ISO Focus 4-2007 · 1, ch. de la Voie-Creuse CH-1211 Genève 20 Switzerland Telephone + 41 22 749...

• Mihail Roco : Standards and the nano future • WSC workshop : Fully networked car

ISO FocusVolume 4, No. 4, April 2007, ISSN 1729-8709

The Magazine of the International Organization for Standardization

Nanotechnologies

ISO Focus is published 11 times a year (single issue : July-August). It is available in English.

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Contents1 Comment Dr Peter Hatto, Chairman of ISO/TC 229,

Nanotechnologies, and Director of Research, IonBond Ltd

2 World Scene Highlights of events from around the world

3 ISO SceneHighlights of news and developments from ISO members

4 Guest ViewDr. Mihail C. Roco, Senior Advisor for Nanotechnology, US National Science Foundation (NSF)

8 Main Focus

ISO Focus April 2007

• Meterology • Carbon nanotubes and fullerenes • Occupational health • Medical opportunities • Food, agriculture and the environment • Legal aspects • Insurance industry view • A terminology and nomenclature • Maintaining Moore’s law • Confronting global challenges • An NGO view • An economist’s view • Ethical, legal and societal issues • Imaging and analysis at the nanoscale• Round-up of regional and national developments

56 Developments and InitiativesThe Fully Networked Car

57 Coming up

Nanotechnologies

CommentNanotechnologiesIt is a great honour for ISO/TC 229 that

nanotechnologies has been deemed wor-thy of a complete issue of ISO Focus so

early in its existence. This reflects the global interest in nanotechnologies and the high expectations that governments and business have in the emerging techniques, processes and materials, with applications in virtu-ally all areas of human endeavour.

In this issue we have tried to provide an overview of the promises, challenges, and concerns associated with nanotechnol-ogies. Contributors have identified where they feel International Standards can con-tribute at three levels – to assist the inno-vation process, to address the challenges in measurement at the nanoscale, and how they can help to alleviate concerns over potential health and environmental impacts with validated test methods and protocols to determine actual impacts.

Currently the work of ISO/TC 229 is divided into three work areas : terminology and nomenclature (WG 1), measurement and characterization (WG 2) and health, safety and environmental impacts of nano-technologies (WG 3), convened respective-ly by Canada, Japan and the USA.

The first meeting of the commit-tee was held in London in November 2005 and since then there have been two further plenary meetings – in Tokyo last June and Seoul in December.

The current work reflects the need for a common terminology, particularly for nanoparticles, identified by a num-ber of studies, and the need for guidance on handling and testing of engineered nanoparticles in an occupational setting, whilst the new work item proposals await-ing approval focus on the areas of car-bon nanotube purity, and the toxicology of nanoparticle silver.

Given the diversity of nanotech-nologies, it is clear that standardization will require collaboration between different disciplines. Indeed, some committees like TC 24, TC 146 and TC 201, have already published standards relevant to nanoscale technology and management.

However, it is not just ISO TCs that have a stake in nanotechnologies standard-ization. The International Electrotechnical

Dr Peter Hatto, Chairman of ISO/TC 229, Nanotechnologies, and Director of Research, IonBond Ltd.

“ Given the diversity of nanotechnologies,

it is clear that standardization will require

collaboration between different disciplines.”

Commission (IEC) has a number of com-mittees that will be impacted by advances in nanotechnologies and has recently estab-lished its own TC (TC 113) to address spe-cific electrotechnical aspects of nanotech-nology not covered by existing TCs.

In view of overlapping interests between ISO/TC 229 and IEC/TC 113, it is proposed that two Joint Working Groups – terminology and nomenclature and mea-surement and characterization – be estab-lished to facilitate joint development of standards of common interest.

In addition to liaising with a large number of existing TCs, a number of oth-er organizations also have an interest in standards development, including pre-normative research.

One such area, that of potential health and environmental impacts of nano-technologies, is of particular concern to the OECD’s Chemicals Committee, which, in September 2006, established a Working Party on Manufactured Nanomaterials to elaborate and implement a programme of work which aims to promote internation-al cooperation in the health and environ-mental safety related aspects of manufac-tured nanomaterials.

The Working Party is now under-taking six projects in the area, with ISO/TC 229 actively participating in two of these : Safety Testing of a Representative Set of Manufactured Nanomaterials and Manu-factured Nanomaterials and Test Guide-lines. To facilitate this work, a category A liaison has been established and a col-laboration agreement is currently under development.

The field of worker and public safety is also the basis of a category A liaison with the EC Joint Research Cen-tre, Institute for Health and Consumer Protection, at Ispra in Italy.

There is also a liaison with the EC Institute for Reference Materials and Measurement, which complements the liaison with the ISO Committee for Ref-erence Materials (REMCO).

Despite the quite extensive, and growing, membership of TC 229, 28 P members, 9 O members and 20 liaisons (16 internal and 4 external), a number of small economies would like to be involved but do not have national infrastructures to support participation.

The recent establishment of a cat-egory A liaison with the Asia Nano Forum (ANF) will allow such economies in South-east Asia to contribute to and learn from ISO/TC 229 activity, whilst not partici-pating directly in the committee.

Engaging with a regional nano-technology organization through a formal liaison could provide a model for other emerging/developing economies, particu-larly in Africa and South America.

With economic projections suggest-ing that nanotechnologies will contribute more than USD 1 trillion annually to the world economy by 2015, it is clear that nanotechnology will have a global impact and is anything but small scale!

In closing I would like to take this opportunity to extend my grateful thanks, and that of ISO/TC 229, to all of the con-tributors who have made this issue of ISO Focus possible.

ISO Focus April 2007 1

World Sceneand reporting of water character-istics. Its participants help develop an international consensus to create a common understanding on water quality problems among sharing transboundary waters – rivers, lakes or seas. The scarcity of clean fresh water makes water quality monitoring a global problem.

Launched in 2001 to develop standards providing guidelines for service activities related to drinking water supply systems and wastewater sewerage sys-tems ISO/TC 147 has developed 229 standards of which a number serve as the basis for national legislation on water quality control. The beneficiar-ies of its work include : state authorities and regulatory bod-ies ; industries consuming water for processing ; laboratories and consultants engaged in monitor-ing activities ; construction com-panies, and citizens in general.

ISO Secretary-General Alan Bryden commented : “ With more than a billion people worldwide lacking safe drinking water and more than two billion people lacking sanitation, ISO is work-ing through its networks of national members and technical experts to help alleviate water scarcity and water quality problems and thus contribute to achieving the UN’s Millennium Development Goals.”

ISMA 2007 Winter MeetingAt a meeting of the International Security Managers Association (ISMA) in Austin, Texas, 21-24 January 2007, Captain Charles H. Piersall, Chair of ISO/TC 8, Ships and marine technology made a presentation on “ Global Supply Chain Security .”

ISMA, founded in 1983, repre-sents the highest levels of the security profession with mem-bership comprising the senior level security executives from the world’s largest corporations, spanning five continents with over 300 companies.

ISMA participates in the European Commission activities to prevent organized crime, provides principal

advisors to the US State Depart-ment Overseas Security Advisory Council, representation before the European Round Table of Industrialists (CEO members of Europe’s largest corporations), and ongoing liaisons with law enforcement agencies, govern-ment agencies, and educational institutions worldwide, and assists legislative and regulatory bodies globally. The ISO/PAS 28000 family on management systems for the supply chain is relevant to this field.

Private standards addressed by WTO Sani-tary and Phytosanitary Measures CommitteeThe issue of private standards for the safety and other charac-terisitics of food products, such as those emanating from the retail industry, is raising a debate in the Sanitary and Phy-tosanitary Measures Committee (SPS Committee). The issue relates to whether and how these private standards, which may constitute de facto technical obstacle barriers to trade, should be considered by the WTO SPS Committee, and their economic implications for producing coun-tries, especially from the develop-ing world. This was discussed by the SPS Committee at its meetings at the end of February 2007.

This issue of private sector standards and their impact on the trading opportunities of developing countries has indeed become more prominent. Some members said that private stand-ards can create trade opportunities because exporters meeting the standards can sell their products more, whilst other members raised concerns that the prolifer-ation of standards set without consultation might pose a chal-lenge for small economies, and private standards often conflict

with those set by governments or international organizations. Meeting some of these standards may also raise costs.

Some countries argued that in practice these voluntary private standards can become compulso-ry : if a supplier does not comply it is excluded from the market. A number of countries said the pri-ority should be to help develop-ing countries comply with offi-cial standards. They said there is a risk of losing sight of official standards if countries focus too much on private norms. The SPS Committee generally deals with standards set by interna-tional standards-setting bodies and the mandatory regulations imposed by governments. But some developing countries have started to raise the question of standards set by the private sec-tor, such as supermarket chains.

For this meeting, ISO provided an update on current ISO work especially that developed in ISO TC 34 and the ISO 22000 series relating to food safety management.

The SPS agreement differs in its approach to International Standards regarding harmonized sanitary and phytosanitary measures between members on the basis of International Standards, guidelines and recommendations developed by the Codex Alimen-tarius Commission, and the World Organization for Animal Health, relevant international and regional organizations oper-ating within the framework of the International Plant Protection Convention. ISO Standards are used to support the regulatory work of intergovernmental agen-cies such as the Codex Alimen-tarius Commission and the World Health Organization.

World Water Day 2007 “ Coping with Water Scarcity ” is the theme for World Water Day 2007 on March 22, highlighting the increasing significance of water scarcity worldwide and the need for increased cooperation to ensure sustainable and equit-able management of scarce water resources, both at inter-national and local levels.

Imbalances between availability and demand, the degradation of groundwater and surface water quality, intersectoral competi-tion, interregional and interna-tional disputes are all issues related to water scarcity. FAO acts as coordinator for the cele-bration of World Water Day 2007, assisted by the Secretariat for UN-Water, a contact point within the UN system for freshwater-related issues.

Two ISO technical committees develop International Standards for water and related issues : ISO/TC 147, Water quality, and ISO/TC 224, Service activities relating to drinking water supply systems and wastewater systems – Quality criteria of the service and performance indicators.

ISO TC/147, established in 1971, is responsible for standardization in the field of water quality, including the definition of terms, water sampling, and measurement

World Scene

Mr. Ken Wheatley, (Left) President of ISMA and Corporate Security Officer of the SONY Corporation, and Captain Charles H. Piershall, (right) Chair of ISO/TC 8, Ships and marine technology.

H2O 2007

2 ISO Focus April 2007

ISO SceneOther issues addressed by the TMB included the establishment of a Spanish Translation Man-agement Group to manage requests for publication by ISO of official translations of ISO standards into Spanish, and a review of a set of implementation guidelines for the common ISO/IEC/ITU patent policy.

Council meeting at new ISO headquartersISO held its first council meeting at the new building of the Central Secretariat in Geneva 15-17 March 2007.

Technical Management Board meetingThe Technical Management Board (TMB) held its 38th

meeting on 7 and 8 February 2007, addressing its usual range of strategic and technical coordination issues.

During 2006, the TMB had decided to create a new type of body within the ISO system – the project committee – intend-ed to address very focused areas of standardization which would result in the publication of only one or very few Inter-national Standards.

participated at the meeting in Finland.

The next meeting is expected to be in Venezuela on 26 to 28 February 2008. The details and the resolutions approved at the meeting are available in the ISO/TC 107 Secretary’s report on the ISO/CS server.

GAS 2007 puts ISO/TC 158 on the global map!NEN, the Dutch Standardiza-tion Institute, and ISO/TC 158, Analysis of gases, jointly organized GAS 2007 in the Netherlands, 14-16 February. ISO/TC 158 mainly produces standards on preparation, han-dling and precision of calibra-tion gases. This fourth inter-national, three-day congress surpassed all expectations with 250 participants and 25 booths by equipment and calibration gas manufacturers at the parallel exhibition.

oratories and universities were present at this meeting 1 Febru-ary 2007 at the Crown Plaza Hotel in Beirut. LIBNOR is cur-rently working on the imple-mentation of the ISO mirror committee structure, and is about to launch three other ISO mirror committees in February.

ISO/TC 107 meeting in SeoulFollowing the 18th meeting of ISO/TC 107, Metallic and oth-er inorganic coatings in Seoul, Korea, in March 2006, The Korea Agency of Technology and Standards (KATS) is to form the Secretariat of ISO/TC 107, under the chairmanship of Dr Sung Namkoong of HYUNDAI HYSCO (Korea), Mr Klaus Scharwächter of DIN (Germany) as vice-chair-man and Prof. Soo-Wohn Lee (Korea) as the Secretary. ISO/TC 107 has 19 delegates from 7 P-Member countries (China, Finland, Germany, Korea, Poland, Portugal and the United Kingdom).

The 19th meeting of ISO/TC 107 was held in association with CEN/TC 262 (UK Secre-tariat) in Finland on 27 Febru-ary to 1 March 2007, to pro-mote continued cooperation between ISO and CEN. Thirty-one delegates from 11 P-Member countries (China, Finland, Germany, Italy, Japan, Korea, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Sweden and the United Kingdom) and the ISO/TC 107 Technical Pro-gramme Manager of ISO/CS, Geneva, Mr. Stephane Sauvage,

Over the last year, project committees have been estab-lished for the areas of psycho-logical assessment, brand valu-ation, cleaning services - requirements, rating services and project management. During the same period, new technical committees have been established for the fields of educational services and fisheries and aquaculture.

At this meeting, the TMB approved two new proposals for voting by the ISO membership, dealing with consumer product safety and product recall, which are also likely to lead the estab-lishment of project committees.

A technical committee has been established for fisheries and aquaculture. Here a fishmarket in Jerez, Spain.

Photo : P. KriegerLIBNORLIBNOR has launched the work of its first ISO mirror committee in Lebanon, NL ISO/TC 176, Quality Management and Quality Assurance. Several representa-tives from private companies, public organizations, inspection bureaus, consultancy firms, lab-

LIBNOR meeting in Beirut, Lebanon.

Photo : P. Granier

New building of the ISO Central Secretariat in Geneva, Switzerland.

Participants were impressed with the quality of the lectures and the workshops generated several ideas for work within ISO. It was encouraging to see an increased involvement from countries currently not partici-pating actively in ISO/TC 158, such as Mexico, Japan, India and the USA.

The event demonstrates ISO’s ability to respond to global industry demands with GAS as the sole gathering of experts at such a level in the world.


Guest View

Mihail C. RocoDr. Mihail C. Roco is the

Senior Advisor for Nano-technology at the US

National Science Foundation (NSF) and key architect of the National Nanotechnology Ini-tiative. Dr. Roco is credited with 13 patents, and has written or co-written more than 200 arti-cles and 15 books, including “Nanotechnology: Societal Implications – Maximizing Ben-efits to Humanity” (Springer Science, November 2006), sig-nificantly advancing the body of literature in the field.

Under his stewardship, the US government investment in nanotechnology has increased from about USD 3 million in 1991 to USD 1.3 billion in 2005. Prior to joining the National Science Foundation, he was a professor of mechanical engineering at the University of Kentucky. Dr. Roco is a Correspondent Member of the Swiss Academy of Engineering Sciences, Fellow of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Fellow of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, and Fellow of the Institute of Physics. He is a member of several honorary boards and was elected Engineer of the Year by the US Society of Professional Engineers and NSF in 1999 and again in 2004. Dr. Roco coordinated the preparation of the US National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) reports on “Nanotechnology Research Directions” (NSTC, 1999) and the “National Nanotechnology Initiative” (NSTC, 2000).

Nanotechnology, like biotechnology or information technology, describes a single essential technological capabil-ity with numerous applications in classical and emerging indus-tries, medicine and the environ-ment. It can be used to create materials, devices and systems with fundamentally new prop-erties because of their modified nanostructure.

All natural, manmade products and living systems have a nanostructure, the first level at which atoms and molecules form organized assemblies. Our ability to change such nanostructures is now limited by relatively rudi-mentary measurement and fab-rication tools, and by our poor understanding of nanoscale inter-actions and systems.

There is a need to have clear definitions and common approaches, as this is currently lacking and this is where stand-

ardization can play a role.There is also a critical need for

better tools and standards for measur-ing and restructuring matter with atomic precision. Measurement and controlled utilization of quantum phenomena and self-assembling processes are special challenges, as is the characterization of nanoscale phenomena in biological systems at the sub-cellular level.

The current capabilities of nano-technology for systematic control and manufacture are expected to evolve into four overlapping generations of prod-ucts and processes by 2020 : passive nanostructures, active nanostructures, systems of nanosystems with three-dimensional features, and heterogene-ous molecular nanosystems.

“ All natural, manmade products and living systems

have a nanostructure.”

ISO Focus : How do you see the devel-opment of nanotechnologies and what are the applications with the greatest potential in the short and medium term? What subjects are most interesting from your personal perspective?

Mihail Roco : Nanotechnology is defined here as the control and restruc-turing of matter at the nanoscale in the range of about one atom to 100 molec-ular diameters (roughly 1 to 100 nm), where specific phenomena enable nov-el applications.


Another challenge is to extend the standards to simultaneously measure two or more parameters, such as chemi-cal composition, mechanical properties, biological properties, magnetic behav-iour and temperature.

While nanoscale components have dominated research in the last five years, the field is now moving toward active nanostructures and nanosys-tems, molecular and systems biology in medicine, integrating nanotechnol-ogy with applications that will change the basic paradigms of electronics and advanced materials.

ISO Focus : How can standardization contribute to the successful develop-ment of nanotechnologies and which are presently the most mature or sensi-tive areas to be addressed by interna-tional standardization?

Mihail Roco : Nanotechnology metrol-ogy standards and the development of standard materials are needed as a basis for effective manufacturing, trade and communication.

Standards can apply to various nanotechnology applications because there are similar nanostructures and measuring needs. We should attempt to establish common standards for metrol-ogy for as many applications as possi-ble, rather than developing specialized standards for each application.

The best approach begins with clear and unifying terminology for the field before defining standards for meas-urement and characterization, process-ing and product design.

Currently most established meas-urements and standards are those relat-ed to point and time averages using sur-face probes and electronic beams. The main challenge is to reduce the aver-aging domains in measurements (that is, to increase the spatial and temporal resolutions).

“ Nanotechnology has a broad reach, which requires a proactive and anticipatory

governance approach.”

Key applications with strong contributions in the short-term are nanostructured catalysts and phar-maceuticals, nanoelectronics com-ponents, and multifunctional materi-als. Typically we have improved cur-rent products by incorporating nano-components.

The long-term applications will be products with novel nanosystems that are designed with specific architectures for selected applications. New architec-tures will be developed to implement new principles of operation for tran-sistors and computers of much smaller size, treat chronic diseases and cancer, assemble artificial organs, change basic industrial processes in classical indus-tries to save raw materials and energy, and create new consumer goods such as electronic paper and clothes that change colour.

There will be exciting devel-opments, for example we will better understand the connection between the nanostructure and behaviour of mate-rials, and uncover basic mechanisms in living systems.

The transformative capabilities resulting from such breakthroughs will include new manufacturing capabil-ities, molecular medicine, more effi-cient energy conversion and storage, and new frontiers for space explo-ration.

Advances in nanoscale science and engineering will shift the focus of technology from improving machines to better serving people.

Standards for soft nanostructures, such as biosystems, lag behind those for hard nanostructures, such as ceramics and nanoelectronics. Measurement of basic phenomena and processes such as quantum effects phenomena and self-assembly will become essential.

Standards for design, manufac-turing and online process control are increasing in importance to ensure reliability which is important as nano-scale manufacturing is rapidly expand-ing, estimated at more than 25 % per year.

More challenging are standards for future generation nanotechnolo-gy products and processes, such as for system architectures and the dynamic behaviour of nanostructures and nano-systems – areas where standards also may play a key role in the development of science.

Nanotechnology is still in an ear-ly phase of development, and prepara-tion for the future should be an impor-tant component of ISO activities.


Guest View

ISO Focus : What is the role of international cooperation in sup-porting the development, dissemi-nation and acceptance of nano-technology-based products?

Mihail Roco : Nanotechnology requires the integration of many scientific, engineering and technical disciplines. Applications of nano-technology will penetrate nearly all sectors and spheres of life—com-munication, health, labour, mobil-ity, housing, recreation, energy, food—and will be accompanied by changes in the social, economic, ethical, ecologi-cal, and international spheres.

We need to cooperate to take full advantage of the new technology. For example, nanotechnology can play a key role in addressing major challeng-es common to humanity such as clean water and energy supply.

But conflicts over perceived risks of nanotechnology could under-mine its ability to meet these challeng-es. While isolated measures may help, there needs to be a global framework for nanotechnology governance that allows stakeholders to play construc-tive and responsible roles.

Since 2005, ISO has engendered broad international support for nomen-clature and standardization of the entire field. We need technical contributions from individual national organizations and mutual understanding to globally advance nanotechnology standardization. We also need a vision for the nomencla-ture and standards for the next genera-tion of nanotechnology products.

ISO Focus : You have played a promi-nent role in the International Risk Governance Council (IRGC). Consid-ering ISO’s open and transparent process and its organized technical structure, what role do you think ISO should play in the field of risk govern-ance for nanotechnology?

Mihail Roco : IRGC has promoted an open and integrated system of gov-ernance involving all stakeholders, and ISO is an excellent partner in this open system.

We need to develop inte-grated governance that will enable innovation and to adopt incentive-based regulations and policies that will safeguard the public while allowing society to reap the ben-efits of nanotechnology.

IRGC views the stakeholder groups involved as operating with-in a dynamic ecosystem of inter-locking dependencies. The task is therefore to create an adaptive, collaborative environment enabling

different parties to play their part in the ecosystem.

Activities should be undertak-en in different spheres and at differ-ent levels, with a strong emphasis on sharing outcomes and for adopting best practices. In order to establish inter-national standards, ISO needs mem-ber organizations to make detailed proposals.

In turn, the member bodies need the collaboration of industry and academia to provide data to develop standards and to listen carefully to the concerns of both public and civil society organizations.

The evaluation process should be transparent and allow many play-ers from various countries to partici-pate. That creates confidence in deci-sions and a viable international stand-ards activity that can become a refer-ence for government, industry, and the public and civil society actors.

ISO Focus : Do you believe that nano-technologies open new areas and issues for standardization in terms of engagement of “societal stakeholders”

“ Standards can apply to various nanotechnology

applications because there are similar nanostructures

and measuring needs.”

The proposal to start nanotech-nology-related activities at ISO was made in an international forum, in 2004, at the first International Dialogue for Responsible Development of Nano-technology.

IRGC has proposed recommen-dations for a proactive and adaptive approach to the global governance of nanotechnology. The fast pace of devel-opment, global coverage and cross-sec-tor impact call for an unprecedented level of collaboration from research to nomenclature and standards.

This nanograph of Dr. Roco was recorded at Oak Ridge National Laboratory using piezoresponse force microscopy with a technique known as scanning probe microscopy, which can image and manipulate materials on the nanoscale. First, the biased SPM tip was used to orient the electric dipole moments within a thin layer of ferroelectric material up and down in a pattern corresponding to Dr. Roco’s face. Then the area was rescanned in imaging mode. The interaction between the polarization pattern imposed within the layer and the periodic voltage on the tip caused sum-nanometer deflections, which were mapped to produce this representation. Each picture element is approximately 50 nanometers in diameter; the distance from chin to eyebrow is approximately 2.5 micrometers.


(including e.g. consumers and environ-mental groups) – considering in par-ticular the shared responsibility between government and industry to provide adequate information, respond-ing to expectations and concerns of the public ?

Mihail Roco : Nanotechnology has a broad reach, which requires a proactive and anticipatory governance approach including two-way interactions between the providers and users of nanotechnol-ogy research and products.

