from 16 to 40 nm. In 2009 an agreement was reached between Israel's and Italy's Space Agencies on joint development of hyperspectral (HS) equipment. As already stated, HS-scanners permit effectively solution of many civil and military problems inaccessible to the VHR, MS and SAR space systems. An example of HS unique abilities is hidden objects de camouflage with use of HS-images. The advantage of such a bilateral effort stems from the exceptional complexity and high cost of the development, and the valuable experience accumulated in both countries (Italy's "Prisma" scanner). The projected apparatus is to have 200 channels, and one or two carrier satellites will be built on a corporate basis. Higher spatial resolution means increased weight, and more channels likewise mean increased weight and power requirement, considering

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the need for an on-board communication system with a high-rate data transmission to a ground station (as many simultaneous images as channels), powered by additional solar panels. The resulting dimensional problematicity, given the existing physical and technological constraints - led us to determine estimation criteria for the satellite's mass versus spatial resolution and channel array.

Fig.24. Hyperspectral instruments accommodation on satellites

of different subclasses as function of imager’s ground resolution and number of bands.

Fig.24 shows three domains representing the accepted satellite classes: micro (up to 100 kg), mini (100 to 500 kg) and large (over 500 kg). For example, a microsatellite can accommodate a 15-channel scanner with 100 m resolution; 100 channels with 40 m resolution call for a mini; 200 channels with the high 10 m resolution require a heavy carrier. The figure also shows the coordinates of existing HS-satellites. Let us hope that in the near future there will be one more HS-satellite in a near-earth orbit born as a result of Israeli-Italian collaboration.

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With this we conclude our analysis of Israel's space-based Earth observation facilities and proceed briefly in the second-priority direction – space communication. Spacecom is a leader in radio broadcasting and communication services. It creates platforms directly accessible to household receivers in Europe and the Middle East; it also serves government agencies, TV and telephone companies, and provides miniature VSAT ground terminals. Over the last decade, geostationary commercial satellites considerably increased in size and power; thus, more than half the ordered vehicles exceed 5000 kg in weight. Alongside this trend, an alternative one is evolving, in keeping with operators’ interest in smaller and less costly equipment with limited maintenance requirements. The Star satellites being developed by “Orbital Corp.”, and the Small GEO (aka the Luxor) designed by ESA - approximately 2000-2500 kg in weight – are far along the way to the market. The AMOS series are close, in terms of their parameters, to the above smaller geostationary versions. It can thus be expected that this trend will benefit the satellite-communication business in Israel.

7. Space security strategy

The well-known aphorism that whatever scientists engage in, they eventually end up with weapons, is relevant here. Indeed, the conquest of space has provided solutions to a variety of military problems. Since 1961, when the Soviet Union and the USA launched their first military satellites, there have followed to-date some 3000 such vehicles, most of them for espionage, communication and navigation purposes. Recent wars (Iraq, the Lebanon, etc.) have intensified the awareness that space reconnaissance is indispensable to, and one of the most essential elements of, modern warfare. The first step in military application of space equipment in Israel was taken by Gen. Yehoshua Saggi, Chief of Army Intelligence, who in 1981 initiated the idea of reconnaissance satellites. The Space

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Programme under the auspices of the Ministry of Defence has been headed by Res. Brig. Gen. Professor Chaim Eshed from the stage of formulation of the tactical-technological requirements for the first Earth-observation satellite to this day. His basic credo is that Israel's military goals in space are dictated by its immediate defence needs. In its opinion, penetration of space and presence in it is a question of life and death for Israel. From the outset, the goals of Israel’s military space programme were outlined with maximal clarity, with the Space division of the aircraft industry as main project contractor and Elta, Rafael, El-Op, Military Industry, Tadiran, Elisra, Specterlink, as subcontractors. According to the programme’s leaders, the state invested in its realisation over the whole period more than $2b, i.e. more than $80m per year on the average. One of the prime targets for Israel’s space intelligence is the growing threat posed by the Tehran regime. Israeli military intelligence has placed the highest priority on detailed monitoring of Iranian efforts to obtain chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons, while long-range delivery systems and high resolution imagery have become one of its major intelligence and reconnaissance assets (Fig.25). Currently in development is the newest communication satellite with superior capabilities and suitable to military communication requirements. According to our Ministry of Defence, Israel’s space programme proceeds in the following parallel directions: 1. Development of remote sensing satellites which provide Earth surface photographs over different frequency ranges, including the microwave bands. At present Israel is seen ahead of all countries except the USA in resolving-power and image quality achievements. Future versions are expected to be capable of stereoscopic representation for cartography and of hyperspectral imaging. The hyperspectral remote sensor, as is known, creates Earth images of the same scene in 100-200 narrow spectral bands, de-masking different

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objects in the course of its reconnaissance missions. It will make harder to camouflage or hide targets from satellite observation. As regards microwave imaging devices, it is worth noting that besides the features listed in the description of TECSAR, they will facilitate location of underground structures such as tunnels, whose role as an instrument of terror needs no elaboration. 2. Development, on the basis of a unified platform, of a new generation of small satellites on the micro (up to 100 kg) and nano (up to 10 kg) scales. In the course of the current decade, a variety of payloads and the associated technologies are expected, with a view to deployment of clusters of modular miniature vehicles for diverse defence purposes. 3. Development of technologies permitting launching from aircraft, using miniature rocket systems. Such a technology is already in use in the USA, and Israel may possess one in a few years. Its advantages are obvious: no need for a high-power rocket and for a ground facility; launching possible of any time and in any direction. The F-16 fighter is considered for this purpose. Former IDF Chief of Staff Shaul Mofaz is quoted as grading space technology, in terms of importance, next to the Merkava tank and the Hetz antimissile system. With such a high priority, one can expect that the above programme will be implemented, although its authors are constantly complaining of budget cuts which may jeopardise Israel’s strategic superiority. Still, there may be hope that in time the government agencies and the defence industry will achieve a compromise that would ensure Israel’s predominance in space in the future. Space-based strategic and tactical support for the military (photography, communication, navigation, meteorology) should meet the client’s specifications. But Israel is not alone in its space activities. In fact, space has become an integral component of modern military planning, and recently

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increased interest in space is being observed in the countries of the Middle East and Africa. As many of the countries in this region are hostile towards Israel, their space ambitions merit exclusive attention. National space programmes are being implemented in Algeria. Egypt, Iran, Kenya, Libya, Morocco, Namibia, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, Southern Africa, Tunis, Turkey and the United Arab Emirates. As a rule, State financing of their programmes is insignificant. A tendency towards bilateral collaboration has been taking place among them in recent years. Note that Iran, Saudi Arabia and Egypt are the countries in our region whose space programmes envisage creation and launching of their own reconnaissance satellites. Not so long ago, all of them, including Iran, did not possess rocket systems, and their satellites were ordered and launched elsewhere. However, there have now been official announcements in Iran of tests on a carrier rocket and successful launching of the first Iranian communication satellite (20kg). If these claims prove true, Iran will be the 11th country in the world to master the technologies of design of artificial satellites and their orbiting by means of independently manufactured rocket systems (Fig.26). Still, official announcements in Iran being rather inconsistent and in the absence of any signs in space of the boasted satellite – experts tend to believe that the launching had failed and the Iranians are bluffing. At the same time, the very possibility of a state-of-the-art rocket is causing considerable alarm throughout the world, as such rockets are capable of carrying nuclear warheads. Iran’s plan within the framework of its space programme includes: - continuation of own satellite launches; - a manned space flight within the next 10 years; - joint development of satellites with other Islamic countries; - launching of satellites developed in the Muslim countries by means of the Iranian carrier rocket.

