Islamic Kingship and Arabic Panegyric Poetry in the Early 9th Centurymic Kingship and Arabic...

7/26/2019 Islamic Kingship and Arabic Panegyric Poetry in the Early 9th Centurymic Kingship and Arabic Panegyric Poetry in t

1/17

Brillis collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of Arabic Literature.

http://www.jstor.org

Islamic Kingship and Arabic Panegyric Poetry in the Early 9th CenturyAuthor(s): Stefan SperlSource: Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 8 (1977), pp. 20-35Published by: BrillStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4182977Accessed: 05-10-2015 10:15 UTC

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of contentin a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship.For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

This content downloaded from 195.220.106.16 on Mon, 05 Oct 2015 10:15:24 UTCAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
http://www.jstor.org/http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=baphttp://www.jstor.org/stable/4182977http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/stable/4182977http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=baphttp://www.jstor.org/


2/17

Journal of Arabic Literature, III

ISLAMIC

KINGSHIP AND

ARABIC PANEGYRIC

POETRY

IN

THE EARLY 9TH CENTURY

I

Among the

ceremonial

features

of 'Abbasid court life was

the

recitation of poems

in praise

of the Caliphs and

notables.

These

followed a clearly preordained pattern in their composition, and on

recitation

in the

presence

of the assembled court

their authors

were

not seldom

richly

rewarded with

money and robes

of honour.

In the following article

I

have undertaken to interpret the

signifi-

cance of this practice

through

a study

of the poetry and its

thematic

structure.

The authors

I

have

considered are Abui

'1-

cAtdhiya,1

Muslim

b. al-Walid,2 Abu1

Tammam

3

and al-Buhturi.4

Together

their

works

span the period from

770

to 890 A.D.

Analysis is

limited to

poems written

in praise of the Caliphs,

for,

even though they are a minority in the Diwans, their portrayal of the

sovereign's authority

reveals

much about the nature

of

the panegyric

as such.

They

also

provide

a

picture

of the different

cultural

components

which formed

the institution

of the Caliphate. Old Arab, Islamic

and non-Islamic

heritage is

reflected

in the formulae and epithets

which

describe the power

of the monarch.

There are three

types,

to which I have given

the headings

"virtue", "divine

sanction" and

"mythic

power".

1. Virtue. The moral qualities ascribed to the Caliph in the

poems

correspond

to a standardised set:

'atm,

resolution, Fabr,

equanimity,

karam,

nobility, juid,

generosity,

are

frequent examples.

Most

of them had long

been part of

the

poetic

tradition,

and refer

to the heroic

virtues celebrated

in

pre-Islamic poetry.

The

change

of

meaning they

have

undergone

reflects the cultural

transition.

Sabr,

the steadfastness

with which the

pre-Islamic

hero

faced the hardship

of nomadic

existence refers

in

the

'Abbasid

1

cf. Kildb al-Agbhni, Cairo, 1285, III, p. 156-7.

2

Diwdn Sari" al-Ghawdni

(Muslim

b. al-Walid), Dar al-Macarif,

Cairo,

1958.

3

Diwan

Abi Tammdm

bi-Sharb al-Kha/ib

al-Tabrizi,

Dar al-Ma'arif,

Cairo,

1951-.

4

Diwin

al-Bubhuri, Dar al-Mac'rif,

Cairo, 1963-.

http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp


3/17

ISLAMIC

KINGSHIP

AND ARABIC PANEGYRIC POETRY

21

context

to

the

equanimity

of

the

ruler as he bears the burden of

government. Jfld,

the

generosity

which

made

the

pre-Islamic

bard

slaughter his camels

to

feed

the

poor

of the tribe comes to mean the

bounty

with which the

Caliph

nourishes his

subjects.

Thus

the old

tribal virtues

are transferred into

an

imperial

context,

and the human ideal they express is represented in the person

of the

Caliph. It follows

that the

poems' portrayal of

the

Caliph's

personality

is the expression of

an

ideal vision: as supreme leader

he

is of supreme

virtue.

Yet this

also

encompasses

a

sphere

of human excellence

not

part

of the old 'heroic' virtues: the sanctity

of

religious leadership.

2. Divine sanction. The 'Abbasid Caliph was the heir of an

ancient royal tradition-the kingship

of

Mesopotamia

and Iran.

The

combination

of

religious

and secular

power

which

distinguished

these

monarchies

also

became

a

hallmark of

the Caliphate.

Like

the

Sassa-

nian King who was the high priest of the state, the Caliph assumes

his office by divine sanction.

The insignia of his power symbolize the sacredness of his authority:

they

are

the

burdaand the qadib, the staff and mantle

of

the Prophet.

Both are mentioned in the poetry.