The National Science Foundation

The US National Science Foun-dation (NSF) is an independent fed-eral agency created by Congress in 1950 “ to promote the progress of sci-ence; to advance the national health, prosperity, and welfare; to secure the national defense…”

With an annual budget of about USD 5.6 billion, NSF covers all areas

Because of these factors, the role of common nomenclature (begin-ning with the term “nanotechnology” itself) and standards (common for as many domains of science and areas of relevance) is more essential than in other fields.

Exchanges of correct and reli-able information are important in the communication among various actors, in public perception and in the framing of new technology.

“It offers a technology platform for industry,

biomedicine, the environment and an almost infinite array of potential

applications.”

It offers a technology platform for industry, biomedicine, the environ-ment and an almost infinite array of potential applications. It reaches the basic level of organization of atoms and molecules, where fundamental changes occur for both manmade materials and living systems.

It reverses the trend of special-ization of scientific disciplines, pro-viding unifying concepts for research and education, and leading to system integration in engineering and technol-ogy. It has broadened manufacturing capabilities.

Difficulties in measurements and on-line process control are more pro-nounced than in any other manufactur-ing field. Nanotechnology research and development has advanced faster than the capacity of regulators to assess the social and environmental impact.

It has highlighted the need to develop common approaches and a common basis for communication. This is particularly true because it is diffi-cult to visualize processes and develop intuitive concepts at the nanoscale. All developed countries and many devel-oping countries now invest in nano-technology (more than 60 countries since 2000).

Suitable nomenclature and stand-ards are necessary in order to allow glo-bal governance to be transformative, responsible, participatory and vision-ary. It is notable that ISO/TC 229, sim-ilar to UNESCO (committee on ethics in nanotechnology), OECD (two work-ing parties on development and impli-cations of nanotechnology, respective-ly), the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) - International Committee E56 on Nanotechnology and IRGC (nanotechnology working group), is becoming a key player in an open source ecosystem, hosting work-ing groups on terminology and nomen-clature, measurement and characteriza-tion, processes, and EHS aspects.

of science and engineering except for clinical testing done by America’s col-leges and universities. About 10,000 new awards are made each year—with an average duration of three years—to fund specific research proposals that have been judged the most promis-ing by a rigorous and objective mer-it-review system.

Most of these awards go to individuals or small groups of inves-tigators. Others provide funding for research centres, instruments and facil-ities that allow scientists, engineers and students to work at the outermost frontiers of knowledge.

NSF’s goals are discovery, learn-ing, research infrastructure and stew-ardship. NSF supports about 3,000 research awards and trains more than 10,000 students and teachers in nano-scale science and engineering with an annual budget of USD 360 million in fiscal year 2006.

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Nanotechnology Characterization Laboratory (NCL) scientist, Anil Patri, measuring the size and shape of colloidal gold nanoparticles with an atomic force microscope (AFM) as part of the physicochemical tier of the NCL’s nanoparticle characterization assay cascade (http://ncl.cancer.gov/).


Metrology and the challenge of the nanoscale

by Jean-Marc Aublant, Delegate for International Affairs and Standardization of LNE, the French National Metrology Institute

ure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meagre and unsatisfactory kind; it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely in your thoughts advanced to the state of Science, whatever the matter may be.” [PLA, vol. 1, “ Electrical Units of Measure-ment ”, 1883-05-03]

But these needs are in fact impor-tant to much more than just scientists and engineers. For instance, nanotech-nology-based industry requires instru-mentation as accurate, cheap and reli-able as possible associated with inter-nationally accepted standards.

M etrology as the science of measurement is one of the main challenges of the nano-

scale. Referring to measurement needs and measurement devices, scientists and engineers often quote Lord Kelvin, Sir William Thomson: “ In physical science the first essential step in the direction of learning any subject is to find principles of numerical reckoning and practical methods for measuring some quality connected with it. I often say that when you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot meas-

NanotechnologiesNanotechnologies

Main Focus


Nan

otechnologies

Manufacturers, public authorities and non-governmental organizations also demand sampling and test meth-ods, measurements and instrumentation, regulations and standards to prevent human beings to suffer from this new nanotechnological development.

In any case, measurement and characterization are needed at the top of any process. Regarding nanotechnol-ogies where everything is at nanoscale whatever the field (physics, chemis-try, biology, mechanics, medical diag-nosis, etc.), it has rapidly been shown that there is a major breakthrough in measurement capabilities and instru-mentation; tools are being used at the limits of their resolution to probe mate-rials and phenomena, resulting in large measurement errors.

The challenge of nanoscale

Here is the challenge for the metrology world to be capable to sup-ply researchers, toxicologists and man-ufacturers with measures and numeri-cal reckoning for the characterization of any nanoproducts.

In addition, besides the tradition-al measurement disciplines and quan-tities (length, mass, magnetism, etc.) and because properties are different when materials have some nanoscale dimension, there are new technologi-cal requirements to characterize nano-materials.

It is thus obvious that measur-ing at nanoscale would be an invisible manipulation process whatever the meas-urement device and technology.

As far as instrumentation is cur-rently designed and operated, many technologies are being used based on X-Ray, microscopy, spectrometry, spec-troscopy and optics.

“ Metrology has never failed any technical challenge

and for sure will overcome any

new challenges measuring at nanoscale.”

It may concern for example shape, volume, surface area and topography, adsorption, porosity, resistivity, resil-ience and force. And finally, last but not least, all measures must be trace-able in a way to the International Sys-tem of Units (SI).

A nanometre (nm) is one billionth (1 x 10 -9) of a metre. It is 1/80 000th of the thickness of a human hair, equiva-lent to the length of ten atoms lined up side-by-side.

The self-designed LNE Nanometer Reference Measuring Machine combines a 300mm x 300mm x 50 µm measuring volume with the AFM technology in a clean room facility and a very stable and controlled environnement. All X, Y, Z displacement is traceable to SI units by laser interferometry. Courtesy of S. Ducourtieux and F. Larsonnier (LNE ; dimensional nano-metrology laboratory)

The NIST Nanoscale Physics Facility is a unique state-of-the-art instrument for the fabrication, characterization, and manipulation of novel structures, with the following specific capabilities :

– scanning tunnelling microscope operating at ultra-high vacuum and control temperatures from –270°C to –150°C

– superconducting magnet system with 1.5 Tesla vector magnetic fields at the microscope position and 10 Tesla vertical magnetic fields at the microscope position

– molecular beam epitaxy system to deposit semiconductors and metals with in-situ transfer of samples to the scanning tunnelling

– tip preparation system to image the atomic structure of tips with in-situ transfer of tips to the scanning tunnelling microscope system

– acoustically and electrically shielded measurement environment with extraordinarily high attenuation of external environmental disturbances.

Courtesy of J.A. Stroscio and R.J. Celotta, NIST Physics Laboratory


Main Focus

All instru-mentation operat-ing at nanoscale often needs ultra-high vacuum or clean room and is built based on a complex chain of hardware and software interacting processes.

For instance, to make dimen-sional measurement traceable to SI units, it is necessary to combine either a direct displacement measure by interferometry with a remote-con-trolled tipping process or a compara-tive displacement measure between a nanoproduct (measurand) and a cer-tified reference material (standard), both with extraordinarily high atten-uation or control of external environ-mental disturbances.

Practical considerations Once it has been done, but not

yet for the time being as regards nano-technologies, the metrologists give the results of the measurement that is only an approximation or estimate of the value of the measure and thus should be complete only when accompanied by a statement of the uncertainty of that estimate.

The uncertainty of the results of a measurement reflects the lack of exact knowledge of the value of the meas-urand. Concerning nanoscale meas-urement, the uncertainty evaluation is much more complicated than it used to be for existing instrumentation.

In practice, there are many pos-sible sources of uncertainty in a meas-urement and along the chain of sig-nal and data processing. They need to be identified, evaluated and taken on board within the algorithm.

It is clear that the challenge for metrology is also to work within the same timeframe as academic and indus-trial research and development.

In fact, apart from a very few technological niche applications, there is a recent and ongoing development of new technology-based instrumen-tation and devices dedicated to char-acterize nanoproducts and nanoma-terials.

F u r t h e r -more, as far as

research and devel-opment related to nano-

science and nanotechnology are carried out, many concerns

from the stakeholders (industry, administration and public authorities, non-governmental and standardization organizations, etc.) about health, safe-ty and environment put the burden on metrology to measure and character-ize innovative nanoproduct as soon as it blossoms from the laboratory.

The way forwardMetrology has never failed any

technical challenge and for sure will overcome any new challenges coming from nanotechnology and measuring at nanoscale. But in front of such a huge amount of requirements arising at the same time from so many secto-rial fields, metrologists need a better visibility on such requirements.

They suggest under the umbrella of international standardization organ-izations, international, regional and national research initiatives and pro-grammes to roadmap and prioritize all the existing needs of measurements traceable to SI units.

The concerns regarding the development of nanoscience and nano-technology centre around societal needs, health, safety and the environ-ment ; therefore, there will be future risk analysis requirements related to the manufactured nanomaterials.

A classification of nanoprod-ucts, nanomaterials and nanoparti-cles needs to be set up based on com-prehensive criteria in order to identi-fy and differentiate needs, apparatus and measurement devices, sampling and measurement methods.

Then metrologists should assess performance, accuracy, repeatability, reproducibility of the appropriate and relevant instrumentation and reference materials. They should focus on accu-racy, uncertainty and traceability to SI units and they also should assure reliability and comparability.

“ It is clear that the challenge for metrology is also to work within the same timeframe

as academic and industrial research and

development.”

About the author

Jean-Marc Aublant is the delegate for International Affairs and Standardization to the Managing Director of LNE, the French National Metrology

Institute. He is currently the leader of a European-funded project, Nano-strand, dedicated to standardization related to research and development for nanotech-nologies. He is also the Secretary of EUROLAB, the European Federation of National associations of Measurement, Testing and Analytical Laboratories.

Landmark-based 3D calibration structure providing spatial coordinates (X,Y,Z)

Publication in MST from Ritter M ; Dziomba T ; Kranzmann A ; Koenders L : (2007) A landmark-based 3D calibration strategy for SPM. Meas. Sci. Technol. 18, p. 404-414.

Courtesy of M. Ritter (BAM Berlin), Th. Dziomba (PTB Braunschweig) and M. Hemmleb (m2c Potsdam)


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BIPM 1) is in charge of ensuring worldwide uniformity of measurements and their traceability to SI Units.

The CIPM 2) Mutual Recognition Arrangement (MRA) has been signed by the representatives of 67 national metrology institutes – from 45 Member States, 20 Associates of the CGPM 3), and two international organizations – and covering a further 113 institutes. It is a response to a growing need for an open, transparent and comprehensive scheme to give users reliable quanti-tative information on the comparabil-ity of national metrology services and to provide the technical basis for wid-er agreements negotiated for interna-tional trade, commerce and regulato-ry affairs.

In support of the MRA of nation-al measurement standards and of cali-bration and measurement certificates issued by national metrology institutes a key comparison database (KCBD) has been set up where all calibration and measurement capabilities (CMCs) of national metrology institutes are regis-tered in all fields. It should be the place to find any best and approved measure-ment capabilities at nanoscale covering diverse fields in the near future.

1) BIPM : Bureau international des poids et mesures – International Bureau of Weights and Measures ; www.bipm.org

2) CIPM : Comité international des poids et mesures – International Committee of Weights and Measures

3) CGPM : Conférence générale des poids et mesures – General Conference on Weights and Measures

Carbon nanotubes and fullerenes in nanotechnologiesApplications and standardization

by S. Ichimura, Convenor of ISO/TC 229, Nanotechnology, WG 2, Measurement and characterization, and M. Yumura, Principal Research Scientist of The Research Center for Advanced Carbon Materials at the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology

Nanotechnology is expected to be a driving force for various indus-tries in the 21st century. In the

development of nanotechnology, two approaches are well known.

One is the top-down approach based on further advancement of the present micro-fabrication techniques. The approach aims to replace the con-ventional industrial technology system with nanotechnology, so that it might as well be called “ evolution ” nano-technology.

As typically shown in IT and the electronics industry, the annual target for R&D is often given numeri-cally. From the viewpoint of standard-ization, therefore, it is relatively easy in the top-down approach to recog-nize at which stage the present stand-ard should be revised or when a new standard should be set.

The other approach is the bot-tom-up approach based on the piling up of atomic level nanostructures

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About the authors

Dr. Shingo Ichimura is vice-president of National Institute of Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) and is Convenor of ISO/TC 229, Nanotechnology,

WG 2, Measurement and characterization. His major research fields are surface analysis and surface engineering including vacuum technology, based on beam- surface (atom/molecule) interaction.

Main Focus

Dr. Motoo Yumura is the Principal Research Scien-tist of The Research Center for Advanced Carbon Materials at the National Institute of Advanced Indus-

trial Science and Technology (AIST). His major research fields are the development of synthesis method of carbon nanotubes and the development of the industrial application of the carbon nanotubes.

mainly using the self-organization mechanism. The “ revolutionary ” approach is aiming for innovation in the industrial technology.

In industry, discoveries and/or creation of novel nanomaterials (nano-structures) usually precede their appli-cations. The standardization in this approach is “ follow-up ” type. Meas-urement standards and/or characteri-zation protocols will have higher pri-ority in this case.

Carbon nanotube (CNT) and fullerene are the typical candidate mate-rials to find their applications in the bot-tom-up nanotechnology.

tron emittance 100 times larger than metals, 4) thermal conductivity several times higher than diamond, 5) hydrogen absorbability five times higher than met-als, 6) density as half as aluminum, and 7) it can be metallic or semi-conductive, and this is not all.

Utilizing those superior fea-tures of CNT, various applications have been in progress. As an exem-plification, a large flat panel display screen has already been experimentally manufactured with CNTs. The current density obtained using CNTs is over 108 A/cm2, which is 100 times higher than the conventional electron beam

sources.

Application of CNT to a per-sonal computer equipped with a fuel cell system has been already demon-strated by a Japanese electronic com-pany as one of the achievements of a national project.

The first discovery by using trans-mission electron microscope (TEM) that carbon atoms can be aligned to form tubes called CNT was made in 1991. Since then, various substructures of CNT, such as single wall, double wall, multi wall, nanohorn, etc., have been identified.

In parallel with those findings, the sophisticated synthesis methods have also been investigated to develop the fab-rication method of CNTs with improved purity and crystallinity (graphitization). Using those synthesis methods, it is now possible to spin high-strength fiber sin-gle wall CNT wires as well as to pre-pare mesh sheets of single wall CNTs for cell culture purposes. The photo (a) shows a folded-paper “ origami ” crane made of single wall CNT sheet.

It is also known that CNT has the following great features : 1) tensile strength 100 times greater than iron, 2) electron mobility 1 000 times larger than conventional transistors, 3) elec-

“ Nanotechnology is expected to be a driving

force for various industries in the 21st century.”

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B

In addition to it, it has already been in progress to apply CNTs and/or carbon fibers to form composite materi-als with high heat conductivity, which will be used as a radiation heat sub-strate for electronic devices.

Photo (a) a paper-fold crane and (b) a map of Japan made of single wall CNTs synthesized by “ super-growth ” technology of AIST.

On the application side, fabrica-tion of electric double-layer capacitors with high stored energy (high energy density) is one of the key issues ; the electric double layer capacitor has supe-rior features, such as high output, high cycle life and high safety, in addition to the capability of quicker charge/dis-charge compared to the lithium ion sec-ondary battery.

However, the current activated carbon electrodes are only capable for low stored energy. To achieve high ener-gy density, it is essential to extend the electrode surface area. Using a sophis-ticated growth technology, it is now possible to prepare long single-walled CNTs in a high-density vertical array as shown in photo (b).

The growth technology not only enables ultra-high efficiency synthe-sis (1 500 times larger growth rate), but it also yields single-walled nano-tubes (SWNTs) of an ultra-high puri-ty of 99.98 % without purification, so


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that it leads to the possibility of mass production of SWNTs.

The realization of the mass pro-duction will develop a new market for power devices of the compact size in portable devices to the medium size for preheating or raid heating in copy machines and printers, together with its capability of rapid discharge lead-ing to the elimination of the standby power, resulting in a great amount of energy saving.

Coming back to the second topic of nanomaterials, it is now well known that carbon atoms are aligned to form a soccer-ball-like sphere named fullerene. Its existence was theoreti-cally predicted in 1970 and was actu-ally discovered in 1985.

From the first discovery, various derivative structures have been syn-thesized. Fullerene and various fuller-ene derivatives are all rigid spherical molecules and soluble in organic sol-vents, and have the acceptability of metal encapsulation.

face of fullerene, protons can be trans-ferred without presence of water.

It means that the fuel cell with the fullerene membrane can be used at temperatures below 0 °C or at higher temperatures such as 120 °C and beyond. Now a venture company in Japan has taken on this challenge to realize this concept as a practical technology.

Another example of the appli-cations of fullerene is a key material in organic semiconductor devices. It is already known that fullerene film has excellent n-type semiconductor properties, especially when it is pre-pared by deposition in ultra-high vac-uum condition. The electron mobili-ty of fullerene obtained by this proc-ess is comparable to that of amor-phous silicon.

However, since the vacuum deposition method is too expensive to be used practically, the develop-ment of an innovative coating proc-ess is required.

Thus, their applications to elec-tron acceptors, strong light absorb-ers, etc., are expected together with the utilization of a new function of superconductivity, which is realized by doping of metallic elements.

As a good example of the appli-cations, fullerene derivatives are good candidates for a primary material for proton transport membrane in a fuel cell. Since many polar functional groups can be introduced on the compact sur-

“ Another example of the applications of fullerene is a key material in organic semiconductor devices.”

method, it will accelerate the practi-cal application of fullerene to small-sized organic electron circuits.

Based on the prediction of a global nanotech market, much higher increase is expected for nano-inter-mediate products than nanomaterials products, in spite of the fact that the increasing rate of the latter runs up already as high as 25 % per year.

One of the AIST groups has recently succeeded in synthesizing new fullerene derivatives, C60-fused pyrro-lidine-meta-C12 phenyl (C60MC12), by incorporating alkyl chain to fuller-ene. C60MC12 is soluble in organic solvent, and found to constitute a good quality crystalline thin film by simple spin coating.

Since both n- and p-type organ-ic semiconductors with high electron mobility are obtained by the coating

The standardization activities relating to the production of nano-intermediates may also open a way to the open-integral type in the industrial architecture design. The activity of ISO/TC 229 is, therefore, taking place at the right time to help setting the industrial infrastructure for nanoprod-ucts and nano-intermediaries – serving existing and developing market needs.

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Since the production of nano-intermediates strongly requires not only the advanced measurement and characterization methods, but also precise protocols for the practical application of the methods, stand-ardization needs will increase in the future.


Main Focus

Nanotechnology environmental health & safety standards

By Steven Brown, Convenor of ISO/TC 229/WG 3, Environmental health and safety

The development and applications of new nanotechnologies have the potential to improve greatly

the quality of life in areas such as med-icine, water purification, environmen-tal remediation and energy production. Some futurists predict nanotechnology will be the next disruptive technology because of the projected ability to impact and change so many areas of material science applications.

According to the US National Nanotechnology Initiative, nanotech-nology is the understanding and control of matter at dimensions of roughly 1 to 100 nanometers where unique phenom-ena enable novel applications.

Nanotechnology involves imag-ing, measuring, modeling, and manip-ulating matter at the 1 to 100 nanome-ter scale. At the nanoscale, the physi-cal, chemical, and biological proper-ties of materials differ in fundamental ways from the properties of individual atoms, molecules or bulk matter.

Nanomaterials currently under development are extremely varied in nature, chemical composition and poten-tial applications. Because of their small size, nanoscale particles have unique properties such as unusual surface fea-tures which are highly reactive.

Since half of the atoms in a 5 nm particle are at the surface, these high-surface energies allow novel chemi-cal reactions that are different from reactions with the same material in bulk form.

Nanomaterials can be classified according to their chemical make-up and can include classes of materials such as, but not limited to, oxides, metals,

semiconductors, quantum dots, carbon nanotubes and fullerenes.

There are over 300 products already in production that claim to con-tain nanomaterials. It appears that the potential new types and applications of nanomaterials are only limited by the material scientist’s imagination.

Many of the emerging nano-technologies involve the development of new materials which contain nano-meter scale particles. As with the intro-duction of any new material or prod-uct into commerce, there is both the potential for positive societal benefits as well as the potential risk of harm to humans or the environment during the production, use and disposal of these new products.

“ The uniform application of ISO toxicology testing methods will expedite the development of a scientific

knowledge base on nanomaterials.”

However, with proper due dili-gence and effective life cycle analysis, the potential risks can be identified and addressed. The risks associated with nanomaterial production and use can be controlled through proper product design and implementation of effec-tive manufacturing controls.

Due to the unique nature of nanomaterials, the current methodolo-gies employed to conduct risk assess-ments, toxicological assessments and life cycle analysis of products contain-ing nanomaterials may be ineffective or may not currently exist.

There are currently no standard test methods for human exposure meas-urements to nanoparticles. According to the US National Institute of Occu-pational Health, current research indi-cates that mass and bulk chemistry may be less important as an indicator of tox-icity than particle size, surface area, and surface chemistry (or activity) for nanostructured materials.

Innovative measurement tech-niques and health hazard assessments are among the many standards that will


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need to be developed to evaluate ade-quately the use of nanomaterials.

Additional research is necessary to determine the toxicological proper-ties of nanoparticles. Preliminary toxi-cological studies on nanomaterials indi-cate the potential for some nanomate-rials to have harmful effects.

For example, studies show poten-tial for nanomaterials to cause pulmo-nary inflammation, translocation from the lungs to other body organs, toxic-ity not predicted by the bulk material, enhanced bioavailability, altered clear-ance mechanisms and potential trans-location of particles across cell mem-branes.

It is unknown if all nanomate-rials will have new and unique health risks. Additional studies are needed to determine methods to assess nanopar-ticle toxicity, including the determina-tion of which physical characteristics of nanomaterials will correspond to spe-cific toxicological endpoints.

Potential physical characteristics that may influence biological effects include the following characteristics: total particle count, particle size dis-tribution, total mass, particle surface area, particle surface charge, nanopar-ticle solubility in aqueous solutions and ability of the nanoparticle to aggregate or agglomerate.

In order to identify quickly if a specific nanomaterial under devel-opment may pose a health or environ-mental risk, a nanomaterial toxicity screening test is needed. Such a test would enable researchers and manu-facturers to perform initial toxicity assessments and risk analysis on new nanomaterials.

The results of a screening test would help identify which physical and chemical parameters of a nanomateri-al are indicative of a specific material’s toxicity. The ability to determine rapidly the relative toxicity would also enable researchers to modify the nanomaterial under development to decrease its tox-icity prior to manufacturing or release into the environment.

New nanomaterial analytical measurement techniques are needed in the following areas :

1) Metrology techniques to measure the physio-chemical properties of nanomaterials ;

2) Analytical techniques to support in vivo and in vitro testing of nano-materials ;

3) Toxicity screening test to determine the effects of nanoscale particles on cellular membranes and ecological systems ;

4) New analytical methods are also needed in order to differentiate the nanoparticles from ultrafine particle background levels that may be present in the ambient atmosphere.

In summary, environmental and human exposure assessments of nano-materials will require new analytical techniques and instrumentation with cor-responding ISO standards to provide guidance on their use and application.

About the author

Steven Brown is the Convener of the environmen-tal health and safety Working Group of ISO/TC 229, Nanote-chnologies. He is responsible for the development of ISO EHS

standards and guidelines on the use of nanomaterials. Mr. Brown is employed by Intel Corporation where he is responsible for the safe introduction of new process chemistries and manufacturing technologies into Intel’s global manufacturing facilities. He is a certified industrial hygienist with over 25 years’ experience in aerospace and semiconductor industries.