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Fig.25. EROS-B: Airport's photo

Fig.26. Photo ImageSat: Iranian active launch pad at Semnan

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Finally, in spite of Iran’s insistence that its programme is intended for peaceful uses, constant follow-up and analysis of these activities are essential, as well as adequate and timely responses to any threat to Israel’s security likely to arise from our neighbours’ space ambitions. Accession of Israel’s current and future enemies to the Space Club is already posing a range of threats to its security, not to say to its very survival: global reconnaissance; interception of data gathered by our own space vehicles; neutralisation/disabling of our satellite equipment; last not least, targeting of our space arsenal for destruction. These modes of space warfare should be taken most seriously as the Club membership keeps increasing and the technological potential expands. Preparedness for worst-case scenarios is essential.

In January 2007 the Chinese army tested a medium-range ballistic missile which hit its space target - one of its own decommissioned Fengyun1C meteorological satellites. The missile hit the satellite in orbit, destroying it. Its fragments became space debris, likely to endanger other satellites. The “Star Wars” staged by China drew sharp criticism from the international community. This particular action caused worry in Japan and South Korea, and protests by Canada, Australia and other countries. It should also be recalled that in October 2006 the Chinese aimed a powerful laser pulse at an American spy satellite with a view to “blinding” it; this incident was the first example of military space action in history. Such experimentation has already given rise to a Hebrew pun based on the near- homonymy of the words “sini” (Chinese) and ‘’tsini” (cynical), the implication being obvious. China is the leading provider of ballistic missiles and their accessories to Iran and to other countries in the region, and can be counted on to ensure technological support when our enemies acquire anti-satellite weaponry. China’s experiment with an A-sat rocket demonstrated the possibilities for counteracting low-orbit vehicles serving primarily for espionage, electronic reconnaissance, observation and other military applications. In turn, it initiated a series of successive events, to the detriment of

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space safety. No longer than thirteen months later, the Pentagon successfully destroyed their own defunct spy satellite USA-139, using an improved interceptor intended for a ballistic rocket. This experiment undoubtedly provided an answer to similar A-sat weaponry in the hands of a potential enemy. Present-day satellites are easy prey to a simple kinetic killer. So long as the cost of a launch is tens of thousands of dollars per kg, their structure cannot be sufficiently reinforced against an impact. The position of a target satellite in orbit is determinable in advance, and any killer launched from the Earth is bound to reach it. Manoeuvrability under a fuel load may impede a hit to some extent, but not prevent it. With the present state-of-the-art of in-orbit destruction, satellites are totally defenceless. By virtue of space economics, the cost of safeguarding a satellite far exceeds that of creating a threat to it, and the provided defence would at best be partial. Against the background of their A-sat experience, the spacefaring countries are now less assured of the reliability of their vulnerable satellite systems, which are an essential element in their national and economic security. Russia is certain to step up its A-sat work; Israel, India, France, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and others will concentrate further efforts in this area. In Israel’s case there is need for safeguarding its remote-sensing and communication satellites (both military and civilian), and especially the advanced generation planned for the coming decade. Special concern stems from the activities of Iran and North Korea. If Iran manages to deploy high-resolution satellites and its ballistic rockets attain sufficient precision, it will achieve an advantageous position for delivering the first blow – in which case Israel’s possession of A-sat weaponry must be guaranteed. This prospect will require Israel to deploy its own defences accordingly. Industry sources claim that we already possess means for countering blinding laser pulses and certain other forms of attack on

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space vehicles. One such remedy is the co-called “launch on demand” – a system which immediately places in orbit a small near-Earth satellite replacing the disabled or destroyed vehicle. The Pentagon’s Operational Responsive Space (ORS) programme exemplifies the means for countering aggression in space. The underlying idea is that any satellite disabled by enemy action, or ceasing to operate for natural reasons – can be replaced at minutes’ or hours’ notice. This solution necessitates a robust, high-reliability platform, diversified in terms of payload capacity, of problems to be solved, and of testing and orbiting services. In these circumstances there would be no point in attempting to destroy a satellite, when it is certain that a new one, with the same capabilities, will shortly appear close by.

However, the worst threat is, in fact, not the kinetic destruction of a vehicle per se – but the fragments generated by the collision. The fragment fields vary with the altitude, with the mutual approach velocity of the A-sat and target, etc. The Chinese A-sat generated a massive field in the polar orbit at about 842 km altitude, comprising some 150,000 fragments, 2600 of them 10 cm or more in size. Most of these are still in orbit and will constitute a hazard for centuries to come. The catalogued debris load was thus increased by about 40% over the output of the first 50 years of space activity. The polar orbit, preferable for monitoring purposes, is densely “populated”, and one NASA satellite has already been forced to manoeuvre in order to avoid collision with a Chinese fragment. By contrast, the American tests (announced in advance) generated only a small cloud close to the Earth, and thanks to the rapid incineration of the fragments during their descent, the dissipation time of the cloud was measured in days rather than in centuries.

Generation of space debris by killer satellites was followed by the first (accidental) collision in orbit between artificial space bodies, with two fragment clouds as the result. The collision occurred over Siberia at 800 km altitude; it involved an American satellite forming part of the Iridium global mobile communication system, and the defunct Russian

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defence vehicle Kosmos-2251. Its output comprises not less than 600 large fragments and hundreds of small ones, further aggravating the already tense space-debris situation. The risk of collision of the low-orbiting space vehicle with a fragment has increased in principle, but remains moderate. Still, the threat to the safety of, say, the ISS has increased, and the station was provided accordingly with a passive and active defence system, including deflective manoeuvrability. Such has been the as yet unresolved situation in world astronautics during the last two years. The described “cluttering” process is endangering future access to space and its utilisation. Prevention of catastrophes is conditional on close international collaboration, backed by a treaty prohibiting development, testing and deployment of A-sat systems. In the light of the above, Israel’s space policy in the 21st century should consist in improved safeguarding of the key elements of its existing space arsenal and reduced vulnerability of the overall network of its space potential.