Al-Buhturi

describes the Caliph

al-Mu

'tazz as

41 ,

X1

1

"the

heir of the Mantle, the Staff and the authority

of

God".5

The line

relates

the insignia

of

power to the divine sanction

of

which

they are a symbol.

The

religious

nature

and the legitimacy of the 'Abbasid

Caliphate

are also

emphasized by reference to the origin of the dynasty

in the

family

of

the Prophet. Numerous panegyrics bestow praises on al-

'Abbas

and his

descendants, asserting the 'Abbasid claim

to power.

Thus

the Caliph

is

protrayed as the undisputed ruler of the Islamic

community

and

subservient only to God.

In

the words

of Abui

Tammam

"subordinateto God, commanderof the people".6

5

al-Buhturi,

II,

729.

6

Abil Tammam, III,

153.



4/17

22 ISLAMIC KINGSHIP

AND

ARABIC

PANEGYRIC POETRY

cl

>>

cE

>

-o3

4~~~~~~~

U,0

C

:,

b

a

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4

0

o

-

?g^

LF

pz,

vu

o

Uo

a

(3

c4

U?a

-

~;vU

U4$



5/17

ISLAMIC KINGSHIP AND

ARABIC PANEGYRIC POETRY

23

Accordingly

the

panegyrics

describe

him as

an instrument of

God;

the victories

he achieves

and

the protection

he gives to the righteous

appear

as

expressions of divine will.

The religious

nature

of

his

power is

also evident

in the

titles

with

which he

is addressed

in the

poems:

Khalifat Allah (God's Caliph),

Amin Allah (God's Trustee),

Kawkab

al-.Haqq (Star

of

Truth),

Imdm al-Huda (Master

of

Guidance)

etc.

The spiritual

welfare

of his

subjects

is vouchsaved

by

his

tutelage,

as is the reproach

of

those

who

dare doubt:

A4

J AJ

ue

Jl l

"You have illuminated

the worlds with

the taper of Guidance.

Woe

unto him who is not

guided "

7

3.

MythicPower. In

the ancient Near East it

was a widely held

notion

that on

ascending

the

throne

the King defeats

the

forces of

darkness

and

death

and

brings justice, fertility

and

happiness

to

the

world. This "mythic power" is the result of the harmony he estab-

lishes and

maintains between the divine

forces and humanity.

The

inviolability

of

his person (attested both

in Sassanian and

'Abbasid

times)

8

is

a

natural

consequence:

when the King,

as secular and

religious pivot of society,

is killed or

harmed the whole world order

may collapse,

diseases and

catastrophes

may afflict

the land.

This

shows

that in

the

face

of the vicissitudes of Time a divinely

endowed Kingship

was

considered the only guarantor

of continuity

and

prosperity.

The

soteriological

nature of Kingship

was thus celebrated

in

numerous

rituals in the ancient Near

East, e.g. the Horus

Osiris

ritual

in

Egypt,

the

Babylonian

and

Iranian

New Year festivals,

and

the

Israelite enthronement

festival as it is reflected in

the royal psalms.

There may

be no

specific Islamic equivalent

to

these but

it

is

clear

from panegyric poetry

that the Caliph was held to

possess a power

not unlike the mythic reviving power

of the ancient Kings. Often

the

prosperity

of the

realm is directly attributed

to the divinely

inspired righteousness

of the Caliph.

How old the ancestry of such

forms

of

praise is can

be illustrated by some quotations:

7

Abiu

Tammam,

II, 49.

8

Cf. Goldziher,

Muhammedanische

tudien,

Halle, 1889-90,

II,

64.



6/17

24 ISLAMIC KINGSHIP AND ARABIC

PANEGYRIC POETRY

"Worship King NimaatRe (

...)

He is

one who makes the

land

greener

than

(does)

a

high

Nile,

For he has filled the

two lands

with strength and life."

(From a stele of the Middle

Kingdom 9)

"Hammurabi, he shepherd, called

by Enlil

am

1,

The

one who makes affluenceand

plenty abound."

(From the prologue to the

Code of Hammurabi10)

"Give the King

Thy judgement,

0

God,

(...)

In his

days shall the righteous

flourish

And abundanceof peace as long as the moon endureth."

(From Psalm LXXII 11)

Each of

these

passages means something

distinct

in

its own

cultural

context, but

all

stress the divine

status

of

Kingship

and

see

in

the

King the

source

of

prosperity for the land.