“ The possibilities of nanotechnology are

exciting and promise many benefits to mankind.”

Standardization of an accepted screening test will require the develop-ment of ISO standards on material char-acterization, sample purity assurance, sample preparation and toxicological testing methodologies for the various types of nanomaterials.

The uniform application of ISO toxicology testing methods will expedite the development of a scientific knowl-edge base on nanomaterials by ensuring all toxicity research is performed in a consistent and uniform manner.

Unfortunately, traditional meth-ods of detecting, analysing and measur-ing micron-sized materials are ineffective in the measurement of nanoparticles.

The manufacturing and process-ing of nanomaterials presents the poten-tial for release of nanomaterials into the environment. A basic understand-ing of the potential emissions routes, environmental distribution and trans-formation of nanomaterials within the environment is needed to prevent a negative environmental impact in the event these materials are released into the environment.

Analytical techniques and stand-ards are needed to determine if manu-factured nanoparticles undergo biotrans-formation when released into the envi-ronment or if they bioaccumulate over time.


Main Focus

Environmental control technolo-gies specific to nanomaterials are need-ed to ensure nanomaterials releases do not negatively impact the environment. The application of traditional manufac-turing and industrial dust control tech-nologies may be sufficient to prevent nanoparticles from being released into the environment; however, additional testing will be needed to verify the effi-cacy of these control technologies to prevent nanomaterial releases from indus-trial manufacturing processes.

ISO Standards are needed to develop and disseminate “ Best Known Methods ” on nanomaterial manufac-turing processes, applications, disposal methodologies and environmental con-trol design criteria.

Product safety and consumer use is another area in which future ISO standards can help foster the safe use of products containing nanomaterials. New analytical methods are needed to determine if nanomaterials are released during the anticipated use of the product and during subsequent disposal.

Specific product labeling and safety warnings guidance needs to be developed in order to ensure consist-ency and accuracy of product content warning labeling.

The possibilities of nanotech-nology are exciting and promise many benefits to mankind. The ISO standards development process can provide the procedures necessary to identify the potential risk of nanotechnologies and to develop effective control programmes that will ensure the safe introduction of these materials into commerce and the environment.

The development of ISO envi-ronmental health and safety nanotech-nology standards will also provide the mechanism for the sharing and commu-nicating of best EHS practices with all countries involved in nanotechnology development.

Medical opportunities of nanotechnology

by Dr. Scott McNeil, Director, Nanotechnology Characterization Laboratory for the National Cancer Institute

E ngineered nanomaterials offer revolutionary improvements for industrial applications, as

described elsewhere in this issue. These opportunities are just as dramatic for medical applications of nanoma-terials.

Biological processes that con-tribute to both health and disease occur at the nanoscale – the size scale of proteins, nucleic acids, pores, cellular membranes, and other biomolecules. Engineered nanomaterials, or “ nano-particles ”, are now successfully being used for therapeutic and diagnostic

applications – due to their small size and the tailorability of their surfaces.

Patients have actually bene-fited from the improved efficacy and reduced side-effects of nanoparticle-based pharmaceuticals since the early 1990s – several hundred nanotechnol-ogy-based products entered US phar-maceutical pipelines in 2006.

ISO can facilitate the develop-ment and commercialization of these nanotechnology-based drugs by estab-lishing characterization standards for use by nanotechnology developers and regulatory agencies.

OpportunitiesNanotechnology offers many

advantages to traditional drug design and delivery, and to medical diagnostics. A nanoparticle coated with hydrophilic molecules can be an effective carrier for otherwise insoluble drugs (see Fig. 1).

Similarly, attachment to a nan-oparticle can alter a drug’s pharmaco-kinetics and distribution in ways that can improve efficacy and reduce adverse side effects.

Nanotechnology Characterization Laboratory (NCL) scientist, Dr. Stephan Stern, looking for signs of cytotoxicity in fullerene-treated rat hepatocytes with a fluorescent microscope, as part of an NCL in vitro nanoparticle toxicity assay (http://ncl.cancer.gov/).

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The utilization of these capabil-ities is especially evident in the cancer research community. It is now well-established that nanoscaled particles accumulate in tumors of soft tissue and epithelial cell origin.

This phenomenon is referred to as the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, and is due to the leaky vasculature and incomplete lymphatic system sur-rounding tumors.

Many nanoparticle-based drug strategies now exploit this “ passive targeting ” mechanism to concentrate cytotoxic agents within cancerous regions. Preclinical and clinical trials of nanotech-based drugs taking advantage of EPR are already demonstrating pronounced improvements in efficacy over leg-acy therapeutics.

Concentration of the drug at the tumor also decreases side effects (i.e. toxicity) which result from non-specif-ic, systemic exposure. The improved outcome is that patients suffer less adverse effects – such as nausea, ane-mia, weight loss, neutropenia, hair loss, etc. – when treated with the nanoparti-cle-based chemotherapeutic compared to conventional treatments.

Active targeting is just one exam-ple of how a nanoparticle can be modi-fied or otherwise engineered to achieve a particular biological effect, such as increased biocompatibility.

this multi-functional capability offers a new paradigm for monitoring therapeu-tic efficacy in near-real time.

StandardsVoluntary consensus stand-

ards contribute to making the devel-opment, manufacturing and supply of products and services more effi-cient, safer and cleaner.

In the medical and pharma-ceutical arenas, ISO standards are used for regulatory evaluation and quality control.

In particular, for several dec-ades, the pharmaceutical industry has used standards to assess material bio-compatibility, hemolytic properties, immunotoxicity, purity, and sterility – to name a very few.

Nanoparticle developers and manufacturers leverage these well-estab-lished methodologies whenever possible. However, the unique properties of nano-materials greatly complicate this seem-ingly straightforward process.

Nanoparticle constructs intend-ed for medical applications consist of a wide variety of nanomaterial catego-ries – including dendrimers, fullerenes, quantum dots, liposomes, metal oxides, gold colloids, and polymers.

Many of these particles, such as gold colloids, scatter light and often invalidate colorimetric assays that rely on absorbance measurements.

Figure 1– The Tailorability of Multi-Functional Nanoparticles. A nanoparticle’s surface can be functionalized with hydrophilic polymers (e.g. PEG--polyethylene glycol) to improve solubility or help the particle evade uptake by the immune system, targeting molecules (e.g. antibodies), drugs, and imaging contrast agents for diagnostics. The interior core of a nanoparticle can be solid (e.g. quantum dots), liquid (e.g. liposomes) or contain an encapsulated drug. Molecules are not shown to scale.

Drugs found to be efficacious under in vitro conditions, such as in high-throughput screening studies, are often insoluble and are rapidly cleared from the bloodstream when injected into ani-mals or people.

Hydrophilic molecules such as polyethylene glycol (PEG) are now rou-tinely bound to nanoparticle surfaces, which greatly increases solubility and biocompatibility. Candidate drugs – pre-viously discarded due to insolubility – can be attached to this nanoparticle “ plat-form”.

The drug’s solubility, half-life, and general biocompatibility now depend on the tailorable properties of the nanoparticle, rath-er than the properties of the drug itself.

Finally, image contrast agents such as gadolinium can be bound to nan-oparticle surfaces by the tens of thou-sands – offering high concentrations and consequently bright signals. Since the contrast agent collocates with the drug,

“ Engineered nanomaterials, or “nanoparticles”, are now successfully being

used for therapeutic and diagnostic applications.”

Cancerous cells often overexpress “biomarkers” that identify a tumor as malignant and distinguish it from the sur-rounding healthy tissue. Examples of these biomarkers include membrane receptors and mutated cellular proteins.

Biochemical moieties, such as monoclonal antibodies, can be attached to the nanoparticle and facilitate active targeting of tissues expressing those biomarkers – a “ zip code ” for drug delivery. Similar to its passive counter-part, active targeting significantly low-ers a drug’s adverse effects by minimiz-ing its systemic exposure to healthy tissues and organ systems.

About the authorDr. Scott E. McNeil serves as Director, Nanotechnology Characterization Laboratory for the US National Cancer Institute where he con-ducts preclinical characterization

of nanomaterials intended for cancer therapeutics and diagnostics. He received his bachelor’s degree in chemistry from Portland State University and his doctorate in cell biology from Oregon Health Sciences University.


Main Focus

Similarly, quantum dots have very large molar extinction coefficients and their emission wavelengths can yield ambiguous results from spectro-photometers or when using light scat-tering instruments (e.g. MALLS, DLS) for measuring particle size.

Other nanoparticles, such as den-drimers, can have catalytic properties and often interfere with standardized enzymatic tests, such as those which evaluate endotoxin contamination.

Several nanoparticle formulations include surfactants to promote dispersion (i.e. prevent agglomeration) of the indi-vidual components. If not accounted for during sample preparation, these com-pounds will interfere with conventional characterization methods (see Fig. 2).

Impurities and contaminants which absorb to nanoparticle surfaces can also contribute to ambiguous findings. Indeed, there are scientific reports that incorrectly attribute toxicity to nanoparticles – only to later find that the toxicant was a con-taminant or dispersant.

These difficulties tend to hamper the development of standards for charac-terization, and perhaps even the subsequent commercialization of nanoparticles.

Because of these obstacles, nanotech standard developers have to design and validate novel characteriza-tion methods to assess safety, toxicity and quality control.

Regulatory agencies must then evaluate data generated from unfamil-iar techniques without a substantial his-tory of supporting literature.

This is where ISO has an oppor-tunity; the time to market for nanotech-based drugs would be reduced by the availability of a standardized set of char-acterization methods.

Of course, crafting characterization standards for nanoparticles is no easy task. Characterization of nanoparticles for med-ical applications is cross-disciplinary and involves the fields of biology, chemistry, physics, material sciences, engineering, biotechnology, and medicine.

It comes as no surprise that these disparate fields do not share the same “ nanolanguage ”. Differences in disci-pline-specific terminology and tech-niques make it difficult for interlabo-ratory comparison of results, controls, and conclusions.

For example, nanoparticle size can influence efficacy, as mentioned above. But the term size might be defined by a material scientist as the particle’s elec-tron density, whereas a biologist may refer to its hydrodynamic diameter.

WG 1 of ISO/TC 229, Nanotech-nologies, is actively pursuing consensus on terminology and nomenclature for nanotechnology for this reason.

An unconventional but pragmat-ic approach being promoted by the US delegation is an ontology-based model. In this strategy a core set of nanotech-unique terms are agreed upon by joint committee, but then each discipline main-tains its own dictionary of secondary and tertiary terms.

Under an ontology paradigm, knowledge sharing between disci-

plines is facilitated by conceptual relationships between terms, rath-er than by a composite dictionary of definitions.

The Road AheadNanoparticle-based drugs are

commercially available in North America, Europe, and Asia. It’s the size and tuneability of nanoparticles which so particularly suits them for use as medical tools – they can inter-act with cells and biomolecules and achieve a variety of remarkable med-ical functions.

Standardized methodologies for characterization of nanoparticles intended for medical applications will help alleviate confusion, help dispel ambiguity, speed the translation of nanoparticle drugs from discovery to development, and facilitate regulatory approval. This is an opportunity that ISO should not miss.

Figure 2 – Nanoparticles Can Interfere with Conventional Characterization Methods. The graph (left) shows the results of an assay to determine the hemolytic properties of polystyrene nanoparticles. In this commonly used protocol, 20 and 50 nm nanoparticles are incubated in whole blood, the blood is centrifuged to remove undamaged erythrocytes and nanoparticles, and the percent hemolysis is determined by colorimetric detection of hemoglobin in the supernatant. Under these conditions, untreated (i.e. commercially supplied) particles with 20 and 50 nm diameters were strongly hemolytic. In the case of the 50 nm particles, spectroscopic analysis indicated a reduction in hemolysis following dialysis. Visual inspection of the microfuge tubes (right panel), however, showed the dialysed 50 nm particles adsorb hemoglobin (compared to control tube), and the adsorbed hemoglobin precipitates with the particles upon centrifugation – yielding a false negative result.

This project has been funded in whole or in part with

federal funds from the National Cancer Institute, National

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Nan

otechnologies

About the author

Frans Kampers After completing his PhD in physics in Eindhoven, Frans Kampers joined the research organization of the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture,

Dienst Landbouwkundig Onderzoek (DLO), which is now part of Wageningen UR (University and Research Centre), in 1989. He headed a department on instrumenta-tion and measurement technology for sev-eral years in which period he was chair-man of an ISO working group that defined the international standard on RFID for animals. In 2003 he was asked to set up bionanotechnology in Wageningen and is now director of BioNT and Co-coordinator of the bionanotechnology research within Wageningen UR.

Food, agricultural and environmental applications of nanotechnologies

by Frans W. H. Kampers, Director of BioNT, Coordinator of bionanotechnology research at Wageningen UR

Introduction

N anotechnologies are a boom-ing business. Virtually every country has some kind of devel-

opment programme and results are starting to pour in. Now it is time to think of the numerous applications and benefits nanotechnologies can bring to areas like the food industry, agriculture and the environment. This article will give some examples of applications that are being developed or could be envisioned in the future.

Food industryMost applications of nanotech-

nologies in food are in quality assur-ance, processing or delivery. An exam-ple is the use of nanotechnology in sen-sors and diagnostic devices to monitor and control food processes for quality assurance in the chain from primary production to the consumer.

Some of these devices were originally developed for other purpos-es such as medical diagnostics, but can just as easily be used to measure micro-bial activity in food. Standardization of these devices is important. Together with models of the supply chain, qual-ity deterioration can then be predicted and logistics optimized.

The use of micro- and nanote-chnologies will lead to process inno-vations. Accurate control over fea-tures in semiconductor devices has allowed the development of filters

Yeast cells filtered out of beer with a microsieve membrane. (Courtesy of Aquamarijn Microfiltration B.V.).

that are able to separate components of foodstuffs.

With microfiltration devic-es yeast cells can be sieved out of beer, and bacteria can be filtered out of milk, which makes pasteurization superfluous.

Emulsions are very important in the food industry. In membrane emul-sification one fraction, for example oil, is pressed through a micro-engineered nanodevice with well defined holes into a continuous phase, e.g. water, resulting in an emulsion of superi-or quality.

Controlling these processes at the nanolevel allows engineering of new double emulsions, e.g. oil droplets in water that have a core of water. In this way, much of the oil is replaced with water and a new mayonnaise can be created that tastes and feels like full fat, but has many fewer calories.


Main Focus

Food products are packaged to be contained, to protect them against contamination, or to maintain their quality. Nanotechnologies are used to improve the properties of pack-aging material and nanoparticles are added to specific coatings to reduce the microbial pressure on the food product.

In the future, packaging will be combined with low-cost electronics to provide radio frequency identification (RFID) communication on the prod-uct and its quality. Needless to say, this communication method has to be standardized to be useful.

pest. It signals to the farmer the need to use biological pest control agents or to locally apply a pesticide.

By encapsulating pesticides in nano-engineered containers, crop pro-tection could become more sustainable. The nano-pesticide would be applied at an early stage and would remain dor-mant until the pest developed.

Signaling substances would trig-ger the release of the pesticide and the pest would be fought in a timely man-ner and locally preventing large scale damage to the crop.

In animal husbandry, nanode-vices can be combined with RFID sys-tems to gather information on indi-vidual animals. With suitable sensors, health problems can be detected at an early stage.

This will allow effective treat-ment, isolation if necessary and reduc-tion of economic loss. These systems could also be used to detect when a female animal is fertile and to opti-mize the reproductive cycle of the animals.

EnvironmentThere are also benefits from nano-

technologies for the environment. Micro- and nanofilters can improve waste water purification, and magnetic nanoparticles, combined with semi-permeable mem-branes, have been used to extract drink-ing water from sewage water.

Membrane technology will benefit from nanotechnologies so that certain purification methods will become economically viable.

One of the problems of waste water management is that the level of pollution can vary tremendously. Water from rain drains is usually clean, unless it is the ‘ first flush ’ after a period of drought. Then it can contain many pollut-ants and has to be channeled to a waste water treatment installation.

To avoid pollution, municipal regulations stipulate that rain water has to be treated. With sensors based on nanotechnologies it will be possible to measure the level of pollution and to switch to surface water drain when it has become clean enough.

Evaluating risks and benefits

Although more development will be necessary in most cases, there are no technological barriers to the applications of nanotechnologies described above. Whether or not they will become reality is largely determined by economics.

Encapsulation methods rely on self assembly and can therefore be pro-duced relatively cheaply. But compared

One of the applications where nanotechnology will end up in food is product engineering. Encapsulation of nutrients to mask bad flavours and avoiding premature breakdown of the components are possibilities.

It is also possible to modify the texture of certain food materials by changing the structure of supramolecu-lar components at the nanolevel.

These applications usually make use of components – like protein fibrils or phospholipid membranes – that have always been present in the food.

AgricultureIn primary production, nanotech-

nologies can be used in combination with precision agriculture. By ran-domly distributing ‘ smart dust ’ in a field, information can be gathered on the local growing conditions and inte-grated in the farm management sys-tem.

It will allow localized fertili-zation or crop protection without the need to spray the whole field. In green-houses sensors can detect the presence of certain volatiles that are emitted by plants that are being attacked by a

“ By encapsulating pesticides in nano-

engineered containers, crop protection could

become more sustainable.”

Computational Fluid Dynamics simulation of droplet formation in cross-flow membrane emulsification. (Courtesy of Food and Bioprocess Engineering Group, Wageningen UR)

Nano-thick fibrils of non-meat proteins, allowing tailoring of food texture. (Courtesy of Food Physics Group, Wageningen UR)


Nan

otechnologies

to pesticides used today they will still be much more expensive. Will the bene-fits outweigh the costs ? This is also the question in food applications.

Margins in the food industry are small and the willingness of custom-ers to pay more for benefits that may lie in the future is limited. But proba-bly more important is the acceptance by consumers of nanotechnology in food. Consumers may perceive nano-technologies as unnatural and hazard-ous and the poor acceptance of genet-ically modified organisms (GMO) has shown that caution is required.

To evaluate risks and benefits, customers will need information on the benefits of specific applications and any associated risks. They must also be able to distinguish products with or without nanotechnology. But since nanotechnology is not visible, this implies labeling, and here stand-ardization is required.

A foodstuff basically is a mix-ture of nanotechnologies. Molecular and supramolecular assemblies with spe-cific functionalities have always been part of our food. The only distinction is that they used to be natural structures created by living organisms.

With nanotechnology, man has developed the capability to modify these structures to enhance positive characteris-tics or to include a specific functionality. But how much modification is required before a product is labeled as contain-ing nanotechnology ? Most definitions of nanotechnology do not provide an answer but regulation relies on it.

For an objective risk assessment, standardized specifications of nano-particles are needed. Researchers must be able to compare results of individ-ual and independent risk assessments in order to get a more or less complete picture of the different risks.

Objective risk assessment togeth-er with communication on risks and benefits will prove paramount in build-ing the trust necessary for the social acceptance of nanotechnologies in food, agriculture and the environment. And without consumer acceptance there will be no “ licence to produce ”.

The role of standards in the field of nanotechnologies in informing the international legal community

by Christopher Bell, Sidley Austin LLP, Martha Marrapese, Keller and Heckman LLP, and Philip Moffat, Beveridge & Diamond P.C.

M any of the major new tech-nologies of the last century have undergone examina-

tion through the standards develop-ment process, accompanied by adap-tations in the law.

Through standards development and legal advancement, innovations are

typically integrated into the economic and social fabric under generally accept-able conditions. This path is equally valid for nanotechnologies.

There is general consensus on the need to assess the legal and social policy implications of the applications of nanotechnologies. This consensus is placing pressure on standards devel-opment organizations to anticipate and respond to the needs of a wide-rang-ing constituency that includes the legal profession.

Nanotechnology standards and the legal community

The number and diversity of potential applications, the newness of the field and ultimately the com-mercialization of products offer legal practitioners numerous opportunities for involvement with nanotechnologies.

As one practitioner characterizes the profession, “law practice ebbs and flows with the economy, politics and technological innovations.”


About the authors

Christopher L. Bell, a US expert in TC 229 and an expert in TC 207 from 1992-2000, is a partner at the international law firm of Sidley Austin LLP who advises clients on a broad range of

U.S. and international environmental, sus-tainable development, product stewardship and supply-chain management issues.

He may be reached at [email protected] or +1 202 736 8118.

The legal expertise assembling to address nanotechnologies reflects diverse specialties, including such fields as intel-lectual property, corporate law, product safety, pharmaceuticals and health care, international trade, and environment, health and safety.

Within these fields, international standards may serve a variety of roles, ranging from de facto rules driven by commerce, e.g. contract, to supporting or providing the substance of what may be broadly defined as positive law such as legislation or regulations.

A standard may be incorporated by reference into a legislative, regula-tory or judicial requirement, giving it the force of law, or a standard may be recognized as a voluntary way of complying with the law.

In the United States, for example, the National Technology Transfer and Advancement Act of 1995 directs regula-tory agencies to use voluntary consensus standards, except where their use would be inconsistent with law or otherwise impractical.

At last count, US agencies have adopted 4,380 voluntary consensus standards in procurement and regulatory activities. Hence, establishing standards for nanotechnologies will provide a substantial input to the international legal community as lawyers assist the public and private sectors with the successful integration of nanotechnologies into the fabric of society.

The following paragraphs pro-vide a very brief overview of some of the ways in which standardization could assist with this process.

Intellectual property A key issue facing intellectual

property lawyers as the number of nano-technology patents grows is defining nanotechnology since precise defini-tions are crucial to establishing own-ership rights in any technology.

This, in turn, can hamper necessary investments.

Patent offices worldwide are forced to rely on existing sources of terminology with varying degrees of precision to identify prior art (this being a critical step to distinguish between existing and new intellectu-al property).

For example, the US Patent and Trademark Office has apparently bor-rowed from the definition of nanotech-nology proposed by the US National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) to establish a search category for “nano-art”, defined as disclosures related to “nanostructures”, another commonly used but not well-defined term.

Certainly, nanotechnology is a field distinguished by a particularly unconventional vocabulary (e.g. “ buckey ball”, “nanotube”, “nanohorns”, “qubit”, “nanofiber”, “fibril”).

In some instances, the meanings of the terms used in nanotechnology mud-dle conventional usage, e.g. “particle”. The lack of a standardized terminolo-gy for these materials complicates the task of defining the scope and validity of existing and future claims.

The standards development pro-cess serves to assimilate the key con-cepts into a more conventional vocab-ulary which will benefit the work of intellectual property practitioners as they attempt to identify and protect ownership interests.

Martha Marrapese, a US delegate to TC 229/WG 1, Nomenclature and Terminology, is an attorney at the law firm of Keller & Heck-man LLP, with a special focus on

product clearance and workplace safety requirements for emerging technologies in the industrial chemicals, antimicrobial pesti-cides, and food packaging sectors.

She may be reached at [email protected] or +1 202 434-4123

Philip A. Moffat is an attorney with Beveridge & Diamond, P.C., a US law firm that specializes in all aspects of envi-ronmental, health, and safety law and related litiga-tion.

He may be reached at [email protected], or +1 202 789 6027.

“There is general consensus on the need to assess the legal and

social policy implications of the applications of nanotechnologies.”

In a poll of the ISO/TC 229 membership, a commonly agreed ter-minology has emerged as a top-priority work item. It is hoped that early work to establish a common understanding of terms will facilitate and promote their technical and legal usage.

Creating a standardized vocabu-lary for nanotechnologies is very impor-tant for intellectual property purposes. In its absence, the technology remains less precisely defined, making it diffi-cult to delineate ownership interests.