Recent pronouncements by Israel’s space veterans sound more and more nostalgic, recalling the years preceding the OFEQ launches. Then, the Government had given the green light for the spy satellite and supported the project in all respects, including its funding. This attitude is essential at present, as means have to be created and deployed for defending our space assets against enemy kinetic and blinding weaponry. The know-how, qualified manpower and basic equipment are on hand, only adequate funding is unavailable. According to Prof. I. Ben-Israel, the present ISA chairman, our regular state space budget should be substantially increased in the nearest future. Our annual space investment per capita is similar (order of $10) to those of Austria, Belgium and Denmark, who engage in space activity out of curiosity, whereas for Israel it is a factor of security and economic well-being. For the USA this index is more than tenfold. In other words, Israel’s investment is woefully short of what is needed for a place among the ten leading space powers. Prof. Ben-Israel estimates the annual budget required for deployment of the systems planned for

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the coming few years, including defence against kinetic weaponry – at $ 150-200 m.

Besides the above, long-term needs include facilities, for in-orbit refuelling, repairs, and replacement of specific systems for an extended service life. Accessible and effective methods and means should be considered against likely developments and threats 10, 20 and even 30 years ahead.

Recently a new financing trend has emerged in Israel’s military space activity – scouting for corporate investors in the new generation of satellites. As a result of the financial crisis, which has not by-passed the defence sector, many space projects have been practically frozen. The above mentioned “space budget” of the Ministry of Defence, of order of $100 m., is now on the “red line”. According to defence sources, a single new-generation satellite figures in the current long-term programme – whereas the country will need at least three of them in the near future: two mini’s (up to 400 kg weight) and one micro (100-130 kg). Successful development and launching would by itself need an immediate infusion of minimum $500m. In these circumstances, the ministry has initiated for civil corporations, in return for a significant investment, 12% of the income and open access to the gained know-how. The satellites being dual-purpose, and their civilian applications profitable, investors would be assured of a regular income backed by State guarantees.

For the commercial satellite industry to be adapted for deployment of, say, new army communication networks, the boundaries demarcating the civilian, military and commercial interests have to be transcended. American and European experience indicates coordination of military and civilian requirements, which would strengthen the financial partnership. The more commercial products are used in operating and planned networks, the more substantial will be the saving in military expenditure.

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Here are two examples of recent American practice, which makes for reduced expenditure for military space: - Aware that industry is in a better position to develop and realise space equipment than the State, the Pentagon installed a ultra-high frequency communication device on board a commercial vehicle and successfully subjected it to accelerated tests. - The Air Force intends to install, on board the planned commercial geostationary communication satellite, an experimental infrared launch-warning sensor. This combination of remote-sensing and communication in a single apparatus (military or hybrid) is a highly promising idea which merits consideration from a variety of viewpoints, including the economic one. Israel’s military programme also resorts occasionally to civilian space facilities, but in the long run such interpenetration should become systematic.

8. Space research

About half of NASA's annual budget is allocated to Space Science; a lesser percentage of that is associated with actual satellite/hardware purchases. A totally opposite picture is represented by the state of space research in Israel. Financing of similar works is irregular and very limited. Nevertheless, scientific and research programmes on space problems are under way at the Ben Gurion (Beer-Sheva), Tel Aviv and Jerusalem universities, at the Weizmann Institute and at the Soreq Nuclear Research Centre. The Soreq Centre, for example, has successfully carried out an electrical thruster development project and inspects Israeli component/subsystems before launch to see if it can survive the hostile space conditions. The most relevant work, on a wide front, is being conducted at the Asher Space Research Institute, Technion. Here are some of the recently realised projects: - A star sensor for a high-precision attitude control system. - Intersatellite laser communication.

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- Electroreactive engines. - A small satellite with hyperspectral sensor. - The flight of satellite clusters. These projects have yielded, between 2000 and 2008, more than 50 papers in leading scientific journals – a remarkable achievement for the Institute staff. In 2008, the construction of a new separate complex is over and will enable the Institute to become the leading research centre for Israel’s space industry. One of the Institute’s outstanding achievements is the already mentioned Gurwin-Techsat satellite (Fig.27), still operational in its orbit after a record period (more than 10 years). At the moment of launch it was considered as one of the smallest satellites stabilised on three axes. It is carrying out the following assignments: - Measurement of the ozone level in the atmosphere (successfully completed). - Ground photography over various regions. - Measurement of incident heavy particles from the Earth’s radiation belt, outer space and the Sun. By this means, an improved picture has been obtained of the radiation belt, especially regarding the South Atlantic anomaly where the belt is closest to the Earth. - Study of the electric properties of a high-temperature superconductor, with the material kept at 70-80K in a cryostat. - High-accuracy determination of the orbit, with the aid of a retroreflector mounted on the cube face facing the Earth and measuring the return time of a laser signal from the ground. - Finally, the TECHSAT equipment serves for communication between radio amateurs. The success of the TECHSAT project was hailed by specialists. At the Annual AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites, Utah 2006 the Technion was named as the flagship university and leading center in space engineering, research and development alongside five other well-known space institutions. It is gratifying to see Israeli science in the lead in this field.

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In my personal biography, TECHSAT and the subsequent research on small satellites yhold a special place because less than a year after my arrival in Israel, I was hired by the Technion and joined the TECHSAT project. I found myself part of a creative youthful team tackling the very problems on which I had worked for many years in Russia. Such a “bull’s-eye” situation can have no other name than “mazal” (Hebrew for “luck”). TECHSAT became my first project in Israel, and I have remained in love with it to this day. The key figure of the project was the freshly graduate, highly talented Igal Flor, in charge of TECHSAT integration; the satellite itself was designed by God-gifted Toly Volfovsky of Moscow; the satellite-to-Earth communication problems were solved by the modest and experienced specialist Gennady Goltman – also a repatriate of the last wave; the satellite’s basic subsystems were developed by Vladimir Petrushevsky, who had gained his experience in Russia; orbital analysis was entrusted to Professor Yossi Sartiel; in-flight orientation – to Alexander Shiryaev, an astronomer from St.Petersburg; the computer aspects – to Roni Waler. The ensemble was ably directed by Project Manager Moshe Shachar. At the time of my arrival the first version of the satellite, TECHSAT-1, was already undergoing ground tests. Unfortunately, it failed to go into orbit, and its demise was followed in short course by intensive work on the new version TECHSAT-2 – in which I invested great efforts and new ideas. First of all, I arranged with VNIIEM (the firm in which I had worked in Russia) to have our satellite placed in its intended orbit as accompanying load on the RECOURCE-01 vehicle, scheduled for immediate launching. I worked out the interface for joint flight on the active leg and separation in orbit, and assumed responsibility for all activities associated with the launch, including the ground testing and the start work at Baikonur (Fig.28). The launch was attractive both