Nan

otechnologies

Corporate transactions In corporate structuring, e.g.

mergers, acquisitions, divestitures, formation of joint ventures, legal prac-tice is characterized by complex agree-ments typically reached under difficult time pressures.

Attorneys representing clients who are involved in joint ventures, licensing agreements, sales of assets, etc., will look to standards to acquire the vocabulary necessary to define these agreements.

As with intellectual property, the work of ISO/TC 229 to establish a common vocabulary regarding nano-technologies should facilitate the pur-chase or sale of, or investment in, inter-ests in nanotechnologies. Clearly, this will be critical to efficient commerce involving nanotechnologies.

Environment, health, and safety

ISO standards already have a prominent role in influencing global policy on environmental, health, and safety (EHS) issues, for example the ISO 14000 family of standards.

Consistent with ISO’s com-mitment to environmental protection and sustainable development, ISO/TC 229 has established human health and the environment as a top priori-ty from the outset, including a Work-ing Group dedicated to Health and the Environment.

One of ISO/TC 229’s first work items is a technical report that will sum-marize best practices in the area of occu-pational health and safety in the con-text of nanotechnologies. This report should be completed in 2007.

A recent internal survey of ISO/TC 229 members identified sev-eral priority topics for near-term stan-dardization.

Many of these topics relate to the areas of hazard identification and risk assessment (e.g. toxicity screen-ing, exposure evaluation), occupational exposure assessment and control (e.g. monitoring, best practices for expo-sure control), and consumer exposure

assessment and control (e.g. life cycle assessment, labelling).

These same areas are increasingly the subject of discussion among regula-tors in countries around the globe, and several of them are encompassed within the activities currently underway at the Organization for Economic Co-opera-tion and Development (OECD).

ISO/TC 229 will provide use-ful tools to analyse and supplement current regulatory programmes in the EHS arena, and they will undoubted-ly influence the regulatory landscape in the future.

International tradeNanotechnologies are entering an

integrated economy of global industry supply chains and financial relation-ships. The prominence of voluntary consensus standards has grown along with the global economy and they have had a significant impact on public and private international law.

With respect to public law, in accordance with the WTO Technical Bar-riers to Trade (TBT) agreement, require-ments that are based on, or consistent with, consensus standards such as those developed by ISO are presumptively not prohibited non-tariff trade barriers.

This enhances the influence of ISO standards on international and national law because the TBT agree-ment effectively encourages countries to use standards in their law making.

Thus, it is no surprise that nation-al regulatory bodies as well as inter-governmental organizations such as the OECD are interested in close coopera-tion with ISO/TC 229 and the partici-pating national standards bodies.

Standards have also had a sig-nificant impact on private transnational law. In particular, requirements based on ISO standards are often included in commercial contracts between buyers and sellers who operate in different parts of the world.

Given the global economic con-text within which nanotechnologies are already being developed, creating a common vocabulary and consensus technical standards should enhance the

ability of commercial interests to coop-erate on the rational and responsible development of nanotechnologies.

In addition, by promoting inter-national harmonization, we have the opportunity through ISO/TC 229 to reduce the occurrence of non-tariff barriers that result from a patchwork set of rules, e.g. conflicting or differ-ent registrations, inspections, certifi-cations, specifications, quality assur-ance methods, labels.

ConclusionEstablishing international stan-

dards early in the development and deployment of nanotechnologies is important to their integration into the economic and social fabric of society. The legal profession frequently oper-ates at the interface of technological innovation and the social institutions tasked with managing its implications (frequently through legislation or reg-istration). As the foregoing discussion illustrates, international consensus-based standards will provide the legal profession with a valuable resource to facilitate this process.

“Nanotechnologies are entering an integrated

economy of global industry supply chains and financial

relationships.”


Main Focus

A view from the insurance industry

by Dr. Thomas K. Epprecht, Swiss Re

A nanometre is inconceivably small and yet man has been using mate-rials of these dimensions since

time immemorial. What is new, howev-er, is the ability to make these minuscule structures visible ; to manufacture and tai-lor them to a precise size ; and to modi-fy them to obtain materials with entirely new properties and functions.

Nanotechnologies are opening up opportunities that seem as limitless as the nanometre is small. Enthusiasm has spread beyond the small group of nano-experts to growing numbers in the business and scientific communities who claim that a real industrial revolu-tion is under way, embracing one sec-tor after another.

But opportunity is always accom-panied by risk. Insurers, as risk-car-riers, must be able to recognize and understand emerging risks ; only then can they safeguard their clients over the

and approval requirements no long-er offer adequate protection against emerging risks.

Thus regulators, licensing author-ities or insurers aren’t in a position to deal with prospective risks before the underlying properties and characteristics have been identified and described.

Such properties would include mobility of the particles, their persis-tence in the environment, their poten-tial for being absorbed into the human body, and any possible chronic health impacts.

Conversely, once this is done, safety standards can be drawn up irre-spective of whether the definition prob-lem has been resolved or not. Such an approach might also help to avert unsat-isfactory catch-all wording in both the legal and insurance areas.

Regulatory effortsHasty attempts at regulating nano-

materials could impede efforts to deal effectively with emerging risks, and cre-ate legal uncertainty as well. Thus, the priority must be to gain clarity on the scientific facts and what needs regula-tion, in particular with regard to indus-trial safety.

long term against the financial conse-quences of adverse events, and so enable society to take the risks that allow it to move forward.

Characterizing nanomaterials

What new kinds of risk are typ-ical of the numerous applications of nanotechnologies ? There is no clear-cut answer yet and nanomaterials are as diverse as the industrial sectors and applications in which they are found. It is not possible to draw a sharp bor-derline between nano- and macromate-rials – such as the frequently proposed threshold of 100 nanometres in at least one or two dimensions.

Additionally, the same chemical formula and substance name is often used for both nanoscale and macroscale materials. This restriction of the present nomenclature makes it difficult to dis-tinguish between a conventional mate-rial and a nanomaterial that might have radically different properties.

It is also unclear whether a mate-rial or product that is already approved for use at macroscale, must be reas-sessed for nanoscale – and where does nanoscale begin ? Familiar methods


Nan

otechnologies

This will entail scientific and political debate on nanoproperties which should make recertification necessary or new thresholds which go beyond just mass criteria.

To avoid overregulation and licensing bottlenecks, administrative authorities should concentrate on poten-tially harmful properties. In fact, the pri-vate sector’s efforts are orientated mainly towards self-policing international agree-ments on research and commerce, such as voluntary codes of conduct and contractual restrictions, as well as best practice.

The aim should be a flexible, universally accepted and scientifical-ly credible code of standards and reg-ulations, which enables comparative risk assessments. One prerequisite is a universally valid and internationally accepted nomenclature, without which there will be problems of definition, dif-ferentiation, and interpretation.

The role of insuranceWith nanotechnology – as always

with any technological quantum leap – no specific claims data are yet available, and comparisons with claims caused by traditional technologies are often of limited value. Assessing these risks is unknown territory and conclusions from the past are dubious.

If insurers are to offer long-term cover at reasonable premiums, they need to know better how the hazard potential of nanomaterials differs from conven-tional materials regarding health, prop-erty damage and environmental impacts. For this reason, the insurance industry is closely observing the scientific and social debate and also encourages international organizations in defining nanomaterials and endeavours to identify, quantify and manage risk potential.

As a rule, nanotechnology risks continue implicitly to be covered in the insurance products already on the market, and insurers do not intend to put them under general suspicion by exclusion.

Nevertheless an urgent solution is needed for the definition and demar-cation problems in order to deal effec-tively with novel loss patterns.

The purpose of insurance, espe-cially liability insurance, is to mitigate the potential consequences of calculat-ed risks, enabling industry and business to engage in activities they might oth-erwise find too risky.

There are two sides to risk miti-gation: first, policyholders are protected against the financial consequences of a loss, and secondly, any harmed par-ty (claimant) is also indemnified for the harm suffered, at least to the lim-it of the cover purchased by the party responsible for the harm.

About the author

Dr. Thomas K. Epprecht earned his doctorate in biochemistry and is an expert on emerging risks in the Product Serv-ices Department at Swiss Re. He is the Direc-tor responsible

for bio- and nanotechnology, and brings his expertise and consulting skills to bear in risk assessment and in defining and imple-menting strategies for these lines. He repre-sents Swiss Re on various national and international expert bodies dealing with the business, social and political impacts of these young technologies.

By accepting that potential harm may be indemnified with money, society must also accept that there are causes that might lead to harm. In the case of a technology, it means that society accepts the risk inherent in the insured business, presupposing a consensus has been reached as to which tangible and intangible assets can be indemnified in money at all.

SocietyNanotechnology is going to have

an impact not only on society itself, but also on how it deals with risks, and soon-er or later this will require lawmakers to amend the legal framework.

However, a special law to regu-late nanotechnologies would confront the courts with a riddle : which law would apply to the increasing number of products combining both macro- and nanocomponents ?

Public authorities can avoid this problem by concentrating on the ordinance level and adapting test procedures and licensing conditions at an early stage.

Such measures help to establish the foundations for coping effectively with risks. Because nanotechnology is evolving rapidly and more consum-er goods based on nanotechnology are coming onto the market, insurers and industry should jointly participate in shaping the framework.

A fixation on technological prog-ress will lead to inadequate risk assess-ments. Even today, insurers find them-selves applying the “ precautionary prin-ciple ”, with regard to legislation and the debate on key technologies.

However, the “ precautionary prin-ciple ” is often erroneously equated with “ zero risk ”. As a result, many demand that innovative but unfamiliar products rule out risk altogether, reflected in sig-nificantly tougher liability regulations.

“ Insurers, as risk-carriers, must be able to

recognize and understand emerging risks.”

Best practice is based on gener-ally accepted standards, including stan-dard reference materials, standardized and validated test methods, and label-ling guidelines that protect the consum-er by providing understandable infor-mation related to risk criteria.

Swiss Reinsurance Company, Zurich, Switzerland.


Main Focus

NanotechnologyThe terminology challenge

by Clive Willis, Convenor, ISO/TC 229/WG 1

The need for early standards

N anotechnology is a relatively new domain that holds major potential gains for both eco-

nomic performance and improved social programmes. As a result, many nations have afforded a very high priority for basic research activities in nanotechnology and many major corporations are exploring the poten-tial of nanotechnology to improve the performance and quality of their products and production processes.

Although relatively few prod-ucts are currently in world markets, there is a very significant public inter-est in ensuring that the introduction of nanotechnology into consumer products and health care services and other sectors is done in a way that does not have a negative impact

Selectively applied legal standards can be used as barriers to bringing a prod-uct to market, as pointed out by mod-ern biotechnology.

This impairs freedom of action not only for industries directly con-cerned: the insurance industry, too, is facing a culture of exploding expecta-tions and a legal framework which makes it increasingly difficult to carry out risk transfer and management, according to business axioms like profitability and the freedom of contract.

Where no risk is allowed, the notion of insurability is challenged, for society can only bear those risks that insurers can indemnify with benefits in monetary form. But a risk that according to general consensus cannot be allowed to happen also cannot have a price tag – and cannot be insurable.

OutlookSustainably introducing nano-

technology requires uniform, risk-appro-priate assessment criteria that consider nanomaterials’ special properties. Such guidelines would not only reduce uncer-tainty, but also create a favourable cli-mate for investment.

The challenge is to highlight those criteria that identify the changes taking place in the risk profiles of the materials – and of business sectors – as production methods shift to nano-technology.

If these challenges are met, both public and private researchers will be able to assess the up and down sides of nanotechnology with scientifically proven, comparable criteria; and author-ities and insurers, and other stakehold-ers interested in controlling risk, will be able to prepare themselves to cope with possible future losses.

A new technology always pres-ents opportunities and threats; society needs to decide whether the benefits outweigh the potential disadvantages. This is not always easy in a pluralis-tic society, and one that calls for risk expertise, respect, tolerance and a sense of proportion.

on health, the environment and the quality of life.

This widely held public posi-tion has led national governments to place a high priority on ensuring that appropriate regulatory systems for nanotechnology are in place early and that the standards upon which such systems will be based are reasonably harmonized on a global basis.

It is for these reasons that ISO has chosen to launch early efforts to define a comprehensive set of science-based standards for nanotechnology. National and international organiza-tions, such as the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Develop-ment (OECD), have indicated that they may defer to the ISO process the task of building a coherent terminology and standards base upon which governance systems can be established.

An important key to the devel-opment of nanotechnologies is a coher-ent and comprehensive vocabulary and terminology for nanotechnol-ogy. This is necessary to avoid the vast and confusing set of definitions that has been evolving as individuals and corporations choose their own terms to describe their interests in nanotechnology.

Creating a coherent and con-sistent terminology is also important


Nan

otechnologies

About the authorDr. Clive Willis served in a number of senior management positions during his time (1971-1997) at the National Research Council of Canada and was Vice Presi-

dent for research programs from 1986 to 1997. Since leaving NRC, he has been involved in numerous major science and technology projects from across Canada, including launching major nanotechnology efforts in Quebec.

for commercial and general commu-nications purposes since agreement on what everyone is talking about (or buying or selling) is critical to rational commercial and public discourse.

The challenge of integration into existing standards

Since nanotechnology repre-sents a group of technologies that will lead to applications across many, if not all, industrial sectors and social programme areas, the development of coherent standards for nanotechnology is a major challenge.

Concerns are sharply focused on how definitions and terminology for nanotechnology will be integrated into the spectrum of existing standards and how they will be interpreted, in particular in commercial security, health and environmental fields.

The challenge then is to respond to the urgent need to develop a com-prehensive standard vocabulary and terminology for the nanotechnology field, while at the same time ensuring that the impact upon other standards development fields is as seamless as possible and without losing the coher-ent basis upon which clear regulations for nanotechnology can be written or transactions conducted.

The challenge of a single, basic definition

Nanotechnology is built upon the recognition that the properties of materials exhibit different attri-butes when dimensions approach the nanoscale.

Using an array of techniques ranging from molecular engineering and thin film technology to the mechanical reduction of bulk materials to ultrafine powders, it is possible to develop mate-rials that have very different physical and chemical properties and combina-tions of materials that provide unique functionalities of interest.

The Holy Grail would be the definition of a single, “bright-line” description that could distinguish mate-rials and systems that have nanoscale characteristics from those materials and systems that have characteris-tics that are indistinguishable from existing, well-known, macro-scale applications.

broad range of materials so as to be relatively useless).

The impact of these differing ranges on clear definitions is significant and requires the development of a care-fully structured, taxonomic terminology into which precise definitions can be embedded.

For such a terminology to be useful as a basis for both standards development and as a basis for writ-ing regulatory system entries, it must be searchable in a way that it can provide a basic nomenclature system for nanotechnology.

In turn, such a structured ter-minology must have the potential for being comprehensive and coherent for nanotechnology terms across the entire field of nanotechnology and must be translatable into existing definitions and terminology across the entire field of standards.

Differentiating nanomaterials from their macro-usage 1)

It would seem useful to dis-tinguish between nanomaterials and the macro or bulk materials that might contain nanomaterials.

Limiting the definition of nano-materials to materials that are truly in the nanoscale will achieve clarity in definition and will not in any way limit the ability of industry or governments to evaluate, control or regulate the presence, emissions, discharges, etc., of nanomaterials that may be contained in macro or bulk materials.

Most regulatory regimes rec-ognize this distinction (e.g. not every material that contains a detectable concentration of cadmium is called cadmium).

Similarly, excluding bulk or macro materials from the definition, nanomaterials will not prevent industry from controlling or governments from regulating the presence of nanomaterials in bulk or macro materials.

1) I am grateful to Chris Bell for providing insightful clarity to this section and elsewhere in the text.

“ Creating a coherent and consistent terminology

is important for commercial and general

communications.”

This type of definition could be very simple indeed, with a single, specific dimensional cut-off value identified for “ things nano ”. However, the dimensional dependence for the onset of such nanoscale attributes dif-fers from property to property.

For example, the onset of domi-nant quantum characteristics occurs at dimensional scales of a few nanome-tres ; typically, in the range of up to about 20 nm, nanoscale magnetic char-acteristics occur up to a maximum of 50 nm to 60 nm while electronic properties show size-dependent variation in a range that extends beyond 1 000 nm.

The variation in dimensional dependence poses difficult challenges in creating terminology that is both accurate (i.e. reflecting physical reality) and precise (i.e. not so vague or general as to encompass such a potentially


Main Focus

Bulk materials that, when they degrade, release or discharge nano-materials can be clearly identified, regulated and controlled, as necessary, without being defined themselves as nanomaterials (e.g. regulations limit-ing the presence of certain hazardous materials in electronics distinguish between the hazardous substances of interest and the equipment within which they may be found).

It is the distinction between the material of interest and other materials that they may contain that allows industry and government to define more precisely what they want to control and regulate.

Managing the terminology output

In most cases, the development of standard consensus-based defini-tions and terminology is derived from a broad usage in scientific and trade literature and the ISO process will draw on existing scientific usage to the extent possible in developing definitions and terminology for nanotechnology.

However, it is relatively early in the development of the field and, as already mentioned, relatively few nanoproducts are on the market. This will require nanotechnology definitions and terminology to evolve as the domain moves towards its full potential. Achiev-ing this dynamic management regime for the definitions and terminology will require efforts outside the normal practices of ISO.

New definitions must be devel-oped regularly and as required during this evolutionary phase, and these will then need to be embedded in the ter-minology and linked, as appropriate, to other existing standards.

The terminology for nanotech-nologies will require ongoing manage-ment as it expands and matures over the next decade or so. While it is early to define the nature of such administration, it will be important to recognize these requirements as the definitions and the terminology structure are developed and to incorporate tactics for managing this growth within the ISO process.

Sustaining Moore's Law – Microelectronics, nanoelectronics and beyond

by Dr. Paolo A. Gargini, Chairman, International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors, and Intel Fellow

More than 30 years after Intel founder Gordon Moore pre-dicted a doubling in semi-

conductor capacity approximately every 24 months, transistor density on silicon chips continues to increase at about that rate.

As the physical limits of minia-turization are reached in coming years, nanoelectronics will pave the way for continued gains.

The electronic revolutionJohn Fleming invented the elec-

tronic diode vacuum tube in 1904, and two years later Lee DeForest invented the triode vacuum tube.

By 1950, about 500 million elec-tron vacuum tubes per year were sold.

Julius Edgar Lilienfeld filed three patents between 1925 and 1928 that clearly stated the concept and appli-cation of field effect transistors.

The first serious attempt to realize a solid state field effect device began in the summer of 1945 at the Bell Labs under the leadership of William Shockley.

The group decided to concen-trate on crystals of silicon and germa-nium to realize the field effect transis-tor conceived by Lilienfeld.

Finally, after a number of experi-ments, the group succeeded in interpos-ing a gold contact between two point contacts on the surface of a germani-um sample, and by applying a positive bias to the gold and a negative bias to the adjacent contact, he demonstrated


Nan

otechnologies

Noyce and Moore understood that the commercially successful tech-nology had finally arrived and found-ed Intel Corporation in 1968, just as demand began to grow for various types of memory modules.

Finally, in 1974, Robert Den-nard of IBM published the famous theory of scaling which provided the key to rapidly predict how to design MOS devices from one generation to the next in accordance to a well-defined set of rules.

In December 1975, Moore read-justed his forecast: “I see no reason to expect the rate of progress in the use of smaller dimensions in com-plex circuits to decrease in the near future. With respect to the factor con-tributed by devices and circuit clever-ness however, the situation is differ-ent. We are approaching a limit that must slow the rate of progress. The new slope might approximate a dou-bling every two years.”

Gordon Moore’s predictions still stand after more than 40 years.

The microelectronics eraIn the subsequent years, each new

generation of process technology was expected to reduce minimum feature size by approximately a factor of 0.7.

That reduction in linear feature size was generally considered to be a worth-while step to take for a new process gen-eration, as it provided roughly a doubling increase in transistor density.

During the 1970s and 1980s, the semiconductor industry was introducing new technology generations for DRAM memory devices approximately every three years.

The contribution of scaling trans-lated into a doubling in transistor density every three years, but by means of mem-ory cell optimization and by means of increasing chip size, quadrupling in the number of transistors every 3 years was accomplished.

On the other hand, microproces-sors maintained a more even pace, dou-bling in transistors about every two years. By the mid-1990s, it became impossible for DRAM to cost-effectively further increase chip size and DRAM and microproces-sors have improved at about the same rate since (i.e. doubling transistors count every two years).

The basic materials of the field effect device in the 1960s were aluminium, silicon dioxide and silicon substrate from which the transistors first became known as met-al-oxide-semiconductors, or MOS.

Polycrystalline silicon became the dominant gate electrode material in the 1970s, to be augmented by tungsten sili-cide and subsequently by titanium silicide in the 1980s.

These materials evolved into cobalt and nickel silicide in the 1990s while alu-minium began to be replaced by copper at the turn of the century due its lower resistivity.

NanoelectronicsFrom the feature size for individual

transistors of approximately 10 micron in the late 1960s, the semiconductor indus-try crossed the 1 micron (millionth of a metre) feature mark around 1986.

MOS devices with minimum dimensions below 100 nm (billionth of a

About the authorDr. Paolo A. Gargini is Director of Tech-nology Strategy for Intel Corpo-ration and Intel Fellow, Technol-ogy and Manu-facturing Group. He chairs the International

Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors. In 2003, Dr. Gargini was one of 13 prominent researchers and managers included in EE Times magazine’s Influ-encers of the semiconductor industry.

the necessary voltage gain in Decem-ber 1947.

By early 1948 the junction tran-sistor theorized by Shockley was dem-onstrated.

Together with his colleagues Walter Brattain and John Bardeen, Shockley was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1956 for the invention of the transistor.

Shockley left Bell Labs and established the Shockley Semiconduc-tor Laboratory (SSL) in 1955 with the goal of commercializing novel semi-conductor devices.

Moore’s LawIn 1965 Gordon Moore predict-ed that the number of transistors per chip would double every year for at least 10 years or so. In 1975 he updated his prediction to once every two years.

In an article published on 19 April 1965 celebrating the 35th anni-versary of Electronics Magazine, Moore stated : “ With unit cost fall-ing as the number of components per circuit rises, by 1975 econom-ics may dictate squeezing as many as 65 000 components on a single silicon chip.” The highest level of integration obtained in 1965 was about 64 components on a chip.

Walter Brattain, John Bardeen, William Shockley were awarded the Nobel

Prize in 1956

By September 1957, Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce left SST with six other scientists to found Fairchild Semiconductors.

By 1959 both Jack Kilby and Rob-ert Noyce had invented the integrated cir-cuit by using gold wires and aluminium metallization respectively demonstrating that aluminium made good contacts to both p-type and n-type silicon.

The technology arsenal was com-pleted and finally by the mid-1960s the development of the first metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) devices made by the self-aligned silicon gate pro-cess was demonstrated.


Main Focus

metre) were first produced and shipped to the mar-ketplace around the year 2000, marking the begin-ning of the nanoelectron-ics era for the semiconduc-tor industry.

As transistor scal-ing entered into the 21st century, several funda-mental problems needed to be solved.

Gate oxide defects have been reduced to such a low level that current oxide leakage can be exclusive-ly attributed to the quantistic effect of tunneling.

However, as the thickness of the insulating oxide film continues to be reduced, it will be impossible to fur-ther scale down below three to four atomic layers.

Excellent results have been reported by replacing silicon dioxide with an insulator with higher dielec-tric constant.

Recently, Mark Bohr, Intel Senior Fellow, announced an historical break-through : “After 40 years from the inven-tion of the silicon gate MOS transistor, Intel researchers have developed record-setting, high-performance transistors using a new material, called high-k, for the gate dielectric and new metal mate-rials for the transistor gate.”

As transistor dimensions continue to scale down, the number of the implanted atoms in the channel to control threshold voltage is reduced to only a few.

By replacing the gate electrode with appropriate metal gates, it is pos-sible also to control the threshold volt-age without using any ion implantations as the work function of the metal will determine the threshold voltage.

Mobility degradation has been observed in conjunction with aggres-sively scaling MOS transistors. Recent results indicate that mobility enhance-ment has been obtained by manipulat-ing the silicon lattice spacing by locally induced stress.

In addition, use of materials such as germanium, with an intrinsic mobility about three times that of sili-

con, promises to further increase chan-nel mobility.

Direct source to drain tunnel-ling is considered the ultimate elec-tric limiter for the field-effect transis-tor. It appears that the smallest possible distance between the source and drain regions is about 5 nm.

This limit will not be approached until approximately the year 2020, and Moore’s Law is expected to hold until then.

…And beyondBut this is not the end of the story.

The electron current-based devices now in use only utilize the attributes of mass and charge.

Other state variables such as spin, wave function amplitude and wave function phase have been proposed as the foundation of new devices to augment and/or replace the Free Evolutionary Timetabling software (FET) devices in the future.

The search for a potential new device, to be available by 2020, needs to be initiated now. Rather than replacing MOS devices, this new device will likely work in conjunction with them, marking the beginning of convergence between nanotechnology and the first elements of the vision outlined by Richard Feynman in his seminal 1959 talk predicting the rise of nanotechnology entitled “ There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom ”.

These elements, if appropriate-ly melded together, will represent the foundation of the picotechnology that

will take us to the middle of the 21st century.

Only by construct-ing a strong cooperation among physics, chemis-try and biology will the new engineering commu-nity be able to identify the manufacturable solutions that will power the world-changing products yet to be envisioned.

The contribution of standardization

Standardization has been critical in supporting the market development of the semiconductor industry which has made these dramatic advances possible.

International Standards developed by SEMI (Semiconductor Equipment and Materials International) and its partners (i.e. ASTM, DIN, IEEE, ISO and JEITA) have supported improvement in production and quality control of the raw material, primar-ily silicon, where defect-free crystals have increased in diameter from one or two cen-timetres in diameter in the early years to over 300 millimetres today.

But standards also apply to the conversion of raw material into planar substrates by cutting and chemo-mechan-ical polishing (examples of relevant stan-dards are the ISO 13565 series, Geomet-rical Product Specifications (GPS) Sur-face texture : Profile method; Surfaces having stratified functional properties) and to the design and operation of the FABS (Fabrication facilities) where the devices are manufactured. As device siz-es have become smaller, the acceptable levels of contamination, both chemical and particulate, have had to be reduced to vanishingly small levels, e.g. the ultra-clean areas of modern FABS that oper-ate at ISO Class 1 (less than 1 particle exceeding 0.5 micron per cubic metre – as specified in the ISO 14644 standards series, Cleanrooms and associated con-trolled environments).

It is expected that standards will also play a major role in the nanotechnol-ogy era as new and diverse materials and fabrications techniques are introduced into the semiconductor industry.

Figure 1 – The ideal MOS transistor.

Fully surrounding metal electrode

High-K gate insulator

Band engineered semiconductor

Fully enclosed depleted semiconductor

Low resistance source/drain

Metal

Source Drain

Gate insulator


Nan

otechnologies

Nanotechnology, development, and standardization : Opportunities for developing countries

by Tim Mealey, Leili Fatehi, Todd Barker and Rex Raimond, Meridian Institute

M illions of people worldwide continue to lack access to safe water, reliable sources of

energy, healthcare, education, and other basic human development needs. Since 2000, the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) have set targets for meeting these needs.

In recent years, an increasing number of government, scientific, and institutional reports have concluded that nanotechnology can make signif-icant contributions to alleviating pov-erty and achieving the MDGs. How-ever, some of these as well as other reports have also identified potential risks of nanotechnology for develop-ing countries.2)

Perceived by many as the next “transformative technology”, like electricity or the internet, nanotech-nology encompasses a broad range of tools, techniques, and applications that manipulate or incorporate mate-rials at the nanoscale (a nanometer is one billionth of a meter) in order to yield novel properties not yet exist-ing at larger scales.

These novel properties can ena-ble new or improved solutions to prob-lems which have been challenging to solve with conventional technology.

For developing countries, these solutions may include more efficient, effective, and inexpensive water purifi-cation devices, energy sources, medical diagnostic tests and drug delivery sys-tems, durable building materials, and other products (see Figure 1).

1) http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/.

2) For instance, UN Millennium Project 2005, “Innovation: Applying Knowledge in Development”, Task Force on Science, Technology, and Innovation, 2005, http://www.unmillenniumproject.org/ reports/reports2.htm; and F. Salamanca-Buentello et al., “ Nanotechnology and the Developing World ”, PLoS Medicine, 2005, http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0020097

MDG 1 : Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

Increase agricultural productivity through :

• Nanoporous materials for slow-release of pesti-

cides, fertilizers, and water

• Nanosensors for soil and plant health monitoring

MDG 4 : Reduce child mortality

MDG 6 : Combat HIV/AIDS and other diseases

Enable medical treatment in remote locations through :

• Lab-on-a-chip systems

• Carbon nanotube and quantum dot-based diagnos-

tic assays for in-situ disease detection

• Nanoencapsulated drugs for targeted delivery and/

or slow and sustained release

• Antibacterial and self-cleaning surfaces and coatings

MDG 7 : Ensure environmental sustainability

Improve water and wastewater treatment through :

• Nanofiltration membranes for desalination

• Nanoporous zeolite, polymer, and clay filters

• Nanocatalyst for degradation of contaminants

• Magnetic nanoparticles for contaminant remediation

• Nanosensors for contaminant detection

Numerous MDGs

Provide cheap energy production & storage through :

• Thin-film photovoltaic cells and coatings

• Nanocatalysts for hydrogen generation

• Carbon nanotube- and other nanomaterial-based

hydrogen storage systems

Figure 1 – Nanotechnology and the Millennium Development Goals 1) — Some Examples


Main Focus

About the authorTimothy J. Mealey is a founder and Senior Partner with the Meridian Institute where he, along with his co-authors, serves as a facilitator of

policy dialogues and negotiations that help decision makers and diverse stakeholders solve some of society’s most contentious and complex public policy issues. Meridian has been involved in several nanotechnology-related efforts including, most recently, the Water Workshop of Meridian’s Global Dialogue on Nanotechnology and the Poor. Meridian has also served as the lead facilitator of the first two International Dialogues on Responsible Research and Development of Nanotechnology, the Dialogue Series on Nanotechnology and Federal Regulation with the Woodrow Wilson Center, the kick-off meeting of the International Council on Nanotechnology, and the International Risk Governance Council’s Workshop on Nanotechnology and Risk Governance.

Additionally, nanotechnology may significantly increase develop-ing countries’ production capacities by enabling manufacturing processes that create less pollution and have modest capital, land, labor, energy, and mate-rial requirements.

Both the public and private sec-tors in developed and developing coun-tries are investing heavily in nanotech-nology research and development.

More than 20 countries, includ-ing developing countries such as Chi-na, South Africa, Brazil, and India, have national nanotechnology pro-grams, and many more are developing or expanding nanotechnology research and development capacity.

The collective public and private sector investment in 2005 was approx-imately US$10 billion, up 20 % com-pared to 2004.3)

In addition, the number of pat-ents on nanotechnology-related inven-tions (including those from developing country researchers),4) scientific liter-ature citations (now up to 12 000 pub-lications per year),5) and nanotechnol-ogy-based products reaching the mar-ket are skyrocketing globally.

Governments, regulatory agen-cies, standardization bodies, companies, NGOs, academia, international institu-tions, and other stakeholders have ini-tiated a number of efforts to discuss, develop, and implement risk assess-ment, governance, standardization, and communication strategies to manage these potential implications.

Despite these efforts, there are few processes to engage multiple stake-holders in addressing the opportunities and risks of nanotechnology for devel-oping countries.

Our analysis of the current dynam-ics and changing landscape of nanotech-nology, informed by the GDNP and oth-er processes, leads us to conclude that there is a pressing need for innovative approaches to enhance the role of devel-oping countries in responsible nanotech-nology innovation and development.

Much more attention needs to be paid to the development of appropriate and safe products targeted to meet crit-ical human development needs.

The rise in nanotechnology investment and proliferation of appli-cations have contributed to growing international dialogue about implica-tions of this rapid evolution, including potential near- and long-term socio-economic disruptions, human health and environmental risks, and ethical, legal, and trade impacts.

Moreover, where processes do exist to identify linkages between nano-technology and development, these activi-ties remain disengaged from the predom-inant risk assessment, governance, stand-ardization, and other key initiatives.

These gaps are a significant concern, as current decisions in both developed and developing countries may result in policies, practices and systems that have long-term impacts on whether nanotechnology will help or hinder the effort to address human development needs.

To address this need, Meridi-an Institute has convened the Global Dialogue on Nanotechnology and the Poor : Opportunities and Risks (GDNP) to bridge these gaps through a variety of strategies that raise awareness about the implications of nanotechnology for developing countries and to help address opportunities and risks, and identify ways that science and technology can facilitate the development process.

The success of the GDNP in bringing together people with diverse perspectives to discuss nanotechnology and development issues in general, and applications related to water purification in particular, has resulted in the identi-fication of a number of priority cross-cutting issues related to nanotechnolo-gy and development (Figure 2).

“ For developing countries, these solutions may include

more efficient, effective, and inexpensive water purification devices.”

3) M. W. Holman, et al., “The Nanotech Report, 4th Edition”, 2006, Lux Research.

4) K.A. Singh, “Intellectual Property in the Nanotechnology Economy”, 2007, Institute of Nanotechnology.

5) V. Colvin, “Responsible Nanotechnology: Looking Beyond the Good News”, 2002, EurekAlert, http://www.eurekalert.org/context.php?context=nano&show=essays&essaydate=1102.

(Continued on page 34)


Nan

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Systematic activities to increase knowledge and apply it to the (further) development of new

applications. In the context of the workshop, participants focused on assessing the maturity of specific

nanotechnology applications and the steps that would be necessary for further development.

Potential harm that may arise from a material, combined with probability of an event (e.g. exposure).

In the context of this document, the focus is on potential risks to the environment, human health or

worker safety.

Impacts on individuals, institutions, or society resulting from a policy or project (e.g., the introduction of

a product, of a market intervention) such as price changes, welfare changes, and employment changes.

A branch of philosophy concerned with evaluating human action, in particular what is considered right or

wrong based on reason. In the context of nanotechnology, ethical questions have focused, for instance,

on applications related to human enhancement and performance, privacy questions resulting from

research into nanotechnology monitoring systems, and questions about possible malevolent or military

uses of nanotechnologies.

Intellectual property rights (IPRs) are legal protections for intellectual property claimed by individuals

or institutions. Copyrights, patents and trademarks are common mechanisms for protecting intellectual

property. IPRs are intended to spur innovation and commercialization, but may limit the ability of

individuals and institutions to access technology.

Processes that affect whether and how individuals participate in societal discourse, including public

information, public education, and public discussion and dialogue regarding nanotechnology.

Processes, conventions, and institutions that determine how power is exercised to manage resourc-

es and societal interests, how important decisions are made and conflicts resolved, how interactions

among and between the key actors in society are organized and structured, and how resources, skills

and capabilities are developed and mobilized for reaching desired outcomes. This includes risk gover-

nance (i.e., comprehensive assessment and management strategies to cope with risk) and governance

for innovation (i.e., programs targeting nanotechnology R&D for public objectives). Using this definition,

governments, governmental and intergovernmental institutions, as well as public and private

corporations, non-governmental organizations, and informal associations are examples of institutions

involved in governance.

Assistance provided to develop a certain skill or competence, including policy and legal assistance,

institutional development, human resources development, and strengthening of managerial systems.

Collaborative partnerships between individuals, and institutions from developed and developing

countries at a local, national, regional level on any aspect of nanotechnology, including North-South

(i.e., developed and developing) and South-South (i.e., developing and developing).

The ability to scale-up production and distribution of products so they reach large numbers of people

(i.e., success not limited to pilot projects) and the sustainability of products, which relate to numerous

factors including, for example, costs, ease of use, and durability.

Product research & development

Environmental, human

health, & safety risks

Socio-economic

issues

Ethics

Intellectual property

rights & access

Public participation

& engagement

Governance

Capacity building

International collabora-

tion & cooperation

Scalability, delivery, &

sustainability

Figure 2 – Cross-cutting nanotechnology issues


Main Focus

Additionally, standards and methods are needed for assessing and addressing the safety, appropriate-ness, accessibility, and sustainability of nanotechnology products that are aimed at meeting the needs of devel-oping countries.

It is not yet clear whether those standards and methods should be the same for all countries or if there is a need for differentiation depending on needs and conditions in different countries.

There is, however, an urgent need for processes that allow devel-oping countries to explore and clari-fy cross-cutting issues in their specific contexts, better link developing coun-tries to existing international initiatives, and develop broadly supported policy and practice frameworks.

Standardization has the poten-tial to facilitate better collaboration and communication between individ-uals in different countries and in dif-ferent disciplines and to enable the participation of developing countries in on-going international initiatives that will guide nanotechnology poli-cies and practices.

Additionally, standardization is important to ensuring that develop-ing countries researching and devel-oping nanotechnology can contribute and have access to toxicology studies, as well as information on best prac-tices for nanomaterials handling, dis-posal, etc.

In combination with other glo-bal processes, standardization will be critical to the development of infra-structures (e.g., tools, training, research frameworks, regulations and regulato-ry bodies) that suit the needs of devel-oping countries for solving develop-ment problems.

However, to achieve these goals, it will be necessary for the leading standardization institutions, such as ISO, to ensure adequate participation from developing countries and other stakeholders.

Is very small still beautiful ? An NGO’s view of nanotechnologies

by David J. Grimshaw, International Team Leader (New Technologies Programme), Practical Action, Schumacher Centre for Technology and Development

Introduction

The founder of Practical Action, Fritz Schumacher, has often been quoted as advocating, “ small is

beautiful ”. He wrote before the micro-processor had achieved widespread use let alone thoughts of nanoscale engineering.

There is little doubt that informa-tion and communications technologies have had a large impact on the lives of most people living in northern countries. But is the same true of those who live in poor countries ?

Each wave of technology brings with it promises of a better life for everyone, but technology can also reinforce existing divisions of wealth and access to resources.

It is now timely to question how the next technological wave, nano-technology, will impact the lives of the poor. Another important question is how can standards have a positive effect on their lives.

As a science, nanoscience is defined by size. The British Royal Society defines nanoscience and nanotechnology as involving studying and working with matter on an ultra-small scale (a nanometer is 1 millionth of a millimetre).

Perhaps it is the small-scaled nature of nanotechnology that instinc-tively alerts us to potential danger ; the threat from something we cannot see or touch leaves us without traditional ways of understanding it.


Nan

otechnologies

This article reviews the role of technology in improving the lives of the poor and makes a case for changing the way society views new technologies. The article also discusses the role that standards might play in the future to promote appropriate access to tech-nologies for all.

Technology and international development

The publication of Harness-ing Science, Technology, and Innova-tion for Sustainable Development, a report from the International Council for Science (2005) is the latest in a series of high-profile reports examin-ing the role of technology in sustain-able development.

Some argue that developing countries lack an infrastructure base for exploiting technology and suggest increased investment in universities.

At the centre of these delibera-tions as pointed out by Sachs (2005) “ the single most important reason why prosperity spread, and why it continues to spread, is the transmission of technolo-gies and the ideas underlying them ”.

Clearly the promise of technol-ogy for solving poverty in the world is widely recognized as being great. Why is there a failure to deliver on these promises ?

Traditional views of technology that rely on a linear model of innova-tion and diffusion are not necessarily appropriate to programmes that aim to respond to new technologies. The predominant traditional view has been based on technological determinism without necessarily taking into account the social environment in which a technical system operates.

or technical infrastructure, but also the information, knowledge and skills which surround the technology, and the capacity to organize and use these.

The role of standardsIt is often argued that standards

help in the transfer of technology to developing countries. But the use of technologies in developing countries has less to do with the transfer of tech-nology and more to do with the obsta-cles in the methods of diffusion of that technology.

The world view on which this philosophy is based is predominantly in developed countries, where power is vested in global enterprises with large research and development budgets, and where markets have developed to approximate monopoly conditions.

An example of this is the domi-nation of Microsoft in the market for software, one that relies on the emer-gence of a de facto standard.

An alternative view of technology is required looking at the social processes in which technologies are embedded. This alternative view must recognize the role of the user and the context provided by the cultural and political environment in which the user is based.

Practical Action views “ technol-ogy ” as not only meaning the hardware

Standards tend to focus on the hardware, yet hardware is only one component of technology diffusion.

Nanotechnology standards lag behind product development. Whilst recognizing the participatory approach that is needed to develop international-ly-agreed standards, the time-lag runs the risk of allowing de facto standards to emerge from the market.

Furthermore, there may be a lack of attention to the ethical issues surrounding the introduction of prod-ucts containing nanoparticles.

During the product development cycle, testing needs to be carried out, for example, toxicology. After evidence is collected and reviewed, risks to the environment and public health need to be recognized.

About the authorDr. David J. Grimshaw is International Team Leader (New Technologies Programme) with Practical Action (previously the Intermediate

Technology Development Group) and is visiting fellow at Cranfield School of Management, United Kingdom. Recently completed research includes Connecting the First Mile, Podcasting in the Andes, and Nano-dialogues in Zimbabwe. Dr. Grimshaw is currently collaborating with the Universities of Sussex, Lancaster and Durham on an Economic and Social Research Council funded project (United Kingdom) entitled, “ Delivering Public Value from New Technologies ”.

Part of the nano-dialogues held in Harare, Zimbabwe, July 2006.


Main Focus

Generally, open standards are to be welcomed for the potential contri-bution to the international development agenda, for example, in the domain of software production, open source facilitates local language implemen-tation and helps promote local sup-port infrastructures.

Nanotechnology as an opportunity or threat ?

Nanotechnology has been the focus of much attention in recent years, including a report from the British Royal Society (2004:52) which says that : “… concerns have been raised over the potential for nanotechnologies to intensify the gap between rich and poor countries because of their different capacities to develop and exploit nanotechnologies, leading to a so-called nanodivide ”.

The challenge for developing countries is to find ways in which new technologies can be diffused faster than has been the case with earlier technolo-gies. Public engagement needs to hap-pen early in the technology develop-ment process.

In the absence of such initiatives, it is all too easy to observe extreme posi-tions being taken on a whole range of new technologies, for example, the Cape Town Declaration (Biowatch, 2002). Yet to date there has been little atten-tion given to the impact of nanotech-nologies on developing countries, with the exception of some think tanks and non-governmental organ-izations.

I n 2 0 0 6 , researchers from Demos, Practical Action and the Uni-versity of Lancaster, United Kingdom, col-laborated on a process designed to engage Zimbabwean com-munity groups and scientists from both the developed and developing countries in debates about new nanotechnologies.

The dialogue was one of four “ experiments ”, referred to as the nano-dialogues, in public engagement with nanotechnologies, funded by the Unit-ed Kingdom’s Office of Science and Technology’s Sciencewise programme. Sciencewise was created to foster inter-action between scientists, government and the public on impacts of science and technology.

The provision of clean water to both rural and peri-urban communities in Zimbabwe is complex and the systems approach to analysis of the topics dis-cussed in the dialogues has provided a comprehensive overview of the situation capturing the complexity and inter-related issues in relation to the problem.

technology to water services. Figure 1 shows a conceptual model that illus-trates the ways in which water supply, culture and technology interact.

There is also a need for a great-er democratization of decision-making in developing new technologies. It is possible to identify research and devel-opment priorities with greater citizen involvement, rather than introducing the broader community into the debate on how to live with technologies that have already been developed and implement-ed to maximize profit and not to meet community needs.

We should work towards a world where science-led new technologies deliver products that fulfil human needs rather than market wants.

ConclusionsNanotechnology presents many

challenges to those who think that it can be a tool to reduce poverty. The promise of many new technologies has been high, yet the ability to deliver sustainable change in the lives of poor people has been limited.

At the same time the very models and assumptions underpinning much of international development have been economic growth and this article makes the case for a new paradigm based on enabling choices to fulfil the needs of citizens and communities.

This requires a move away from the supply-driven paradigm, delivering products to a mar-ket at a price, which maximizes profits for the owners of intellectual capital. Issues relating to the role of standards, in this development context, have been raised.

Figure 1 – Conceptual Model illustrating how water supply, culture and technology interact.

(see legends lower right)

The modelling of the problem was helpful in identifying the three sub-systems needing attention, focusing on water supply, culture and technology. Furthermore, we were able to focus on both economic and behavioural chang-es required for the application of nano-

“ Public engagement needs to happen early in the

technology development process.”

Appreciate the reasons why the water

is not clean

Decide the volume of water

to be cleaned

Design infrastructural

change

Understand the parameters of the toxicity

Design the nano-product

Test the nano-product

Define the nano-product

Define behavioural change

needed

Define economic change

needed Water supply

Technology

Culture


Nan

otechnologies

The economic potential of nanotechnology and the enabler function of standardization

by Knut Blind, Professor of Innovation Economics at the Faculty of Economics and Management at the Berlin University of Technology and head of Regulation and New Markets at the Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research

Nanotechnology is widely viewed as a key emerging technology, with far-reaching implications

for virtually all other technologies and every economic sector. This broad poten-tial leads to huge expectations regard-ing market volumes, and to larger esti-mates of high ranges and variances in the predicted numbers.

This article presents some fore-casts on the general economic poten-tial of nanotechnology, looking at dif-ferent sectors, and concludes with the role of standardization to allow exploi-tation of these future markets.

Hullmann (2006) presents an overview of the forecasts of world mar-ket volumes of nanotechnology up to 2015.1) In this estimate, the economic value of these products ranges from a minimum of USD 500 billion to a high of nearly USD 3 trillion.

These general figures by them-selves do not say a great deal about the challenges for standardization in nanotechnology. To help distinguish the broad concept of nanotechnology into less abstract and more concrete subfields, Lux Research in 2004 pre-sented the report “ Sizing Nanotech-nology’s Value Chain ”, which sepa-rates nanomaterials and intermediate products from final goods.

Nanomaterials are generally defined as structures of matter with a dimension of less than 100 nano-metres that exhibit size-dependent properties, such as the often-cited carbon nanotubes. Nanointermedi-ates are intermediate products incor-porating nanomaterials or constructed with nanoscale features, for instance nanocatalysts to convert heavy oils into usable fuels.

Nano-enabled products are fin-ished goods at the end of a value chain

1 Hullmann, A. (2006): The economic development of nanotechnology - An indicator-based analysis, Brussels: European Commission, DG Research.

Figure 1 – World market forecasts for nanotechnology in USD billions. Source: Hullmann 2006

20012002

20032004

20052006

20072008

20092010

20112012

20132014

2015

Optimistic scenario

Pessimistic scenario

•• •• •• • ••• • •

••

••••••

•

•

•••

3,000

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

0


Main Focus

that incorporate nanomaterials or nano-intermediates, including familiar products such as cars, computers or pharmaceuti-cals. Across this value chain are located nanotools, which are technical instruments and software used to visualize, manipu-late, and model matter at the nanoscale. This includes tools such as atomic force microscopes and special software.

In its analyses regarding the future economic prospects of nanotech-nology, Lux Research differentiates among three broad industry sectors :

1) materials and manufacturing,

2) electronics and IT, and

3) healthcare and life sciences.