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economically and time schedule-wise, and perhaps the most reliable of all possibilities at that time. Secondly, I placed an order with a Moscow firm, with which I had collaborated for many years, for the most advanced solar panels coated with a specialised shielding layer for the photoconverters. The panels were intended for long-term operation under space conditions without significant deterioration, and their quality was fully proven by the TECHSAT's proven long life in space. Considering the prevailing economic situation in Russia, the contract for the panels was also exceptionally advantageous for Israel. Thirdly, a problem arose with the measuring equipment for the ozone level in the atmosphere. Space monitoring of the atmospheric ozone was initially carried out by VNIIEM by means of the American TOMS apparatus on board the Russian Meteor satellite. Myself participated in this international project, and published a book on this subject. Regrettably, the original ozonometer intended for TECHSAT proved useless because of basic design mistakes. As replacement, I proposed a new miniature UV monochromator – which was designed, tested and installed. The greatest difficulty was – convincing the project management of the need for replacement. Eventually, American experts were brought in and attested to the unsoundness of the first version and to the suitability of the second. A new algorithm was proposed for processing the in-flight data using mid-month ozone levels of earlier space monitoring. This a priori information was obtained from the Internet. The accuracy of the overall ozone level and of its profiles complied with modern requirements. Fourth and lastly, the microsatellite carried – for the first time – an array of retroreflectors (RR) which permitted laser determination of its exact position in orbit. The story of this innovation is as follows. In the beginning an infrared horizon scanner for the satellite’s orientation system was planned to be installed on the Earthward face panel. However,

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Fig.27. RESOURCE-01 spacecraft and its former passengers

Fig.28. TECHSAT satellite on the RESOURCE-01 before the integration into Zenith launcher

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with a month to go before the date set for sending the satellite to Russia for pre-launch preparations, El-Op, the contracting firm for the horizon sensor, served notice that it will not be delivered for technical reasons. It was then decided to continue with the satellite anyway, replacing the sensor by an mechanical equivalent. My proposition, to occupy the vacated surface by a real useful load instead of a mass-size dummy – was accepted with appreciation, as the RR provided the satellite with new capacity. A problem still open was – realisation of a fairly complex optical device at such short notice. Here again my Russian contacts saved the situation – the RR was designed, tested and installed in site, shortly before the launch. Distance measurements in orbit by its means yielded interesting results, but more memorable was an incident in the early days of the flight. Separation of the five carried microsatellites created a cluster of six space vehicles moving in close orbits. The parameters of these orbits were registered in the International catalogue, but misassigned among the members of cluster. However, thanks to its optical feature, the TECHSAT stood out, and the identification could be set right. Following the TECHSAT experiments, satellite laser ranging with the aid of an on-board RR became a regular research theme at our Institute. The above lengthy account of the TECHSAT episode must not be construed as a claim for a special role for it. The possibly disproportionate emphasis on the satellite itself and on its creators was induced solely by the author’s personal perspective. In reality, TECHSAT was a small project in the series which brought fame for Israel, and the mentioned colleagues – only one of the many teams whose talent and perseverance made Israel’s space venture possible. The TECHSAT story should therefore be viewed as a nostalgic digression. By the way, personalisation of events in the current history of science and technology is a fairly complicated task. While in the past, discoveries and inventions were assignable “one on one” to specific individuals, in our era every significant achievement is the outcome of

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a collective effort and cannot be identified with a single personality. In these circumstances, the title of discoverer or inventor often falls to those who may have provided the largest creative input in the projects in question. A recent article in the well-known Russian periodical “Novosti Kosmonavtiki” was devoted to the 20th anniversary of the first Israeli space launch, more exactly – to the development process and first tests of Israel’s rocket technology. In this article, the story of creation of a satellite-placing carrier came up as an account of the mutual manoeuvrings by the country’s politicians and military men bidding for the State tender. Such an approach seems to me unjustified. The legislative aspect of a project and its financing are undoubtedly essential in launching it, but its success is determined – in the final analysis – by those who realise it in practice, including the leaders and ideologues who merit identification in the account of how a new technology came into being. The mission of Israel’s first astronaut Ilan Ramon on board the Columbia shuttle included scientific assignments. The space mission of Ramon and his colleagues was devoted to research, with over 80 experiments in Earth and space sciences, human physiology, fire suppression, and the effect of microgravity on a wide variety of natural phenomena. Inter alia, he carried out two Israel’s experiments most of the findings of which he managed to deliver before his tragic demise: - Study of dust transport in the Mediterranean region, and its influence on the weather and climate (on behalf of Tel-Aviv University) – MEIDEX - Mediterranean Israeli Dust Experiment (Fig.29), - Growing of cobalt- and cobalt-salt crystals under microgravity (on behalf of the Technion). Together with the Technion, commercial companies and Space Agency, young schoolchildren from the Ort-Motzkin School in Haifa also participated in this experiment (Fig.30). The death of our astronaut – the outstanding person and the skilled pilot – is a heavy loss for his family and for the people, army, and

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science of Israel. The Columbia tragedy revived the controversy over manned space missions and strengthened the argument that robots are preferable. Nevertheless, the Israeli government has not given up on having our own astronaut. Shortly after the disaster, an agreement was announced on Israel’s further participation in the American manned programme, once the Columbia investigation is completed. Contacts with NASA were renewed on resumption of the shuttle programme, but there is nothing concrete to-date. Accordingly, the Russian alternative is being considered. As regards the impact of Colonel Ilan Ramon’s flight on Israel’s space activity, it should be borne in mind that he took part in the American manned-flight programme, which has no direct bearing on Israel’s plans. However, manned flight being a staple object of public attention, and the personalities of the astronauts one of intense interest – let us note that to-date, space has been visited by not less than 11 Jewish astronauts, three of them women: Boris Volynov, the first Jew in space, USSR, Soyuz-5, 1969 and Soyuz-21, 1976. Judith Resnik, the first Jewish astronaut to go into space, USA, Shuttle Discovery, 1984 and Challenger, 1986. Jeffrey Hoffman, USA, Shuttle Discovery, 1985, Columbia, 1990, Atlantis, 1992, Endeavour, 1993, Columbia, 1996. Jay Apt, USA, Shuttle Atlantis, 1991, Atlantis-Mir, 1994, Endeavour, 1992, 1994. Martin J. Fettman, USA, Shuttle Columbia, 1993. David Wolf, USA, Shuttle Columbia, 1993, Atlantis-Mir, 1997, Atlantis, 2002. Ellen Baker, USA, Shuttle Atlantis, 1989, Columbia, 1992, Atlantis-Mir, 1995. Marsha Ivins, USA, Shuttle Columbia, 1990, Atlantis, 1992, Columbia, 1994, Atlantis-Mir, 1997, Atlantis, 2001.