Prospects for the future Hullmann’s 2006 overview of

the approach applied by Lux Research shows the most promising prospects currently available for future devel-opment in the nanotechnology mar-ket. The model indicates a first phase up to 2004 with some nanotechnology incorporated in a few selected high-tech products. The next phase, through 2009, will bring breakthroughs for nanotech-nology innovations, especially nano-electronics. In a third phase, from 2010 onward, nanotechnology will become commonplace in manufactured goods, with healthcare and life science appli-cations entering the pharmaceutical and medical devices markets.

Nanobiotechnologies will con-tribute significantly to developments in the pharmaceutical industry. Basic nanomaterials as such will begin to lose importance at this point. In 2004, Lux Research estimated market share for nanotechnology products of 4 % of general manufactured products in 2014. This implies that nanotechnology will hold an overall share of 15 % of global manufacturing output in 2014.

cerning the use of nanoscale phenom-ena for certain commercial purposes.4) However, the economic benefits of nanotechnology can only be realized if the successes in basic and applied research can be transferred to inno-vative products broadly accepted by users and consumers.

There are various channels of technology transfer, ranging from research results in scientific journals, through patent applications and the creation of start-up companies. But the role of standardization as an instru-ment of technology transfer has been largely neglected.

The publication of formal stand-ards (rather than company-specific pro-prietary standards) by ISO, the European standardization organizations or nation-al standardization bodies, contributes to the generation of framework conditions, assisting actors in research and devel-opment as well as companies and their respective users and consumers.

Figure 2 – The Nanotechnology Value Chain. Source Lux Research 2004“Quality and safety standards can also be

utilized in nanotechnology as an instrument to protect

users and consumers.”

In order to realize these high growth rates in nanotechnology, a qual-ified work force is required. It is esti-mated that two million nanotechnol-ogy workers will be needed by 20152), Lux Research (2004) even predicts that 10 million manufacturing jobs will be related to nanotechnology at this time, representing 10 % of all manufactur-ing jobs.

These promising economic devel-opments of nanotechnology generated a massive increase of public funding for nanotechnology research in order to secure major market shares in the various future markets for nanotechnology.

Since the beginning of the 1990s, the efforts to research nanotechnology have drastically increased worldwide. In Germany, almost EUR 300 m poured into public research and development programmes in 2004. The United King-dom spent EUR 133m, France EUR 220 m in the same period. Together with the expenditure of EUR 370 m by the European Commission, the expendi-ture in Europe almost matches that of the USA of more than EUR 1 200 mil-lion, taking the federal and state level together.3)

Consequently, corresponding-ly significant advances were made in recent years, not only regarding the understanding of the structures and processes at the atomic and molecu-lar level (nanoscience), but also con-

2) See Roco, M.C. (2003) : Converging science and technology at the nanoscale : opportunities for education and training. In: Nature Biotechnology, 21, pp. 1247-1249.

3) European Commission (2005) : Some Figures about Nanotechnology R&D in Europe and Beyond, Brussels: European Commission, Research DG.

4) See the publication and patents statistics e.g. in Hullmann (2006).

Nanoscale structures in unprocessed form

Finished goods incorporating nanotechnology

Intermediate products with nanoscale features

Nanomaterials Nanointermediates Nano-enabledproducts

Nanoparticles, nanotubes, quantum dots, fullerenes, dendrimers, nanoporous materials, etc.

Coatings, fabrics, memory and logic chips, contrast media, optical components, orthopedic materials, superconducting wires, etc.

Cars, clothing, airplanes, computers, consumer electronic devices, pharmaceuticals, processed food, plastic containers, appliances, etc.

Nanotools

Atomic force microscopes, nanoimprint lithography equipment, molecular modeling software, etc.

Capital equipment and software used to visualize, manipulate and model matter

at the nanoscale


Nan

otechnologies

Nanotechnology standards

The important function not only of standards, but also of the standardi-zation process as a consensus-building process has been neglected in many publicly funded research and develop-ment initiatives, for example Germany spent a significant amount of public funds in nanotechnology research, but neglected the promotion of standard-ization processes for a long time.5) It has only been two years since nation-

About the authorProf. Dr. Knut Blind studied economics, political science and psychology at Freiburg University in Germany, also spending one year at Brock University in

Canada, where he was awarded a BA. After receiving his Diploma in Economics at Freiburg University, he took a position as research fellow at the Institute for Public Finance at Freiburg University. His doctoral thesis, an economic analysis of security problems in information and communication networks, was awarded the F. A. v. Hayek Prize of the Economics Faculty of the University of Freiburg. In 1996, he joined the Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research in Karlsruhe, Germany as a senior researcher. He was appointed deputy head of the department “ Innovation Systems and Policy ” in 2001. In parallel, he lectured on economics at the Economics Faculty of Kassel University and became reader in economics based on his habilitation thesis on the economics of standards in December 2003. In 2006, Dr. Blind was appointed Professor of Innovation Economics at the Faculty of Economics and Management at the Berlin University of Technology and head of the department, Regulation and New Markets of the Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research. In addition to numerous articles on standardization, he has published papers on intellectual property rights and further innovation aspects in journals.

al activities began in nanotechnology standardization.

While the future market potential of possible applications for nanotech-nology cannot yet be judged precise-ly, it is safe to say it will be of great economic significance simply because of this wide range of possible appli-cations. An important instrument for the creation of new markets is relevant standards or regulations.

In order to determine the need for standardization in nanotechnology to create and shape future markets sys-tematically 6), standards are character-ized according to their economic func-tions.7) The following categories can be differentiated :

• measurement and testing standards (including terminology)

• quality and safety standards

• compatibility and interface stand-ards.

Below the relevance of various standard types for nanotechnology is discussed with the possible need for further standards.8)

The first step in facilitating com-munication and cooperation in nanotech-nology is to reach agreement on termi-nology. This will influence patent awards and patent research, as well as other intel-lectual property rights and their commer-cial applications. Existing bibliometric and patent statistic investigations show that there are significant differences in the definition of nanotechnology.

As the advance into new size dimensions is ultimately the main char-acteristic of nanotechnology, agreement must be reached about new measurement and testing procedures, which are a nec-essary condition, not only for scientific progress, but also for the commercial application of nanotechnology.

Quality and safety standards can also be utilized in nanotechnology as an instrument to protect users and consumers, as the expected benefits of nanotechnology are accompanied by potential risks. Acceptance for nan-otechnology in some sections of soci-ety is placed in question, above all on account of the unexplained impacts of so-called nanoparticles. 9)

The European Commission underlines the health and safety aspects in the communication “Towards a Euro-pean strategy for nanotechnology” (2004). The survey of the Nanoforum shows that the great majority of the actors in this Network of Excellence see the need for risk assessments with nanomaterials, and they support the development of standards as appro-priate solution strategies. 10)

Standardization processes, which integrate the representatives of concerned groups such as consumer associations and trade unions, lead to corresponding safe-ty standards. By complementing compul-sory regulations, these standards can fur-ther a growing acceptance of processes and products based on nanomaterials. In the context of nanotechnology, it must be explicitly emphasised that for new tech-nologies, standardization processes which effectively and efficiently monitor R&D activities can react more flexibly and rap-idly to the dynamic technological devel-opments than regulation.

The need for compatibility and interface standards in the nanotechnol-ogy field will become relevant soon when corresponding systems are devel-oped out of nanoscale component parts.

5) See Blind, K.; Gauch, S. (2006) : Die Schnitt-stelle zwischen Forschung und Normung in der Nanotechnologie : Probleme und Lösungsmöglich-keiten. In : DIN-Mitteilungen, Mai, pp. 22-26.

6) See an overview of their general market creating and shaping function in Blind et al. (2004) New Products and Services : Analysis of regulations shaping new markets, European Commission DG Enterprise (ed.), Luxembourg.

7) See Tassey, G. (2000) : Standardization in Technology-Based Markets. In : Research Policy, 29 (4/5), pp. 587-602

8) See Blind, K. (2005) : Normen für die Nanotechnologie. In : DIN-MItteilungen (3), pp. 30-33. The other contributions to the special issue present in more detail ongoing standardization initiatives. Therefore, we leave out specific references.

9) See Hüsing, B. et al. (2002) : Technikakzeptanz und Nachfragemuster als Standortvorteil, Fraunhofer-Institut für Systemtechnik und Innovationsforschung (ISI) (ed.), Karlsruhe : Fraunhofer ISI.

10) See Malsch, I. and Oud, M. (2004) : Outcome of the Open Consultation on the European Strategy for Nanotechnology.


Main Focus

One example of this is the nanoscale structuring in chip manufacturing or in the development of new computer hard disks.

In contrast to the already numer-ous initiatives undertaken in the area of terminology and measurement and testing standards, there are currently only a few initiatives for compatibili-ty and interface standards. These stand-ards, however, are crucial in the “take-off phase” of a market, bringing about positive network effects and facilitating transitions from old to new technology generations. In addition, product diver-sity can be increased in systemic goods composed of several components.

This brief overview of the cur-rent future need for standards in nano-technology on the basis of a simple, functionally structured typology dem-onstrates not only the varied needs, but also time-related priorities. Standard-izing new terms emerging in this field would mean efficiency gains in com-munication and cooperation, not only in research, but also in commercial applications of nanotechnology.

Agreements on measurement and testing methods in the nanoscale world are another precondition for fur-ther scientific gains in the nanosciences, as well as the commercial application of nanotechnology. Societal acceptance of products based on nanomaterials is a necessary prerequisite for their com-mercial success. Accordingly, the risks to health and the environment must be identified and mitigated.

Traditional governmental regu-lations will be unavoidable; however, these initiatives can be complement-ed by the development of quality and safety standards able to adapt flexibly and rapidly to the latest developments in science and technology.

In terms of self-regulation, standards can also relieve the burden of the public sector in the regulation of fields affected by nanotechnology. For the fast diffusion of entire systems which are composed of single compo-nents made of nanomaterials, compat-ibility and interface standards in par-ticular will be required in a later phase of the technology cycle.

Social and ethical issues of nanotechnologies

by Dr. Gregor Wolbring, Researcher, University of Calgary, and member of the Canadian Advisory Committee for ISO/TC 229, Nanotechnologies

Nanotechnology has huge posi-tive potential, however bring-ing this to fruition depends on

the right social environment and fore-sight to identify societal and other problems, as well as the willingness of international and national bodies to address them.

Many nano-taxonomies exist which highlight numerous fields, processes and products. An evalua-tion of nano as a whole is difficult, if not impossible. Every nano field, process and product has to be eval-uated differently as each poses dis-tinct challenges.

Nano evaluations become even more multifaceted if one takes into account that different nano fields, pro-cesses and products allow for inter-action and convergence with other technologies and sciences.

Nano-applicationsNumerous lists of anticipated

nanoproducts exist. Applications and products are envisioned in areas such as the environment, energy, water, military, globalization, agriculture, and health (e.g., more efficient diag-nostics and genetic testing, cognitive enhancement ; life extension, and enhancing human performance in general).

A recent survey concluded that the top 10 nanotechnology appli-cations for development are :

• energy storage, production and con-version ;

• agricultural productivity enhance-ment ;

• water treatment and remediation ;

• disease diagnosis and screening ;

• drug delivery systems ;

• food processing and storage ;

• air pollution and remediation ;

• construction ;

• health monitoring ;

• Vector and pest detection and control.

The UN Millennium Project’s Task Force on Science, Technology and Innovation identifies nanotechnol-ogy as an important tool for address-ing poverty and achieving the Mil-lennium Development Goals.


Nan

otechnologies

Areas of action of nanotechnology• Nanotechnology and the converging

of nano with other technologies for development

• The UN Millennium Development Goals

• Global medical and social health

• Accessibility

• Law

• Water and sanitation

• Disaster management

• Weapons/war

• Ethics/philosophy

• Social science/anthropology

• Community

• Networking

Here the new ISO/TC 223, Societal security, can be of value in terms of addressing emergency preparedness and management when natural disaster strikes. Health security is addressed to some degree by ISO’s work on medical devices and food security by the ISO 22000 series on food safety management systems.

About the authorGregor Wolbring is a biochemist, bioethicist, governance of science and technology and ability studies scholar, and health policy researcher at the

University of Calgary. He is among others a member of the Center for Nanotechnology and Society at Arizona State University; a member of the Canadian Advisory Committees for ISO/TC 229, Nanotechnologies, as well as on the editorial team for the Nanotechnology for Development portal of the Development Gateway Foundation ; Chair of the Bioethics Taskforce of Disabled People’s International ; and member of the Executive of the Canadian Commission for UNESCO. He publishes the Bioethics, Culture and Disability website www.bioethicsanddisability.org, the biweekly column The Choice is Yours: http://www.innovationwatch.com/commentary_choiceisyours.htm. and a blog on new and emerging technologies at www.wolbring.wordpress.com

Medicine is, in most developed countries, the largest or second larg-est nanotechnology application. A variety of nanomedicine taxonomies and nanomedicine roadmaps exist and numerous applications are envisioned, in development, or already in use :

The question is, how to ensure that all can benefit ? With several com-mittees dealing with medical devices, ISO can help provide a multi-stake-holder platform for technical guidance in the areas of its competencies.

How is one to deal with the numerous nano fields, processes and products ? One way is to highlight gen-eral societal and ethical problems that all or most of the nano fields, processes and products face.

Impacts of nanotechnology

Science and technology, including nanotechnology use, research, and develop-ment, embody and shape the perspectives, purposes, prejudices, particular objec-tives, and cultural, economical, ethical, moral, spiritual, and political frameworks of different social groups and society at large. Nanotechnology influences, and is influenced by, a variety of discourses and areas of action (see boxes).

To highlight a few areas :

Personal, worker safety, environmen-tal, and ecosystem safety: Every prod-uct and process enabled by the different areas of nanotechnology and the con-verging of nano with other technologies will affect everyone if the products are environmentally and medically unsafe. Some efforts are underway to look into and deal with this type of safety. For example, ISO/TC 229, Nanotechnolo-gies, has a working group on health, safety and the environment.

Human security: The governance of and debate around nanotechnology and the converging of nano with other tech-nologies impacts human security which entails according to the Commission for Human Security : economic, food, health, environmental, personal, community, and political security, as well as freedom from fear and freedom from want.

Regarding environmental stand-ards, the ISO 14000 environmental man-agement standards the work of ISO/TC 207, Environmental management, has developed standards for environmental management systems, environmental auditing and performance evaluation, product labeling, life cycle assessment, greenhouse gas reporting and others which can facilitate better environ-mental management practices to help ensure environmental security.

“ Human security is concerned with safeguarding and expanding peo-ple’s vital freedoms. It requires both shielding people from acute threats and empowering people to take charge of their own lives. Needed are integrated policies that focus on people’s survival,

Mutually influencing areas of discourse on nanotechnology• Human security

• Religion, faith, traditional knowledge, theology

• Biodiversity

• Inequity

• Ethics

• Law

• Raising acceptance for a given technology

• Language

• Self perception and identity (body politics)

• Interpreting international treaties

• Governance

• Evaluation, measuring, analysis, and outcome tools

• Trade


Main Focus

livelihood and dignity, during downturns as well as in prosperity.” (from the 2003 Commission on Human Security Report: Human Security Now).

Furthermore, nanotechnology and the converging of nano with other technologies is increasingly leading to products which pose new and unique challenges to human security. The increased ability of nano and other sci-ence and technology R&D products to modify the appearance and functioning of the human body and the bodies of other species beyond existing norms and species-typical boundaries leads to a changed understanding of oneself, one’s body, and one’s relationship with others of one’s species, other species and one’s environment. One might be forced to enhance one’s body beyond the species’ typical boundaries in order to obtain a job, income and other essentials. One might be seen as deficient by others if one does not obtain the bodily enhancements. This may affect an individual’s sense of self and lower the persons self esteem.

Social cohesion Until now, introduction of

inventions have been slow enough to allow society to integrate new science and technologies into their social fabric and social contract.

The speed of these cycles has been steadily increasing, however, allowing less time to evaluate how new science and technology products affect social cohesion and the social contract, and how negative impacts can be mitigated and positive impacts enhanced.

Nanotechnology and the converg-ing of nano with other technologies impacts nearly all of the indicators used to measure social cohesion and social well-being.

It will be interesting to see whether ISO 26000 would set a mod-el that could be followed to address human security, social cohesion and other societal issues.

Such approach might prove to be helpful to address products and processes enabled by the differ-ent areas of nanotechnology and the

converging of nano with other tech-nologies, which might be applied in fields where significant societal con-cerns exist (e.g. the military, surveil-lance and security fields), helping to increase the potentially positive and to decrease the potentially negative soci-etal impact of nanotechnology.

Nanoformulated and atomic commodities

Moving from nature-based com-modities (i.e., copper, rubber) towards nano-formulated commodities, towards atomic commodities (molecular manu-facturing) will impact the demand and export capabilities for nature-based com-modities, especially, from low income countries as it will change the commod-ity market and, in the end, the nature of trade.

have to be available to people in low income countries. There are two initia-tives which try to find ways to increase innovation and affordable production and products in low income countries. CAMBIA, a non-profit biotech research organization developed the Biological Innovation for Open Society (BiOS) to tackle the problem of lack of produc-tion and research. They propose a pro-tected commons to modify the patent concept which in their eyes allows for an increase in innovation especially in low income countries.

The World Health Assembly adopted a resolution last May (WHA59.24) creating a working group to develop a global strategy on intellectual proper-ty, health research and development, and new medicines for diseases that especially affect developing countries. The CAMBIA approach and the World Health Assembly resolution apply to many nanoproducts and processes.

ConclusionThis article highlights only a

few ethical and social issues. Nanotech-nology alone and in convergence with other sciences and technologies can only reach its full potential with changes in innovation and govern-ance and distribution behaviours.

The negative implications of nanotechnologies such as military products, unsafe nanoproducts, inno-vation and distribution unbalance, and threats to human security can best be tackled with an open transparent process and public debate.

Across all regions of the world, international bodies must initiate the debate now. All countries have to involve their educational institu-tions and the public for the scien-tific, legal, economic, ethical, and social evaluation of nanotechnolo-gy and its convergence with other technologies.

Many positive and negative potentials, and the ethical and social issues of molecular manufacturing can be found on the Web page of the Center for Responsible Nanotechnology:

Many say that molecular manu-facturing will not happen soon, how-ever, research is funded in this area. Furthermore, even if molecular manu-facturing is not happening, the change in the properties of nanoformulated commodities still will change the commodity market.

AvailabilityIf the previously highlighted

top 10 nanotechnology applications for development are to be of any use, it is evident that the processes, productions and research have to happen also in low income countries and not only in high income countries and that the products

“ Applications and products are envisioned in areas

such as the environment, energy, water, military

applications, globalization, agriculture, and health...”

An online version of the paper with Web links, in-text reference numbering and references can be found at: http://www.bioethicsanddisability.org/isofocus.html


Nan

otechnologies

Nanoscale measurement Important questions at the bottom

by Ben Sheridan, Peter Cumpson and Marc Bailey

Industry has long depended on preci-sion measurement. Scientists must develop new measurement tech-

niques if nanotechnology is to be ful-ly exploited by industry because prin-ciples of measurement that work well at the macroscopic level often become completely unworkable at the nano-scale – around 100 nm and below.

For example, it is virtually impossible to weigh a 10 nm-sized particle with any accuracy. In addition, the production of nanoscale devices often requires many different types of measurement. For example, stand-ard techniques used to make micro-chips generally need accurate length measurements, but the manufacture of electronics at the molecular scale may require magnetic, electrical, mechani-cal and chemical measurements.

An important tool for the nano-metrologist is the micro electrome-

chanical system (MEMS), tiny mechan-ical devices that can easily interface with modern electronics. Because MEMS have features between about 1 and 10 micrometres big, they are small enough to be sensitive to nano-scale forces, but are large enough to be understood in terms of classical physics.

An atomic force microscope (AFM) can generate images of nano-scale features, orders of magnitude below the diffraction limit of optical microscopes. As well as producing images at the nanoscale, the AFM can measure forces and make mechanical measurements. As such it can be used to detect tiny objects such as viruses and bacteria or to identify the components of a polymer blend (see figure above). It can also be used to probe the mechani-cal properties of individual molecules, such as stiffness and binding forces, and therefore improve understanding of many biological processes.

Another option is to measure the thermal vibration of the canti-lever – its Brownian motion. Nancy Burnham at the Worcester Polytech-nic Institute in the US, among others, has shown it is possible to measure the deflection of an AFM cantilever due to just the 1/2kT of thermal ener-gy it possesses.

A third option, demonstrated by Chornghaur Sow and David Grier at the University of Chicago in 1996, involves measuring the deflection of the cantilever in response to radia-tion pressure – the change in photon momentum on reflection of a laser beam of known intensity from the sur-face of the AFM cantilever.

A fourth method is to use a “nanobalance”, another MEMS device. The technique involves calculating the spring constant of the balance by measuring the electrostatic force required to raise the balance by a giv-en height, and then using this balance to calibrate the AFM.

ElectronicsIt is not only in mechanical

measurements that metrologists face significant challenges ; in electronics, the continuous demand for faster and more powerful integrated processors requires continuously reducing the size of features in electronic chips, and therefore increasing the precision with which electrical measurements are made. Within a decade or so, tran-sistors that operate using single elec-trons could be on the market.

The electrical units within our present system of units (the SI) are defined in terms of classical macro-scopic effects. These are not ideally suited to measuring the electrical properties of nanoscale devices, due to the relatively large uncertainties involved in making such measurements.

The spring constant of an atomic force microscope (AFM) can be calculated using a microelectromechanical nanobalance.

This AFM image shows a two-face polymer blend a mixture of two or more polymers used, in this case, to make contact lenses.


The SETSAW device, pictured above, is designed to drive single electrons through a nanometre-wide construction using sound waves that propagate along its surface.

Researchers at Cornell University used the above AFM to detect as few as six virus particles (seen as a yellow disc). They did this by setting the tiny cantilever into resonance and measuring the slight change in resonant frequency as the masses were added.

Main Focus

In practice, voltage and resistance are already measured using quantum phenomena – both having standards related directly to Planck’s constant and the charge on the electron via the quantum Hall effect. The uncertainty with which we can use SI units at the nanoscale is limited by the need to relate these quantum effects to the macroscopic definition of the ampere.

uncharged island prevents other elec-trons from passing through the tun-nel barriers. Single electrons can be “pumped” along a series of SETTs if the voltage across each island is mod-ulated correctly.

Although this technique works well, it can only generate very small currents. These currents are too small to perform the metrological triangle experiment with any useful sensitivity. The pump can be used, however, to place a known amount of charge onto a calibrated capacitor. The resulting DC voltage on the capacitor can be measured with respect to the voltage standard, and this experiment can be viewed as either an indirect realiza-tion of the metrological triangle, or a route to a quantum standard of capacitance.

research is needed to fully understand and optimize the transport mechanism and thus develop a reliable quantum current standard.

Medical measurementsAnother fruitful area of research

for nanometrologists is the detection and identification of different types of biological molecules, which could be useful in the early detection of disease or to determine predisposi-tion to diseases or how they respond to drug treatments.

A quantum standard for current can simply use the fact that charge appears in discrete units: electrons. A device that can transport one elec-tron through a circuit in response to each cycle of a driving frequency f will produce a current I=ef. Meas-urements made using this definition could then be compared against those using the quantum standards for volt-age and resistance using Ohm’s Law, V=IR. This test is often referred to as the “ metrological triangle ”.

However, although the quan-tum standard of current is concep-tually very simple, its realization is a real technological challenge. One approach, pioneered by Neil Zimmer-man and Mark Keller at the National Institute for Standards and Technolo-gy (NIST) in the USA, uses the single electron tunnelling transistor (SETT). In this device a small aluminium island is separated from the environment by aluminium oxide tunnel barriers and maintained below 100 mK. The presence of one extra electron on the

Ben Sheridan, Peter Cumpson and Marc Bailey are at the National Physical Laboratory, United Kingdom, E-mails [email protected], [email protected], marc.bailey @npl.co.uk.

The authors

An alternative method, known as SETSAW, is being investigated by J T Janssen and colleagues at NPL and Mike Pepper and co-workers at Cam-bridge University. It involves gener-ating and controlling single electrons using surface acoustic waves, sound waves that propagate along the sur-face of an object and it is able to per-form the metrological triangle exper-iment at a useful sensitivity.

At present the SETSAW device is less accurate than the SETT device since the surface acoustic wave does not always transport one electron through the channel in each cycle. More

“ It is virtually impossible to weigh a 10 nm-sized

particle with any accuracy.”

In the last few years, research-ers led by Andrew Gu at Texas A&M University and Hagan Bayley at the University of Oxford have developed a way of discriminating between single base differences in DNA strands that are 30 bases long.

Taking a different approach to the detection of single molecules, col-laboration between Imperial College, London, and NPL, led by Lesley Cohen

“ An atomic force microscope (AFM) can

generate images of nanoscale features.”


Nan

otechnologies

and Martin Milton, is developing a technique known as surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy, in which a bio-logical molecule is placed in a solu-tion of silver colloids and bringing the solution close to a roughened metal surface and the incident light creates plasmons that oscillate across the sur-face of the metal.

This amplifies the effective size of signal that the molecule is exposed to and greatly increases the size of the response. This technique is also non-invasive, can work in real time, can be used to observe dynamic pro-cesses and should be applicable to a wide number of systems. It can also be used to measure the chemical prop-erties of a single molecule.

ConclusionThere is much to do in the field

of nanoscale measurement, since our ability to make devices sometimes exceeds our ability to measure what we have made. In addition to the examples discussed in this article, there is also work being carried out on chemical nanometrology, for example George Smith and Alfred Cerezo of Oxford University have developed a 3-D atom probe that can identify the composi-tion and position of particular atoms in a sample.

As a recent report on nanotech-nology from the Royal Society and Royal Academy of Engineering in the United Kingdom said, “nanotech-nnologies, however defined, cannot progress independently of progress in nanometrology”. To successfully develop nanotechnology-based manu-facturing industries, it is vitally impor-tant that research on nanoscale meas-urement is made available to innova-tive manufacturers. This remains the challenge for people working in lead-ing-edge measurement science.

Round-up of regional

and national

developments Nanotechnology in Australiaby John Miles, Chairman, SA TC NT-001, Nanotechnologies

Australia’s research base is very strong and globally competitive, with world-class capabilities in diagnostic devices, nanomaterials, bio-technol-ogy, electronics and photonics, quan-tum computing and energy storage. This effort is supported by some USD 100 million per year for nanotechnol-ogy research and development, well over half of which is through public investment.

Between 1998 and 2003, Aus-tralia produced over 2,500 high qual-ity nanoscience papers focussing on nanomaterials and nanobiotechnology, representing 1,5% of global papers.

The economic potential of this research is being captured by estab-lishing links between industry and the research sectors such that nanotech-nology now forms the core focus for a limited but growing industry base in Australia.

Over 50 Australian nanotech-nology-based firms have been formed during the last 5 years, covering such applications as new materials and particles, medical and pharmaceuti-cal devices and processes, environ-mental and agricultural filters and sensors, and miniature batteries and capacitors.

Opportunities range from improved separation technologies for the mining industry, to better agricul-tural waste management and food safe-ty, as well as nanoparticle applications in cosmetics and sunscreen agents, paint additives and catalysts.

Australia


Australia also has capabilities in structured nanocomposites for aero-space and automotive applications and in the molecular design of water puri-fication and gas separation units for domestic and commercial use.

Generally, five industry sec-tors are considered to have signifi-cant nanotechnology opportunities in Australia, based on the improvements available through current technolo-gy developments. These are miner-als and agribusiness ; medical devices and health; energy and environment; advanced materials and manufactur-ing; and electronics, information and communications technologies.

It is considered vital for a field as dynamic, expensive and multidisci-plinary as nanotechnology that Aus-tralia’s research, development and commercialisation be highly inte-grated with international centres of excellence.

Proximity to leading nanotech-nology nations such as Japan, Korea and Taiwan and to the emerging power-houses of China and India will give Australia many opportunities to partic-ipate in global nanotechnology devel-opment at the highest levels.

In 2006, following a year-long analytic and consultative process, the Australian Government published a report on options for a national nano-technology strategy. The report con-cluded that a national nanotechnolo-gy strategy is necessary to ensure that “ Australians are able to responsibly reap the benefits from nanotechnolo-gy ; that our manufacturing industries are competitive by adopting nano-technologies into their products and processes ; and that our nanoscience base is vibrant and leads the world in areas fundamental to Australia’s national interests.”

The report identified the criti-cal role of government in addressing immediate issues of health, safety and environmental concerns, community awareness, metrology and standards, and international cooperation.

The report recommended ongo-ing international engagement in nano-science, infrastructure access, risk man-

agement and regulatory frameworks, investment and promotion, nomencla-ture and standards. This report is cur-rently being considered by the Aus-tralian Government.

Finally, nanotechnology stand-ards development in Australia is the responsibility of Standards Australia Technical Committee NT-001 Nanotech-nologies, established in 2005, and a mirror committee to ISO/TC 229.

There is representation from a broad range of the Australian com-munity, including government, trade unions, regulators, industry and NGOs. Australia has played a very active role in the work of ISO/TC 229 since its inception and the development of national and international nanotech-nology standards is considered vital in ensuring that the full potential of nanotechnology is realized and safe-ly integrated into society.

Main Focus

Asia Nano Forumby Khiang-Wee LIM, Convenor of Working Group on Standardization for Asia Nano Forum and Chairman of Singapore National ISO/TC 229 Committee

The Asia Nano Forum (ANF), founded in May 2004, is a network organization supported by 13 econ-omies in the Asia Pacific region to collaborate on developing nanotech-nology.

Members come from a wide diversity of economies with varying levels of development and investment in nanotechnology with some coun-tries like China, for instance, having already published standards in nano-technology.

Taiwan has taken the bold step of creating a formal Nano Mark, serv-ing as a certification for nanotechnol-ogy-based products. Some other mem-bers have just started looking at the potential of nanotechnology.

Nanotechnology poses a chal-lenge for economies without a strong science base. Given the strong com-petition for resources and significant investment needed for developing the science and the technology, there is a need for balance between investments across a broad scientific base, neces-sary for sustainability, and a more tar-geted investment required for technol-ogy development.

For a relatively new field such as nanotechnology, there is the added constraint of a lack of trained scientif-ic and technological manpower.

The ANF seeks to benefit its member economies by fostering col-laboration and acting as a focal point for regional and global nanotechnol-ogy issues. It actively supports coun-tries in their nanotechnology initia-tives through annual summits and workshops. Some members are active-ly integrating nanotechnology educa-tion programmes into schools and uni-versities, and sharing the methodol-ogy and resource material at various regional workshops.

Following the latest summit meeting in Hong Kong in November 2006, five working groups in the areas of education; research and infrastruc-ture; business and commercialization; standardization, risk and safety ; and resources (manpower) were formalized to spearhead the mission of ANF.

The Forum also set up its first formal leadership structure with an Executive Committee, headed by Prof MK Wu, Director-General of the National Nanoscience/Nanotechnol-ogy Program of Taiwan.

Some member economies are participating in developing ISO/TC 229. The formation of a specific working group illustrates member conviction that standards for classification, terminolo-gy, basic metrology, calibration and cer-tification and environmental issues for nanotechnology need to be addressed.

Asia


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To enhance the opportunities for all members to engage in the standard-ization process, ANF voted in Novem-ber. 2006 to seek liaison membership status in ISO/TC 229. With the pro-posed liaison membership of ANF and the December 2007 meetings sched-uled to be held in Singapore, regional engagement in the standards develop-ment process will be enhanced.

In conjunction with the Decem-ber 2007 ISO/TC 229 meeting to be held in Singapore, a symposium on Nanometrology and Standardization in the Development of Nantecholo-gies will be organized. The objective is to generate awareness of nanome-trology capabilities and R&D-relat-ed infrastructure in the region and provide a platform to policy makers, researchers, business, industry, etc., to identify and harness the potential benefits of nanotechnology.

Nanotechnology and standardization in Chinaby Dianhong Shen, School of Physics, Peking University, and Prof. Xing Zhu, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, both experts of ISO/TC 229, WG 1 and WG 2

Nanoscience and nanotechnol-ogy became an important issue in the “ Outline of the National Long- and Medium-Term Programme for Sci-entific and Technological Develop-ment of China ”, which was issued in 2006. Nanoresearch was listed as one of the four priority key topics in this programme outline, indicating that nanotechnologies have attracted the attention of not only scientists, but also decision-makers in China.

China is a pioneer in nano-science research. Dating back to the 1980s, Chinese scientists have explored

nanoscience and technology in areas ranging from nanomaterials, nano-devices, and nanobiology to nano-characterization and fabrication.

Since then, China has made a number of breakthroughs in stud-ies on nanomaterials and related research, especially on one-dimen-sional materials such as carbon nano-tubes, nanometals, and single mole-cule detections.

China’s achievement in nano-science has been recognized by the international scientific community. As of the late 1990s, applied nanoresearch developed rapidly and has expanded to include societal impact and indus-trialization.

The Ministry of Science & Technology (MOST), the National Natural Science Foundation of Chi-na (NSFC), the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) and the Ministry of Education (MOE) are the principal funding governmental agencies sup-porting basic and applied research in nanotechnology.

Over 20 institutes of CAS, 50 universities and some 300 commer-cial enterprises, involving more than 3 000 researchers, are working in the fields of nanoscience and nanotech-nology in China.

Statistics of the Scientific Cita-tion Index also show China as the sec-ond largest single country after the United States in publication of nano-technology articles.

In June 2005, the National Tech-nical Committee for Nanotechnology of Standardization Administration of the People’s Republic of China (SAC/TC 279) was established.

This effort will strengthen the metrological capabilities of the research facilities in public institu-tions as well as manufacturing sec-tors in nanotechnologies. This tech-nical committee consists of, among others, experts in metrology, mate-rial scientists and standard adminis-tration officers.

Experimental work is already underway to set up a length standard for nanometer scale objects. Starting in December 2004, the Standardiza-

tion Administration of China issued and implemented 12 nanotechnology standards, including standardization terminology for nanomaterials, nano-particle products, particle size, length and distribution measurement, testing methods, etc.

More standards are being con-sidered. The standardization of nano-tech has been supported by the gov-ernment, i.e. through the nanore-search program. Protocols that may lead to reliable measurement tech-niques are being seriously discussed in order to speed up the standardiza-tion process.

The issue of adapting existing standards and regulations to newly evolved nanotechnologies has been under review.

The National Center for Nano-science and Technology in Beijing is one of three national centers dedicated to basic and applied research, while the National Center for Engineering Nanotechnologies in Shanghai and the National Nano-Commercialisa-tion Base (currently China Nation-al Academy of Nanotechnology & Engineering) in Tianjin focus on the industrialization of nanotechnology. For the latter two, collaboration with industry plays a vital role.

More than 500 Chinese enter-prises are involved in nanotechnolo-gy to some extent, including vendors of nanopowders, coating materials, fabrics and health products; many of them are small and medium-sized pri-vate companies.

In addition to an increasing awareness in China of nanotechnology’s

(a) SEM image of the carbon single walled nanotube (SWNT)-bundle rings deposited on a silicon substrate. (b) TEM image of a SWNT-bundle ring supported by a few nanotubes. (Courtesy: S.S. Xie, Institute of Physics, CAS)

a) b)


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potential technical application, con-cerns have been raised about the poten-tial hazard of nanomaterials to the environment and human health.

To address these concerns, MOST, NSFC and CAS have sup-ported projects involving collabora-tion between materials scientists and experts on epidemic diseases.

A national basic research project on biological effects of artificially produced nanostructures was initiated in 2006. A number of major projects look at problems for environmental and workplace safety of nanomateri-als and nanostructures.

These research projects are being carried out in laboratories in accordance with the applicable reg-ulations on biological experiments. The outcomes of this research may provide a scientific basis for ratifica-tion of existing regulations.

Iran’s Nano Initiative and standardization programmesby Ali Beitollahi, Nanomaterial Group, Dept. of Metallurgy and Materials Eng., Iran University of Science and Technology (IUST), Narmak, Tehran, Iran Nanotechnology Standardization Committee ISIRI/TC 229 R. Asadi-Fard, ISIRI/TC 229, and M.A. Soltani, Secretariat Office of Iran, Nanotechnology Committee

Recognizing the future impact of nanotechnology and with a recently initiated thrust towards a knowledge based economy, the Islamic Republic

of Iran approved a ten-year national “nano-initiative” plan in August 2005 with the following components.

Vision

1) Generation of economic added val-ue.

2) Creating an indigenous and advanced infrastructure with an expert net-work.

3) Developing effective and construc-tive national and international co-operation.

4) The improvement of the level of quality and security of peoples’ life.

5) Capability of competition at a glo-bal level.

Goals

1) Sustainable and dynamic development of nanoscience/nanotechnology.

2) Access to a fair share of interna-tional trade using nanotechnolo-gy.

In order to implement, support and supervise the national plan, the Iran nanotechnology initiative com-mittee was founded in 2004 (www.nano.ir). This committee is headed by the vice deputy of the president and is composed of representatives of the Ministry of Science, Technol-ogy and Research, Ministry of Health and Medical Education, Ministry of Industries and Mines, Ministry of Oil, Ministry of Economic Affairs, Minis-try of Agriculture, Management and Planning Organization, Technology Co-operation Office of the President

and also five experienced experts and managers. Iran’s “nano-initiative” plan is mainly composed of 4 sectors:

1) Human resource development,

2) Infrastructure,

3) Public awareness and promotion activities,

4) Technology development and indus-trial production.

Although Iran might be consid-ered a late starter in this area, imple-mentation of a comprehensive plan with various components will boost national activities. The existence of a well-developed educational and sci-entific infrastructure has helped Iran make a good start in this field the last two years.

The rate of growth of ISI inter-national papers in nano-related topics have increased more than eight times within two years, thanks to the sup-port scheme of the human resource development committee, the fastest growth reported in the world, although the total number is not that high yet (more than 250 in 2006).

Currently there are 28 active universities and research institutes engaged in more than 800 post gradu-ate research projects in various areas of nanoscience and nanotechnology.

“Nano-education” has also recently been formally introduced in high school education. Furthermore, at the moment 19 active start-up compa-nies have set up “nano-businesses”.

The first advanced home-made scanning tunneling microscope (STM), ready to be introduced soon in local and international markets, the estab-lishment of an 8 Kg/day pilot-scale

Figure 1 – ISIRI/TC 229 Structure

Other ISIRI TC’sIndustry Universities

ISIRI/TC 229INLN

ISO/TC 229

Iran Nanotechnology Initiative (INI)

Institute of Standard and Industrial Research of Iran

(ISIRI)


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production line for various carbon nanotubes, and the set up of a 10 000 barrel heavy oil refinery using nano-technology (currently under devel-opment) by an Iranian oil research institute based on their own devel-oped international patents, are more examples of Iran’s steps towards a knowledge-based economy using nano-technology.

One of the other major activi-ties taken place to support her nation-al research and R&D activities was the establishment of the Iran Nano-Lab Network (INLN) in 2005 (http//nanolab.nano.ir).

Furthermore, being a P-mem-ber of ISO, Iran joined the recently established ISO/TC 229, Nanotech-nologies, and subsequently formed a national mirror technical committee, ISIRI/TC 229, in 2006.

The start of standard activities in Iran dates back to 1960 when the Institute of Standards and Industrial Research of Iran (ISIRI) was estab-lished. The mirror committee ISIRI/TC 229 have formally approved the “Nanotechnology Standardization” action plan set forward by ISO/TC 229 in 2005 and have structure shown in Figure 1.

The national committee had numerous meetings with the aim of active cooperation in various ISO/TC 229 working groups and proposing new work items for ISO/TC 229.

The members of various local working groups have been selected from different academic and industri-al institutions, ISIRI relevant techni-cal committees and INLN with a wide range of expertise and interest to fit the required demands of the work-ing groups.

Apart from international par-ticipation in ISO, Iran faces the ever- rising standardization demands both from local nano start-up companies and consumer-support associations for imported nanoproducts highlight-ing the importance of ISIRI/TC 229’s work in this area.

Nanotechnology in Japanby Mr. Teruo Yagashita, Nanotechnology Business Creation Initiative (NBCI), Japan

“ There’s plenty of room at the bottom,” said Richard Feynman, a Nobel Prize winner, in 1959. His idea of small world “nanotechnology” was highlighted again by President Clin-ton’s address: “Just imagine shrinking all the information at the Library of Congress into a device the size of a sugar cube.”

Nanotechnology makes use of very small particles called “ nanomateri-als ”, typically below 100 nanometres in one or more dimensions. “ Nano ” means one billionth (10-9), so one nanometre equals 10-9 metres.

CNTs have been applied to Statisti-cal Parametric Mapping (SPM) tips, FEDs, EMI shields, and ultimate LSIs. CNTs have also been put into practical use as Lithium ion (LiON) batteries in mobile devices, e.g., cel-lular phones. Fullerenes have been used in cosmetics.

Although Clinton’s address shed light on nanotechnology and accelerated the speed of its R&D, the Japanese government had already carried out many R&D projects. Nanotechnology R&D involves many research institutes, universities, and companies in Japan.

The government has earmarked a significant portion of its budget for nano-technology R&D and has encouraged stronger industry-academia-government collaboration to foster the commer-cialization of nanotechnology.

Thus, the Nanotechnology Busi-ness Crea-tion Initia-tive (NBCI), a Japanese i n d u s t r i a l

Nanomaterials offer possibilities to solve major social and environmental problems like reducing energy con-sumption, providing effective medicine and purifying water.

Fullerenes and carbon nanotubes (CNTs), a generic term for single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs), are examples of nanoma-terials. They consist only of carbon atoms, shown in Figure 1, and are collectively dubbed “nanocarbons”.

Nanocarbons built on a nano-scale demonstrate different proper-ties from carbon black, which is also constructed from carbon atoms.

association, was founded in October 2003 with the help of the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) to encourage this emerging business.

NBCI currently has 307 mem-bers and covers the fields of electrical and electronic equipment, semicon-ductors, measurement and evaluation equipment, raw materials production, and painting. NBCI also has trading companies, ventures, consultants, universities, and local self-governing bodies as part of its membership.

Japan launched the Mirror Com-mittee in 2005 to correspond with ISO/TC 229 for nanotechnology. Many NBCI members have joined the committee and

Figure 1 – Carbon nanotubes and fullerene.

Single-walled carbon nanotube.

Multi-walled carbon nanotube.

Fullerene ; C 60


Main Focus

NBCI supported the second meeting of ISO/TC 229 in Tokyo, June 2006. This is representative of the strong will of industry in Japan.

Japan is the world leader in nanocarbon R&D. Some of the most distinguished scientists here work in the nanocarbon field, including Dr. Sumio Iijima (Meijyo University) who found CNT in 1991, Dr. Morinobu Endo (Shinshu University), Dr. Eiji Osawa who predicted the existence of fullerene, and Dr. Hisanori Shinohara (Nagoya University).

Japan also has some of the top players in industry, including Mitsubishi Corporation, with the largest fullerene production facility, Mitsui & Co., Showa Denko, the largest nanocarbon fiber producer, and Nikkiso.

Japan’s National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) has made SWNTs much purer. Fujitsu and NEC have conducted research on applying CNT for ultimate LSIs. They are members of NBCI and established the “Nano-Carbon Standardization Committee” in 2006 and proposed measuring and characterizing nanocarbon for ISO/TC 229/WG 2.

In early 2007, the committee proposed NWIPs of SWNTs and MWNTs to ISO/TC 229 through the Japanese Industrial Standards Com-mittee (JISC).

We need to accelerate applied R&D to get products into the market – where they can benefit everyone.

Korean Nanoproducts (cosmetics/choto catalyst/home appliances/household goods/textiles).Korean Agency for Technology and Standards.

Nanotechnologies in Korea

By Jae-Heyg Shin, Ph.D., Senior Researcher, KATS (Korean Agency for Technology and Standards), International Secretary, ISO/TC 201/SC 9, Scanning probe microscopy

Based on the Nanotechnology Promotion Bill, the Korea Nanotech-nology Initiative ‘2001-2010’ is being implemented with a revision for the period 2006-2015.

Under the revision, Korea wants to join the top three nations in glo-bal technological competitiveness by 2015. The public sector plays a lead-ing role in promoting emerging tech-nologies, especially in such areas as infrastructure to support nanotech-nology and related educational and training programmes.

The number of start-ups focused on nanotechnology has also increased sub-stantially during the last few years.

In the industrial sector, the research centers of Samsung Co. Ltd. and LG Co. Ltd. are exploring various basic tech-nologies related to organic/inorgan-ic nanomaterials, nanodevices and nanoprocessing for the next gen-eration semiconductors, data stor-age and energy storage.

Nano-electronic devices such as carbon nanotube-based transis-tors are being investi-gated as terabit memory devices, and research on the next generation stor-age systems based on scanning probe micro-scopy and perpendicu-lar magnetic recording is being conducted to learn more about tera-

bit storage density.

These research centres are also performing research into nanophoton-ics for optical communications to pro-vide customized solutions for health, security, location, movement, authen-tication, etc.

Regarding consumer products, Korean companies have developed nanosilver-applied home appliances which have superior cleaning and sterilization properties.

Of particular note, the Sam-sung Group has developed the world’s first 38-inch color CNT-FED prototype. Small and medi-um-sized enterprises which manufacture consumer prod-ucts such as cosmetics, tooth-paste, soap, textiles, paint, ceramics, filters,


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System established to drive Korean nanotechnology standardization.

deodorants, etc., have also used nano-technologies to improve the proper-ties of common products and are on the market.

Since the first-phase (2001-2005) initiative, five nanosupport facil-ities and related support facilities, like the Nano Practical Application Cen-tre and the Nanotechnology Indus-trialized Support Centre, have been established by the government.

The Korean Agency for Tech-nology and Standards (KATS) is the representative for standardization and established a materials and nanotech-nology standards division focusing on developing national and interna-tional standards on nanotechnology in June 2006.

KATS proposed the establish-ment of a Statistical Parametric Map-ping (SPM) subcommittee which is an important field for nano-analysis and which has played a key role as a secretariat hosting the third ISO/TC 229 nanotechnologies plenary meet-ing in December 2006.

More than 151 delegates from 20 countries attended this meeting. KATS proposed essential New Work Items including methods for the evalu-ation of nanosilver toxicity and CNT, which was developed by industrial and research institute sectors.

The latest ISO/TC 229 meeting was a great opportunity for ISO and IEC specialists to meet as well as to develop a new joint Working Group in the field of measurement and char-acterization.

KATS has also developed a project for building a foundation for nanotechnology standardization,

which has been successfully man-aged by the Nanotechnology Research Association.

Through this project, more than five New Work Item Proposals will be developed and new active pro-grammes can be also launched soon. KATS is going to take full advantage of this project to advertise the impor-tance of nanotechnology standardiza-tion and collaborate with internation-al organizations.