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Fig.29. Logotype of MEIDEX experiment

Fig.30. Students space-related experiments:

cobalt-based compounds feature a bluish tint and calcium-based are white –

the colors of Israel’s flag

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Scott Horowitz, USA, Shuttle Columbia, 1996, Discovery, 1997, Atlantis, 2000, Discovery, 2001. Ilan Ramon, Israel, Shuttle Columbia, 2003. Thus Jews have achieved a total of 30 flights, with the record held by Marsha Ivins (5 flights). Two of them (Judith Resnik and Ilan Ramon) perished in the catastrophic demise of their vehicles. At present, the International Space Station (ISS) has on board the American astronaut Garrett Reisman, 40-year-old engineer from New Jersey, the first Jewish crew member on the ISS. As a token of his Jewish origin, he took with him Israel’s Declaration of Independence and a pennant bearing the emblem of the State of Israel (signed by President Shimon Peres). He sent a greeting from space to the people of Israel during the celebration of Israel's 60th Independence Day in May 2008. In the near future, the ISS will carry two mezuzot1, to be brought on board by astronaut Gregory Chamitoff - who will replace Reisman.

9. Space starts

Space flight begins with a land start. All undertakings are difficult, says Jewish wisdom. From Table 1 it is seen that Israeli space failures are connected with mishaps during the launch. Israeli jokers speak of an “amphibious satellite” - the failed vehicles lie on the bottom of the Mediterranean (OFEQ) and the Okhotsk Sea (TECHSAT-1). In Russia such cases were referred to as “a rocket gone behind a hillock”. At the same time, irregularities on board orbited satellites were not announced – all space missions were “successful”. This was typical of Soviet astronautics, where achievements were trumpeted and failures, modestly passed over. I recall one of the numerous launches of the 1970’s, in which I took part. Almost immediately after the launch the attitude control system underwent a radical failure, as a result of which

1 mezuzah - a parchment scroll inscribed with Torah excerpt encased in a small container and affixed to the doorpost as an indication of a Jewish home.

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the satellite went into a chaotic spin about its axes, without any possibility of stabilisation. The launch had been widely publicised in advance, and accordingly next day a communiqué appeared in the press, announcing the successful launch of a satellite “which, at certain moments, is oriented Earthwards with precision exceeding the design level”. A brilliant example of absurd (but typical) verbal acrobatics! Unfortunately, also many events of Soviet astronautics have been falsified. In the service of spurious ideals of superiority, facts have been juggled, results “doctored”, failures glossed over, imaginary achievements pushed to the fore. When the deceits in these records were unmasked, Kurt Debus – the first director of the Kennedy Space Centre - called the Soviet space exploration programme “technological sophistry”. Nevertheless, one cannot discount the very real contribution of Soviet science and technology in the conquest of outer space and creation of a series of first-rate rockets and space systems. And, despite the marked current drop in its space activity, Russia retains, through its rockets, a leading position in the launch-services market. Let's now return to the chronology of Israel’s space achievements (Table 1). We will group them according to host country. Seven launches have been made from Israeli territory (Fig. 31). Russia has launched six Israeli satellites from its own and from the Kazakh cosmodrome at Baikonur rented by Russia. Other countries have launched in space much less of the Israeli satellites. The final ground checks of the satellite, its installation on the rocket, the rocket tests, the prestarting checks of all systems - are events charged with tension and drama for those involved. However thorough thee preparation, there are always failures, equipment breakdowns, unforeseen circumstances. Delays and postponements are rather the rule than the exception. For example, the delayed launch of the TECSAR radar-satellite on board an Indian rocket was due not only to technical malfunctions and bad weather conditions, but also to a

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representation from the US, objecting to transfer of the satellite information to other countries as well as to attempts by Iran to obstruct the operation through pressure on India's Islamic opposition. I recall perfectly the episode of the Israeli microsatellite TECHSAT-2, which coincided with the 1998 economic crisis in Russia. The satellite was an incidental load on the large Russian RESOURCE-01 apparatus, scheduled for launching from Baikonur two months before the default of Russia's financial system. The first postponement of the launch was caused by failure of the course sensor of the Zenith rocket. As the device was no longer in production because of lack of orders, a spare was procured by appropriation from another rocket on the test site (intended for launching of five ORBCOM communication satellites) and installed in our own rocket. While this solution was being considered and implemented, the delegations of the countries participating in the project, which had arrived in expectation of the launch, left for home. Rightly so – as a longer postponement soon followed when the Kazakh partner shut down the power supply to the site for nonpayment of their debt by the Russians. In the end the launch proved a success, which was a miracle in those chaotic circumstances – and seeing that both its predecessor and successor failed. As already noted, it did not go without surprises also at the recent launch of AMOS-3 from Baikonur. This launching was the first ground-based operation (Fig.32) with three-stage Zenith missile (whose earlier counterparts had all been carried out at sea). The launch was carried out by Space International Service Ltd. of Moscow, a company owned by the rocket’s Russian and Ukrainian manufacturers, with the launch complex suitably modernised for this purpose. In the words of a Russian representative at the launch, “the Israeli partners were overjoyed, even considered renaming the satellite AMOS-60, but settled for decorating the carrier cone with a stylised logo of Israel’s 60-th anniversary”. With the first two stages spent, and after