At the end of 2006, domestic nanomaterial-related standards num-bered more than 110. This number is expected to increase significantly in the near future considering the increas-ing importance of nanotechnologies to both domestic economies and the global economy as a future engine for industrial growth.

In 2006, KATS established a committee on nanotechnology stand-ardization with the task of mapping out a five-year plan for standardi-zation based on the participation of all related sectors including govern-ment, academia, research institutes and industries.

Korea’s vision and roadmap to be one of the world’s top three nations in the nanotechnology field focuses on three principal areas: R&D, research infrastructure and manpower. How-ever, Korea also recognizes the huge role of standardization in the process of realizing the potential of nanotech-nology. Korea will continuously do its best to help nanoscale technolo-gy benefit humanity.

Nanotechnologies in Franceby Jean-Marc Aublant

In 2005, the French Ministry of Industry led a sur-vey on nanomaterials with respect to a sustainable development perspective. It was the basis for an action plan dealing not only with research and development but also with the European and interna-tional presence of France and its rep-resentatives within the nanotechnology global sphere. In parallel, the Ministry of Industry recommended the industri-alists to carefully look at their R&D and manufacturing practices.

Materi-als, processes and occupational safety were fol-lowed up through the creation of a club within a French asso-ciation called ECRIN 1). Here there is a mix of researchers and indus-tries exchanging data and information related to research, development and manufacturing in the nanotechnolo-gy fields.

Other French Ministries, in charge of i.e. health, labour, pollu-tion and prevention of risks, require stakeholders to examine the health and environmental risks that nanomateri-als and nanotechnologies may pose on a short-, medium- and long-term basis. A public agency, AFSSET 2), was

1) ECRIN : Exchange and Collaboration Research-Industry.

2) AFSSET : Agency for Environmental and Occupational Health Safety.

Head office of LNE in Paris.

Europe

KATSCommittee on NT standardization

WG WG

Research institutes

Nano fab. centre NT Research Association

Academia Industries

WG WG


Main Focus

entrusted with a study on the current state of technical and scientific knowl-edge regarding nanomaterials.

A conference organized in Octo-ber 2006 presented and disseminated the issues of this study to other Min-istries and public health and safety agencies (AFSSA 3), AFSSAPS 4)) and institutes.

Recommendations have also been issued by the CPP 5) and AFS-SET regarding the need for anticipa-tory and precautionary measures to be taken in the workplace, for instance, and to comply with the new Europe-an regulation called REACH.

Two French representatives from both ministries of Labour and Environment participated in the first meeting of the Working Party on Manufactured Nanomaterials organ-ized by OECD in London on 26-27 October 2006.

In ear-ly 2007, 20 % of researchers working in labo-ratories (CNRS, INSERM, Uni-versi té Tou-louse) started a toxicity pro-gramme on car-bon nanotubes.

This three-year programme is funded by ANR. 6)

Two on-going EC 7) funded projects are coordinated in France: NANOSAFE 2 by CEA 8) which is designed to develop technological solutions to the problem of nanoma-terials safety, and NANO-STRAND by LNE 9) to roadmap the European standardization needs and pre-nor-mative research items for nanotech-nologies.

Regarding standardization, France is a P-member and participates in ISO/TC 229, Nanotechnologies, and CEN/TC 352, Nanotechnologies. A French mirror technical commit-tee, AFNOR TC X457, Nanotechnol-ogies, has been set up and has recent-ly designed its work plan to meet the main concerns of French industry and to draft guidance documents and rec-ommendations. Four actions have been drawn up : metrology, classification of nanoparticles and associated risks, processing and transport, handling and occupational safety.

3) AFSSA : Agency for Food Safety.

4) AFSSAPS : Agency for Health Products.

5) CPP : Committee for Prevention and Precaution.

6) ANR : National Research Agency.

7) EC : European Commission.

8) CEA : Atomic Energy Commission.

9) LNE : National Metrology and Testing Laboratory.

Nanotechnology in the German chemical industryDr. Martin Reuter, German Chemical Industry Association (VCI)

The German chemical indus-try strongly supports the standardi-zation activities at ISO and is thus firmly involved in the activities of the German Institute for Standardi-zation (DIN).

Nevertheless it is necessary to stress that the German chemical industry does not standardize work-ing procedures that rely on handling and use of nanomaterials, rather we propose to focus on the standardiza-tion of specific occupational safety and health equipment for the safe production and use of nanomateri-als instead.

The German chemical indus-try uses sensible measures to ensure safety of workers and employees, so it has engaged in discussions with the German authorities to assess the safe production and use of nanomaterials in the working place.

To promote this, the German Chemical Industry Association (VCI) conducts workshops discussing safe-ty aspects in the workplace.

In a workshop in September 2005, VCI and the German Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (BAuA) agreed to conduct a survey on practices for safe produc-tion and use of nanomaterials within the German chemical industry.

The results of that survey have being reviewed and are summed up in a document with guidelines, entitled “ Guidance for handling and use of nanomaterials at the working place ”, that will be published soon.

The guidelines are intended to assist the safe manufacture and use of nanomaterials and offer recommenda-tions, reflecting the current state of sci-ence and technology. Exposure to insol-uble dusts and aerosols at the nanoscale level are considered to be most rele-vant in terms of safety aspects, so the guidelines focus on this matter.

General provisions in occupational health and safety

According to German law based on the relevant EC Directives, the following actions are laid down to determine the necessary protec-tion measures, covering all operat-ing processes, including maintenance, repairs and breakdowns.

1. Information gathering

Gathering of required information on product properties, resorting to suitable sources (e.g. Safety Data Sheets, labelling information, litera-ture data, and communications from manufacturers).

2. Hazard assessment

Based on the information gathered, implementation of a hazard assess-ment in an integrative approach, cov-ering all potential hazards that may exist at the workplace (e.g. mechan-ical, electrical or substance-related hazards).

3. Definition of the protection concept

Based on the hazard assessment, deter-mination of technical, organizational and personal protection methods.

Main facilities of LNE in Trappes, France.


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Current situation in and development of measuring methods for nanomaterials

Until now, particle burdens have been assessed based on mass concentration. However, the measur-ing of nanoparticles based on mass is only of limited informative val-ue. The total mass of nanoparticles remains comparatively low at high particle concentrations (e.g. up to 1 million particles/cm3 in a smok-ing room).

Therefore, an assessment of health hazards exclusively based on particle mass cannot be sufficient in every case. At present, factors assumed to influence health hazards – such as particle surface, surface struc-ture and surface composition – still require highly sophisticated measur-ing methods in the nanometre range. So far, there is no uniform approach in the characterization of nanoparti-cles. This matter is currently being intensively researched.

VCI recommends focussing health safety and environment-relat-ed standardization activities on the following :

• Sampling methods ;

• Sample treatment ;

• Exposure media ;

• Monitoring methods ;

• Reference materials.

In particular, it must be empha-sised that individual outcomes of nanoparticle measuring activities cannot be fully compared with each other, because methods for exposure measuring are not standardized as yet. Thus, VCI considers standardi-zation at ISO as the basic condition for any progress in health safety and environment issues.

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PAS 131 – Terminology for medical, health and personal care applications of nanotechnologies

PAS 134 – Carbon nanostructures

PAS 136 – Nanomaterials

PAS 135 – Nanofabrication

PAS 133 – Common nanoscale measurement terms including instrumentation

PAS 132 – The bio-nano interface

United Kingdom profile in nanotechnologies

by Dr James Johnstone , National Physical Laboratory

In recent years, the United King-dom has been prominent in the devel-opment of nanotechnologies spurred on by the Royal Society (RS) and the Royal Academy of Engineering (RAE) report, “ Nanoscience and nanotech-nologies : opportunities and uncertain-ties ”, commissioned in 2003.

Then Minister of Science, Lord Sainsbury asked the United Kingdom science community to discuss and explore the new opportunities and risks associated with the exciting new field of nanotechnology.

The report identified regulation and standardization as key priorities for further investigation and develop-ment. In parallel to this, the govern-ment of the United Kingdom invest-ed over GBP 100M (USD 190M) in recent years in the establishment of the Micro and Nanotechnology Initiative, which included the establishment of a network, collaborative R&D projects and open access facilities.

This has helped the United King-dom to contribute to European policy-making by chairing the first EU Mem-ber states meeting on nanotechnologies as well as helping with the develop-ment of the new 7th Framework Pro-gramme and the EU nanotechnology action plan.

The development of interna-tional standards and metrologies for nanotechnologies is a high priority for the United Kingdom in the gov-ernance of future regulation and safe commercialization of nanotechnology products.

The United Kingdom is contrib-uting to them through the provision of secretariat and chairmanship of the ISO and CEN Technical Committees in the area: ISO/TC 229 and CEN/TC 352.

The United Kingdom is involved in other international policy activities

through such bodies as the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Devel-opment (OECD), the International Elec-trotechnical Commission (IEC) and the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). The United Kingdom has been able to contribute to first steps in standardization by developing a Publicly Available Specification (BSI PAS 71) vocabulary for nanoparticles.

This document has been well received and is being used as the basis of a, successful, New Work Item Proposal for an ISO Technical Specification on terminology and definitions for nano-particles.

The project is being led by the United Kingdom PAS 71, which, on publication, was made freely available on the internet. It has provided the model for the development of further, sector – specific terminologies – shown in Table 1, which will be published before the end of 2007.

Also under development are three guides – a guide to labelling of engineered nanoparticles and products containing engineered nanoparticles, a guide to safe handling and disposal of engineered nanoparticles, and a guide to specifying nanomaterials.

Given the lack of specific knowl-edge regarding actual risks from nano-materials, the United Kingdom has been active in preparing for regulation of engineered nanoparticles, should such need arise, by the instigation of a Voluntary Reporting Scheme (VRS) for engineered nanomaterials.

This has proven to be effective in gauging what types and quantities

Table 1 – Sector specific terminologies under development by the United Kingdom.


Main Focus

of such materials are being produced by industry in the United Kingdom.

Similar schemes are starting to be considered by the European Commission as well. Through the VRS it has been recognized that reference materials, dispersions of nanomaterials and validated and traceable measurement parameters are needed for regulators, toxicity testers and industry alike to compare, validate and contrast the impact of new nanomaterials.

This work is also contributing to the United Kingdom efforts in the OECD to evaluate the needs for new regulation.

This work is further supported by the United Kingdom’s strong tra-dition in nanometrology, including the production and characterization of nanomaterials.

Nanotechnology in Canadaby Clive Willis and Alan Steele, Canadian Advisory Committee for ISO/TC 229

Canada’s activities in develop-ing nanotechnology have been largely regionally based and, to date, no deci-sion has been made to establish a large national program dedicated to this important field.

In many ways, a regionally based approach is appropriate to the structure of the Canadian economy.

For many nations, a key ration-ale for mounting early efforts in nanotechnology was the immediate

potential seen by the semiconductor industry sector.

Canada does not have a major capacity in this sector and has chosen to focus more on the impact nano-technology will have on traditional economic sectors such as forestry, mining, manufacturing, agriculture and health.

The strengths of these sectors vary considerably across Canada, leading to the regional priority set-ting that draw support from existing federal programs.

The most advanced programmes are those in the provinces of Quebec, Ontario, Alberta and British Colum-bia.

Because of this distributed approach, it is sometimes difficult to identify the full level of public funding for nanotechnology. However, simple inspection of the four major provincial efforts suggests that funding levels, particularly those for major instrumen-tation and facilities, is proportionally comparable to other nations where nano-technology has been afforded a high priority at the national level.

For example, in Quebec there are over 200 principal investigators who have a major focus on nanote-chnology, graduate student involve-ment approaching 1 000 and invest-ment in research infrastructure with-in these groups over the past six years of CAD 400-500 million.

Although the Quebec effort is more coordinated than efforts else-where in Canada1), similar levels of commitment can be seen at least in the other three major provincial pro-grams.The emergence of small, nano-technology-focused firms, while still at early stages, is progressively growing to match the research thrust.

Discussions have taken place among many of the Canadian prov-inces to explore collaboration amongst their various efforts in nanotechnol-ogy and the need for more national coordination.

While a number of opportunities for inter-regional collaboration were identified, including activities related to building international linkages, the

1) NanoQuébec and Quebec universities have worked closely together to achieve an integrated research thrust in nanotechnology. Similar organizations are in place or in planning for the other three provinces.

only national activity that gathered uni-versal consensus was the need to coop-erate in developing standards and reg-ulatory systems for the exploitation of nanotechnology.

It was agreed that efforts would be made to ensure that Canadian par-ticipation in the development of nano-technology standards through ISO/TC 229 would involve participation and support from the provinces.

This thrust is now being rec-ognized by the Federal Government, particularly in terms of its involve-ment in international fora such as the Organization for Economic Co-opera-tion and Development and the efforts to harmonize standards across the North Amercian Free Trade Agree-ment (NAFTA) region.

Canada’s principal federal science organization, the National Research Council, plans to combine measurement science and standardiza-tion efforts, already under way at its Institute for National Measurement Standards, together with nanotech-nology programs in the physical sci-ences, life sciences, and engineering portfolios to create a multi-institute platform for metrology in support of nanotechnology.

In early February 2007, NRC hosted a workshop on metrology for nanotechnology, with participants from Canada, the United States, and Mexi-co, at which a series of measurement problems in dimensional, materials, and environmental applications were identified, and plans were developed so national metrology institutes would continue working together.

This is but one of the interna-tional linkages developed by this fed-eral agency where collaboration in developing nanotechnology is tight-ly coupled to standards development and, in particular, to measurement and metrology.

North America


Nan

otechnologies

U.S. nanotechnology standardization efforts

by Dr. Clayton Teague, Director of the National Nanotechnology Coordination Office, co-chair of the American National Standards Institute, Nanotechnology Standards Panel (ANSI-NSP), and chair of the ANSI-accredited US Technical Advisory Group to ISO/TC 229, Nanotechnologies

Nanotechnology is one of the United States’ top priori-ties for scientific research and innova-tion. Standards based

on well-established scientific princi-ples are key to opening the myriad of new and exciting technologies made possible by understanding and control-ling matter or materials at the nano-scale (typically 1-100 nm).

They are also essential to ensur-ing the safety and reliability of these new technologies for human health and the environment.

Acting on a request from the Office of Science and Technology Policy in the Executive Office of the President in the United States, ANSI established its Nanotechnol-ogy Standards Panel (ANSI-NSP) in June 2004.

A cross-sector coor-dinating body, the ANSI-NSP brought together a wide range of stakeholders to establish a solid plat-

As administrator of the ANSI-accred-ited US Technical Advisory Group (TAG) to ISO/TC 229, Nanotechnol-ogies, ANSI drew heavily from the panel and its representatives from academia, industry, government, standards developers and other sub-ject matter experts.

Today, the TAG has become a key focal point for US standardi-zation activity in the nano arena and its members are participating active-ly in the TC and all three of its work-ing groups.

ANSI convenes the WG on health, safety and the environment, which is develop-ing a US-proposed Technical Report

addressing health and safety practic-es in occupational settings relative to nanotechnologies.

At its most recent meeting, the TAG turned its attention to coordinat-ing its work with the USNC TAG for IEC technical committee 113, Nanotech-nology standards for electrical and electronic products and systems.

The National Electrical Manu-facturers Association (NEMA) serves as administrator of this TAG.

All countries will benefit from these international stand-ardization activities. Continued coopera-tion and outreach is

critical as ISO and IEC move forward with their efforts to deliver globally recognized standards in support of nanotechnology.

The US is commit-ted to making posi-tive contributions to this global effort.

form for the advancement of nano-technology standardization.

Shortly after its formation, the ANSI-NSP issued a set of prior-ity recommendations identifying the areas of nanotechnology with the most urgent need for standardization, including terminology, instrumenta-tion and metrology, toxicity and envi-ronmental impact.

The panel also laid a broad framework from which coordination could be approached. Its Standards Development Organization members have made quick progress.

Last year, the Insti-tute of Electrical and Electronics Engi-neers published the first measurement standard for the elec-

trical properties of carbon nanotubes (IEEE 1650); ASTM International also published the first consensus-based standard defining significant common nanotechnology terms for researchers and developers (ASTM E2456).

Nanotechnology has a global reach, and many organizations are uniting in the race to revolutionize elec-tronics, energy, med-

icine, and other areas. The US was quick to join in international stand-ardization efforts.

Cover of the brochure of the nanotechnology activities of the ANSI Nanotechnology Standards Panel and the ANSI-accredited U.S. TAG to ISO/TC 229.


To ISO’s track record of nearly 700 published standards for motor vehicles and intelligent transport

systems (ITS), ISO Secretary-General Alan Bryden added a confirmation of the organization’s “ deep dedication to saf-er, connected, energy efficient and user friendly cars ” in his opening remarks to The Fully Networked Car Workshop, 7-9 March 2007, held at the Geneva Motor Show, one of the world’s leading auto-motive events.

“Far from stifling innovation, standards provide a path to bring innova-tive technologies into the market. Inter-national Standards, which enable econ-omies of scale and cost reduction, pave the way to the global market.”

The workshop addresses the mar-ket for information and communication technologies (ICT) in motor vehicles, which represents an ever-increasing share of innovation and added value in the automotive sector. The “fully net-worked car”, taking full advantage of ICT for vehicles and road transport sys-tems, is expected to offer a range of ben-

efits including improved safety, reduced traffic congestion and pollution, and a smoother driving experience.

The WSC event provided a forum for the key specialists in the field, from top decision makers to engineers, designers, planners, gov-ernment officials, regu-lators, standards experts and others. It was expect-ed to identify how and which standards can speed the development of the fully networked car and its introduction into the market.

In this respect, Malcolm Johnson, Director of the ITU Telecommunication Standardization Bureau, stated: “We are now placing great emphasis on bringing together the various standards bodies to avoid dupli-cation of effort and to address conver-gence in areas such as the one addressed in this workshop. That is why I am so pleased to have had the cooperation of ISO and IEC in the organization of this workshop.”

The ISO Secretary-General indicated the participation of the lead-ers of the two ISO technical commit-tees active in the issues addressed by the workshop:

• ISO/TC 22, Road vehicles, which has published 642 standards, and

• ISO/TC 204, Intelligent transport sys-tems, which has published 50 stand-ards.

He underlined that the workshop would provide them with the opportu-nity to interact with their colleagues in IEC and ITU, as well as to reinforce their already strong links with regula-tors. In this context, he noted the good working relationship between ISO and Working Party (WP) 29 of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. WP 29 World Forum for Har-monization of Vehicle Regulations and Mr. Bryden noted, “Increasingly, ISO standards are referenced in their reg-ulations.”

Just over 200 people participated including representatives from Bosch, BMW, Cisco, Ford, France Telecom, Freescale Semiconductor, Head Acous-tics, Hitachi, Intel, Motorola, On-Star, Orange, PSA Peugeot Citroen, Q-Free, T-Systems, Telecom Italia, Telecordia, Toyota, Vodafone and Ygomi.

By Roger Frost and Dale Campbell *

The workshop (accompanied by an exhibition 6-10 March) was the latest initiative organized by the three part-ner organizations of the World Stand-ards Cooperation (WSC): IEC (Inter-national Electrotechnical Commission), ITU (International Telecommunication Union), and ISO.

Alan Bryden remarked : “ Fol-lowing the previous workshops that we have organized with IEC and ITU on health technologies and the digital home, this workshop on the fully net-worked car is another example of the initiatives we have taken in the area of converging technologies.

Among the issues discussed was the interface between the auto and the telecom industries. There are a number of areas where the interests of the car and telecom industries coincide such as consumer-centered services via exter-nal products and vehicle Manufacturer (VM)-centered services via an embed-

Photo: Paolo Rosa

Photo: Paolo Rosa

Developments and InitiativesWorkshop on networked car at Geneva Motor Show

IMS6-2006E.indd C2

2006-10-30 16:35:29

Alan Bryden addressing participants at the workshop.


ded data radio. One of the problems is that there is a different product life span with mobile phones having a lifespan of 18-24 months and vehicles having a lifespan of about 12 years.

However the technology devel-opment cycles are similar : three to five years. A flexible interface allows the automotive side to remain simple which lasts for the lifetime of the vehi-cle. What is needed is that most of the intelligence in the phone or in land-based systems let user devices make use of vehicle audio/video capabilities and allows for several generations of increas-ingly intelligent user devices.

The following conclusions and recommendations were reached by the participants of the workshop :

• New technologies have to take into account the complete environmental situation : climate, energy consump-tion, safety, privacy, mobility, secu-rity.

• New systems and technologies in the cars can be seen as part of a global network with seamless interconnec-tivity.

• Clear identification of areas is need-ed where action/cooperation is need-ed between the car industry and the telecom industry.

• Standards in the different areas (tel-ecom and car) have to be aligned to ensure the required functionalities.

• Policy and standards have to be com-plete and respect the economic and technical feasabilities.

The March issue of ISO Focus www.iso.org/isofocus was largely ded-icated to “ The Intelligent Car ”, with a dozen articles on aspects of ISO’s work in this area, or giving strategic perspectives.

* Roger Frost is Manager, Communication Services, at ISO Central Secretariat and Dale Campbell is Assistant Editor of ISO Focus.

Coming up

The functioning of the global economy in general, and specific sectors like finance, medical administration, emer-gency services, telecommunications and e-business, as well as government serv-ices like taxation, not to mention many aspects of our daily lives, are largely dependent on information technology.

Increasingly, organizations and their information systems and networks are faced with a variety of security threats from a number of sources, including computer-assisted fraud, espionage, sabotage, vandalism, fire or flood. Sources of damage such as computer viruses, computer hacking and denial of service attacks have become more com-mon, more ambitious and increasingly sophisticated.

“There is no doubt that the protection of our information in systems and over networks is a critical business issue that needs immediate and ongoing attention,” says Ted Humphreys, Convenor of work-ing group WG 1, Requirements, serv-ices and guidelines, one of three WGs within ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 27, IT secu-rity techniques. “ Information has become one of the critical commodities in today’s fast moving e-biz world.”

In the next issue of ISO Focus, a number of important issues on IT security and quality will be covered to ensure the smooth functioning of those IT systems, on which we now depend so much in a global economy.

In a series of articles the best experts worldwide in this field will discuss all the latest developments in standards for information security and quality for IT.

The family of ISO/IEC information secu-rity management standards will be fea-tured increasingly important in identity protection as more and more personal data like tax and medical information is on line, there is a need to ensure the privacy of personal information is protected and respected. Here the work of ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 27/WG 5, Identity management and privacy technologies is featured.

Quality management

Software asset management (SAM) principles apply to the media, installa-tions, licenses, proof of license, and intellectual property associated with the software.

The implementation of ISO/IEC 19770-1:2006 will standardize the framework making it possible for companies to integrate SAM into their other compli-ance and best practice models.

With up to 80% of information technol-ogy budgets of most organizations directly linked to IT service management processes, the ISO/IEC 20000 standard benchmarks the capability of enter-prises and organizations in delivering managed services, measuring service levels and assessing performance it can result in cost savings for users, whether large or small enterprises, as well as increased productivity and improved customer service.

Don’t miss the next issue of ISO Focus to learn all about the state-of-art stand-ards to ensure the security and quality of IT operations.

Main Focus

Information Technology – Security and QualityWorkshop on networked car at Geneva Motor Show

ISO’s three-course menu for food safety management systems.

ISO/TS 22003 Audit and certification requirements

ISO 22000 Requirements for the food chain

ISO/TS 22004 Application guidance

Available from ISO national member

institutes (l isted with contact details

on the ISO Web site at www.iso.org) and

ISO Central Secretariat Web store at

www.iso.org or by e-mail to [email protected]

ISO Focus 4-2007 · 1, ch. de la Voie-Creuse CH-1211 Genève 20 Switzerland Telephone + 41 22 749...

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