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Israel

40%

Russia

18%

Kazakhstan

18%

India

6%

France

12%USA

6%

Israel Russia Kazakhstan India France USA

Fig.31. Launching services of the various countries

in realization of the Israeli space projects

Fig.32. AMOS-3 satellite on the way to space

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three activations of the true-position boosting unit, the satellite was placed in an almost-stationary orbit. Post-launch analysis indicated that the apogee position of the satellite was off the nominal by more than 1000km, owing to a programming error in the final stage. After a manoeuvring with its own propulsion unit, the satellite achieved a circular orbit with zero inclination and stabilised at 4º W.L. Although the correction process for the satellite’s final operating position involved extra consumption of onboard fuel, there is enough left for 17 years in orbit. The family of EROS commercial observation satellites was launched from the Svobodnyi cosmodrome in the Amur region on board of the conversion carrier Start-1 designedon the basis of the intercontinental ballistic solid fuel rocket Topol. The cosmodrome has been based more 10 years ago in a place of a disposition of a missile military unit. The four-stage carrier Start-1 attributes to an easy class rocket. Cost of launch by this rocket for foreign customers is estimated in 6-8 million dollars. In 2008, it was decided in Russia to decommission the Svobodnyi cosmodrome. At the same time, steps were taken towards establishment of the new Vostochnyi civilian spaceport, also in the Amur province near Uglegorsk. It is planned so as to accommodate all types of space vehicles (from up to 500kg, to 30-40t) as well as interplanetary flights. The Russian Space Agency is likely to adopt, as basic carrier for the Vostochnyi cosmodrome – the “Rus” rocket, a modification of the well-known “Soyuz”. The rocket will be ecologically clean, with hydrogen as fuel, and more powerful and advanced than its predecessors. In its long-term space plans, Israel should bear in mind that Vostochnyi represents the future of Russian astronautics and international launching services. In the near future, however, the Svobodnyi facilities will remain available to the EROS programme – three space vehicles (EROS-A, B and C) with similar parameters and agreed launch dates, and five more optional launches, all with Start-1 as carrier.

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As already noted earlier, geography and politics dictate that the Shavit rocket be launched westwards over the Mediterranean, meaning its payloads can only reach orbits that cover low latitudes. To provide global coverage, satellites must operate in high-inclination orbits that take them over the poles, and that dictates launching on a northward or southward trajectory, which is not an option for Shavit. An additional argument in favour of start of the first radar imaging satellite TEСSAR a different way, rather than a rocket Shavit, was that fact that reliability of the Israeli carrier is not too high. Originally, Start-1 was also considered for launching the low-orbit TECSAR satellite, whose weight and site data permit this. However, as the launch was part of longer India-Israel collaboration, the Indian four-stage PSLV rocket (intermediate class, similar to the “Soyuz”) was preferred in spite of doubts as to its suitability. It should also be noted that the required inclination of the orbit – of the order of 40° - could not be realised at Svobodnyi because of its much higher latitude. It is expected that subsequently from two more Israeli satellites will be launched from Indian territory. Although a Shavit launch would cost $20 m, $5 m more than PSLV, and despite the success of mission, experts of the Ministry of Defence consider the Indian episode as an exception, and the Shavit will be used for future military satellites, in the interests of preservation of an independent launch capability. It is seen from the above that Israel has made wide use of Russian satellite-launching facilities: TECHSAT, AMOS-2 and -3, EROS-A and –B were placed in orbit by Russian carrier rockets. At the same time, closer collaboration in space research and exchange of novel technologies is hampered by the general political situation, which has so far precluded government-level agreements. There is a vast potential for collaboration between our countries, already existing in certain areas. A basic factor in the bilateral relationship is the large community of immigrants from the various countries of the former

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Soviet Union – about 1,200,000 in number (approximately 20% of Israel’s total population). This repatriation process reached its peak in the early 90’s. The intellectual potential of this influx, and its impact on Israel’s society, are common knowledge. As this period included the onset of Israel’s space era, these newcomers could have been expected to take an active part in it. Yet things turned out differently for those who had been engaged in the top-secret space- and rocket fields – compared with the others. Because of the official restrictions on admission of Jews to these activities, their proportion there was much smaller than in the “open” fields. Moreover, those few who had gained access were categorically denied permission to emigrate until the early 90’s. To aggravate the situation, those who arrived in Israel were allowed to engage in their profession only after several years of residence. They were mostly above middle age, traumatised by the economic and technological crisis undergone by their country of origin. Unable to cope with the need for rapid adaptation to an unfamiliar environment and an unfamiliar language, they remained idle until retirement age. Thus only an insignificant number of young engineers from adjoining fields were able to take part in the latter stages of Israel’s space projects, and little is known about them in view of the surrounding secrecy. Nevertheless, participation of the Russian repatriates in Israel’s space projects must continue. These people have a built-in interest in the prosperity of the state with which they are ethnically linked and whose citizens they have became. Thanks to their “composite” mentality, they have superior insight into the possibilities of mutually-benefiting collaboration between the two states. It would be near-sighted to waste this advantage. The Asher Institute is an exception. Its backbone consists of former Soviet designers, programmers, and specialists in electronics, celestial mechanics, and control, who were to apply their cumulative know-how in the new country. After the launch of TECHSAT most of these qualified specialists have left the Institute and began successful careers

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in Hi-tech. On the whole, it can be concluded that the direct contribution of these repatriates to Israel’s space achievements is considerably less than it could have been. As for the Israeli-born offspring of the repatriates, they were – and are now – trained at the Technion’s Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, and have already made remarkable contributions.

10. Technology and collaboration

An important achievement of Israel’s space policy in recent years is emergence of traditions in commercial applications of satellites, and also further concentration of efforts in development of progressive technologies and strengthening of international collaboration. Space technology is exported by state-owned IAI and private enterprises such as Rafael, El-Op, Tadiran, etc. The range of products is extensive and comprises space systems, components and instrumentation. This can be confirmed by some examples. El-Op (Electro-Optics industries Ltd) was provide imager for the South Korean space agency imaging satellite using similar technological capabilities that was developed for OFEQ series of military spy satellites. The company supplied the Kompsat-2 imager with ground resolution of 1m in black-and-white mode and 4m for colour imagery. Petah Tikva-based Gilat Satellite Networks company provides hardware VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminals) and services for satellite networks for businesses and governments, including linking rural communities to the telecom grid. Its sales amounted to 283 and 268 millions of US dollars in 2007 and 2008 years correspondingly, the net profit to $22.3 m in 2007. Gilat’s global market includes the United States, Russia, Europe, Latin America, Asia, Africa. For example, only Argentina's largest provider of satellite-based broadband services has already deployed Gilat's very small aperture terminals at nearly 2,000 sites nationwide.

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Negotiations on purchase of complete satellites have taken place with several countries, but apparently without concrete results. Thus, for example, early in 2007 negotiations with Turkey on acquisition of an OFEQ satellite (valued at $250-300 m) broke down because of Israel’s insistence on photographic activity over its territory, which the Turks refused to guarantee even though it is a universally accepted condition in such transactions. The recently-voiced desire of the Pentagon to acquire a series of TECSAR-type radar satellites may have better results. The US government is seeking operationally responsive capabilities to address the challenge posed by the proliferation in space of anti-satellite outrage that was initiated particularly by China last years. The NORTHROP GRUMMAN Corp. is planning a new rapid response capability using the modified TECSAR. The TECSAR carries a multi-mode X-band radar imaging payload which can provide significant, near-term, day/night and all-weather point and area collection capability to meet immediate needs theatres war as well as those of the broader intelligence community. The TECSAR radar provides an all-imaging capability, offering US military and government users a rapid response, very low risk, and affordable access to space, an option that greatly reduces timelines for deploying tactical satellites at low cost. The TECSAR in the US configuration is a mini-satellite weighing about 363 kg. The projected cost is expected to be around $200 million per satellite, including launch costs. The satellite uses a generic bus system OPTSAT-2000 developed by IAI and a SAR payload of 100 kg. While the specific resolution of the payload is classified, its advertised capabilities include multiple modes of operation, including high resolution spot, strip, mosaic (Electronic Steering) and wide area coverage. Image enhancement for better target discrimination is also supported by multi-polarisation. It is planned to have the satellite ready for operational use within 28 months after authorisation to proceed. In the view of the Pentagon, the foremost achievement of TECSAR spy satellite is the very short time

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lapse – a mere quarter of an hour – between start of the scanning operation and reception of the finished image. Experts believe that moderate-sized and inexpensive radar satellites and their superior ground systems will exist by 2012. The satellite will be stored for quick preparation for launch, on a 30-day call-up. TECSAR satellites ordered by the US could be individually launched from a low-cost Minotaur or Falcon 1 rocket, or as a cluster of four or more on an Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicles (EELV-class launcher). Operationally Responsive SAR Satellite Offered by a US-Israeli Team can become an important part of the U.S. inventory, providing global awareness of space dangers. Finally, note the Israeli participation in creation of the navigating satellite system Galileo, developed by ESA and similar to the American system GPS. The possibilities of international business deals in space are determined likewise by availability of financing, by current export regulations, and by assurance of long-term collaboration. All these factors are subject to the national laws in force, so that prospects depend on the prevailing interrelationships of the partner states. Specifically, sale of equipment and components for use in space to other countries is covered by legislation-backed rules and procedures. The list of exported technologies with military applications (solar cells, electric batteries, integrated circuits, photosensitive devices, optic coatings, etc.) is regularly revised by the US. International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR) with resulting difficulties in projects of space equipment based on these products. Problems are also associated with restrictions on transfer of research results to third parties. The well-known optic-shutter case arose because of American control of space photography using this equipment. The USA insists on the right of shutter control - meaning restrictions on imaging activities. Disagreements may arise from the fact that Israel’s reconnaissance equipment must be operational in any space situation, given the need for uninterrupted monitoring of adjoining enemy territories.

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Israel’s considerable achievements have been recognised by the international space-research community, and it has joint space projects with the USA, France, Germany, Russia, and Holland. The staff of the Asher Space Research Institute collaborates and conducts joint research projects with colleagues from the USA, France, Germany, Russia, the Ukraine, South Korea, the Netherlands, India, etc. For example, Kazakhstan has lately shown considerable interest in a partnership with Israel. Large-scale collaboration is envisaged in personnel training and joint developments in other space programmes, including use of the Baikonur facilities. In addition, Israel's industry is counting on an order for an Earth-observation satellite from the Kazakhstan government. The camera in question is to be a version of an optical device which has proven itself on board EROS-B and OFEQ-7. The 45 kg, 50 W unit is capable discriminating objects 70 cm in diameter from a 530 km altitude with imaged strip width 6.7 km. There is no doubt that this international activity should be expanded, strategic partners sought, and achievements offered to friendly countries. Projects planned for the future will make it possible it to broaden the joint activities and maintain Israel's place in the forefront of space research in the years to come.

11. National distinctive feature

As early as 1922 Albert Einstein, in his campaign for a Jewish system of higher education, observed that while science is international, its achievements are created at national institutes. Viewing this observation with regard to Israel’s science and practice, what achievements in space can be boasted of, and what are their national peculiarities? What is the special development path of Israel’s space venture that being a Chosen Nation implies? The differences are brought out through comparisons.

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It has already been noted that Israel’s space budget is 300 times smaller than its American counterpart. It is claimed that the staff immediately engaged in creation and operation of Israel’s satellites does not exceed 700. By contrast, I estimate that Russian space activity involves hundreds of thousands. The Institute at which I worked before leaving for Israel, and which dealt exclusively with meteorological satellites, employed several thousands. The Moscow Space Research Institute (SRI) has at present a staff of 900, whereas our own SRI in Haifa never had more than 25 permanent employees. The Baikonur site is 7000 sq. km in area – one-third of the whole area of Israel. In other words, Israel cannot compete with its Space Club partners either in scale of investment, or in scope of activity, or in manpower. Jews like to make up funny stories and jokes about themselves. Israel’s space venture is not “exempted” in this context. As is known, work on the Sabbath is prohibited to Jews. This day of rest and recreation begins with sunset on Friday and ends with the rise of three stars on Saturday. These moments are determined in advance for each region, with accuracy to the minute. On one occasion, a launch scheduled on Friday was postponed several times because of technical malfunctions, so that the final green light was given in the late afternoon. In the middle of the countdown: ten, nine, eight, seven, … - someone realised that the Sabbath had set in and the operation was stopped. However, fanatical following to religious tradition influences unlikely on the features of Israel’s space. Another characteristic feature is illustrated by the following story. Israel’s communication satellite is highly advanced in terms of the contact hierarchy. Its systems are characterised by high intellect, orderliness of message exchange, optimality of response to users’ queries. By contrast, in their everyday discussions and debates Israelis listen inattentively to their interlocutors, gesticulate excessively, and as a rule never allow one to complete a sentence. Such are the contradictory “national” traits of our space and Earth interactions! The

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list of humorous juxtapositions can be continued, but obviously these are not the definitive qualities of our astronautics. Israel’s astronautics was shaped in an environment of adverse factors, namely: � Late access to the Space Era, compared with the other development countries. � Limited material resources. � Lack of financing sources and of a clear-cut programme for civilian space activity. Despite all this, undeniable achievements can be claimed over the last two decades: � Application area of space activity chosen. � Satellites created for remote Earth observation in the optic and radio ranges – miniature, inexpensive, and yielding the best possible image quality within the physical and technological limitations. � Operational systems of civilian/military remote sensing satellites in orbit. � Competitive operational geostationary communication satellites. There is no inconsistency in this juxtaposition of difficulties and achievements. The adverse circumstances described above favour Israel’s space activity rather than hinder it. The shortage of resources compels concentration on hi-tech processes. Intellect is the resource most essential for such an advanced sector as the space industry – hence the high level of realisation of these programmes. The future of the space sector obviously depends on that of the country. Leading experts predict that in 2018 Israel will hold a prominent position in the world – by virtue of its high-tech achievements. It will be recognised as a leading exporter of ecologically safe technologies. Thus space, as the cockpit from which the Earth’s ecology is controlled, will play an important geopolitical role in safeguarding the country’s image.

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Besides the geopolitical and economic factors,, which have essentially affected the Israeli astronautics, it is necessary to note the created highly effective preparation system of experts for work in the space branch. The Technion, Haifa, is one of leading educational institutions in the country. The majority of employees of the space industry earlier were trained at the Faculty of Aerospace Engineering. Last years I take an opportunity directly participate in students training at faculty. Students conclude their course of studies with a teamwork graduation project. In space projects it is usually design of a small satellite for a specific purpose. For example, one team designed an inspector satellite intended, when necessary, to circumnavigate the International Space Station, photograph it and transmit the images to the Earth; another team –a tanker satellite for in-orbit refuelling; a third team – a nanosatellite which broke away from the Indian moon satellite in its orbit and measured the distance between them by means of a laser beam; a fourth team – twin satellites for stereoscopic scanning of the Earth’s surface; a fifth team examined the performance of a satellite equipped with a hyperspectral camera; and so on. All projects were presented at the Israel Annual Conferences on Aerospace Sciences and the International Astronautical Congress. They were highly rated by the scientific community and included by the Astronautic Federation in the list of the best students' projects. The young people who realised these outstanding space projects are the flower of Israel’s future science and technology. Observing the training process of aerospace engineers and the transfer of knowledge and skills from professors to students, it occurred to me that perhaps this continuous “relay race”, combined with the exceptional quality of our students, reflect the national traits of our people and accounts for the success of Israel’s astronautics. In the final analysis, the niche occupied by Israel in the military and civilian spheres of space activity is durable and dynamic, with its scope out of all proportion to the country’s economic, geographical and demographic data. Yet, although Israelis can justly take pride in these achievements, they should not overlook the growing number of

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competitor countries and the breathtaking speed of technological developments. In these circumstances Israel’s existing lead is steadily diminishing, and a different state investment policy is essential if it is to be preserved. A serious weakness of our space programme is absence of a clear-cut strategy behind it. To remedy this, it is necessary to create National Space Strategy Planning Group, which will form the recommendations for future space activity, prioritisation of Israeli civil and military space programme, a space exploration technology development programme, collaboration with the broader research community in this field. Three main problems, depending on our technological and operational achievements in space, will predominate in the near future: economic competitiveness, ability to support global war with terror, and ability to provide high-grade monitoring of climate changes. Regarding the last-named topic: The majority of observable temperature increases in the Earth's atmosphere are connected "very possibly" with level increases of manmade greenhouse gases. The struggle of the world community with global warming, using satellite methods of measurement, is a worthy problem for Israeli space science. Valuable experience in the control from space of ozone (ТЕСHSАТ) and aerosols (МЕЙДОКС, Columbia) in the atmosphere is available to Israel. Israel, like no other country, has a glut of top-flight specialists in every possible field of knowledge, ready to apply their expertise in space research. The basic problems of this science, and technological innovativeness, will have to be at the centre of interest in the near future. Viewed as a whole, Israel’s space activity is pragmatic in both the military and civil spheres. Adherence to considerations of gain and benefit was a major positive factor in its success. However, persistence in narrow practical interests makes for depletion of the programmes, and at some point begins to impede development. This point seems to

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have been reached. Moreover, alertness and vigilance are essential, as everything new, interesting, valuable and useful accrues to those who win the race.

12. Conclusion

The book offers a documentary review of the events along Israel’s advance in space; of the history of Israeli space exploration in 1988-2008. The reader learns about the first steps in creating home-made apparatus and the subsequent upgrading efforts which culminated in the regular space ability of the new millennium. Over the recent years Israel has become a fully-fledged participant in the evolution of astronautics. It experienced successes and failures; survived the world-wide communications boom, creating its own competitive equipment. With Earth observation as priority, it created both military and civilian ground-sampling satellites unsurpassed in their overall characteristics. In short, over an unprecedented brief period, this miniature country has become a leading space power. Economic and technological achievements by other countries are giving rise to an uncomfortable sense of loss of supremacy, reminiscent of the situation 20 years ago. The remedy is obvious – increase objective-oriented investment. Without progressively increased funding, Israel’s current leading position can be lost. There is concern that Israel’s shortsighted policy may deprive it of its regional military, civilian and commercial supremacy in space. Support of space programmes should be provided, despite the financial crisis. Only in this case would the next two decades witness steady development of our space infrastructure and of a dynamic, innovative and profitable commercial sector. A sound national space policy would ensure improved interaction among all factors involved – defence, intelligence, and the civilian, commercial and international sectors. The implemented strategy would mean integrated efforts in all space projects, thus optimised allocation of the scant national resources. The

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primary role of the state in future space ventures would consist in defence against threats, assurances against risks, removal of barriers to progress, and furthering of basic research and inventions. Astronautics is a domain of science and technology with an unlimited capacity for human input. Space studies enhance the economic potential of Mankind, and future achievements will cause our intellectual and material potential to soar. Astronautics is a mighty study tool of the Universe, of the Earth, of humanity. Its range of practical applications widens from day to day. Meteorology, navigation, rescue operations, preservation of forests, TV, communications, extra-pure drugs and semiconductors materials production in orbit, front-line technology as a whole – this is it already to-day and the immediate to-morrow. Further ahead are space power stations, removal of harmful industries from the Earth’s surface, factories in close-to-Earth orbits and on the Moon – and many, many other achievements. Astronautics is also a vast catalyst in modern technology, one of the main driving forces in present-day progress. It stimulates developments in electronics, machine design, materials science, computer technology, power generation and many other areas of the national economy. In the immediate next decades solutions will have to be found for such core problems as the intensive population growth, exhaustion of the Earth’s resources, the energy crisis – practically unsolvable within the confines of the Earth. Outer space will thus have to provide life-supporting environments with material and energy resources. It is toward these researches - oriented and applied goals - that Israel’s scientists and engineers will have to direct their efforts. Accordingly, this book is not only an achievement review of Israel’s astronautics, but also an attempt to foresee its future against the background of projects under way at present. Will the future “obey” the forecasts? No exact answer is now possible; everything will depend on the coming generation of specialists, and on the new ideas and concepts it will contribute.

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Space activity has taken root in international society and impinges on our highest aspirations. The space industry’s potential is capable of totally transforming civilisation. National leaderships are aware that space activity is an ideal arena for collaboration, and undoubtedly holds the key to a peaceful pluralistic world in the 21st century.

Space flower Acknowledgments Acknowledgment is due to Mr. Eliezer Goldberg for help with the draft text. The author would like to thank Drs Alexander Shiryaev, Mark Goldman, Margarita Shamis for their assistance with the editing and the graphics preparation. The "Space flower" on this page is the picture of Israeli painter Valentin Shorr. The book's colour cover was created by Alla Fedorovsky.

Israel in space

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