The

following

extract from

the

Diwan

of

al-Buhturi is one of

many similar examples from

the Arabic tradition. The

poet addresses

the

Caliph al-Mutawakkil:

L'A.P %1.l

L:1

A.Z-9,

, 1JU;T b

.G

1J

4it11

:

L

U

;

421

L4L,

J~~~~~~~~~~,$1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

i

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~K

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~s~~~~~~~~~1Ji~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~L

~~~~~~LJ

i-L

~

L4iJ

;s

L~J

&J-.

.Li

&;i

"Through you the

expanses of

the land have

become

fertile.

How can

the world be barren

when you are

its

protector?

Whateverbounty

God

guides

towards us

So that

its

onset and

beginning

is ours

(comes)

From

your

face

which

joyfully

shines

on us

And

from

your

hand the

gifts

of which shower

upon

us."

12

Among the ancient monarchs King Solomon appears in the early

'Abbasid panegyrics

as an

example

of such

righteous

sovreignty.

As opposed to Pharaoh

and the

Sassanian

Kings,

he

was

considered

a

believer

in

the

Islamic sense and

is mentioned as

such

in

the

Quran.

Al-Buhturi

makes

reference to

these

Quranic

passages

in

his

pane-

gyrics.

Solomon's kingship appears

in

his

works

as a

model

for

the

Islamic

ruler, and the

legendary palace he

built

for

the Queen of

Sheba

is

shown

to be

recreated

in

the

royal

buildings

of

the

Caliphs.

13

9

Pritchard, Ancient Near

Eastern Texts relating

to

the Old

Testament, Princeton,

1969, 431.

10

Ibid., 164.

11

Psalm

LXXII,

1 and 7.

12

al-Buhturi, III, 1631.

13

Cf. e.g.

al-Buhturi, VI, 2416.



7/17

ISLAMIC KINGSHIP

AND ARABIC PANEGYRIC

POETRY 25

Thus

the

panegyric

of the

'Abbasid

court

poets depicts

the

authority

of the Caliphs as resting on the

heroic virtues of the ancient

Arabs,

the divine sanction of Islam and the mythic power

of Near

Eastern

Kingship. The last of these three is reflected in the thematic structure

of the poems.

II

Most panegyric poems

are

divisible

into two

parts:

an introduction

containing a certain number of themes, and a section of praise, the

madib.

For the purpose of this study

I

have called them strophe and

antistrophe,

to

avoid

the notion that one is

preponderant

over the

other and to

point

to the

contrasting relationships

that link the

two.

Themesof the Strophe:

In the diagram on page 22 I have listed a number of the themes

which occur in the first part of the panegyric. There

are:

1 a)

A

spring description

with

passages

on the

blessings

of rain and

the beauty of spring flowers

(wasf

al-rabic).

2

a)

A "bacchanal"

(khamrtyya):

the

poet,

in the

prime

of

youth,

pursues al-abwd', the physical passions, as he

is

drinking

wine with

friends and flirting with the ganymedes.

3

a)

A desert journey (rabil) where the travellers face hardship and ex-

haustion which

they overcome

with

perseverance

and

courage.

4

a)

A

description of an unhappy love (nasib). The poet expresses his

passion

for a

lady

he has met in the

past.

She has

rejected

his

courtship

and they are separated but his attachment is undiminished, and he

gives vent

to

his grief and his passion for her.

5

a)

A description of the desert encampment (a/ld) where the poet met

his

beloved. Wind and rain have altered and destroyed the site, plants

and wild animals have returned to it The spectacle makes the poet

aware of the relentless passage of time and he weeps with sorrow.



8/17

26 ISLAMIC KINGSHIP AND ARABIC PANEGYRIC

POETRY

6

a)

A

description

of the

poet's hoariness

which leads

to a

gloomy

contemplation of old age

(dhikr al-shayb). The women he desires

deride

him;

he is cast down with

sickness and

despair, and

oppressed

by the thought of death.

7

a)

A

contemplation

of

the inevitability of death

which afflicts all

living

things (dhikr

al-mawt). Sometimes this passage may take the

form of an elegy (rithad), more often it develops out of the theme of

the

campsite (5 a) or old age (6 a).

In the

poems these themes are combined in

many different ways

The nasib

is the

most frequent single component and

may

be

linked

with any of the other six

themes. (e.g.

atldl-nasib-khamriyya; asib-

shayb-dhikr

al-mawt;

etc.)

Certain poems also possess strophes

in

which

only one of these themes is treated (e.g.

nasib; khamrfyya;

rithd'

etc.).

Thus the order in which I have arranged the themes in the diagram

does not

correspond to any

particular order

in

the

poems.

It is

obvious

though that the themes of the

strophe encompass

the major experi-

ences of

man's life. Between the

spring description

which

celebrates

the birth

of new life, and the contemplation of death,

there

are

descrip-

tions of

endurance and despair, and portrayals of

youth, love and,

old age.

Themes

of the Antistrophe:

These

have an

equally wide range. They

fall

into

two

categories:

themes

of peace and themes

of

war.

Peace in

the

context

of

the

panegyric means

the

prosperity

the

monarch

bestows

on his

loyal

subjects,

war

means

the

destruction

he

inflicts

on his

enemies.

In the

diagram

I have

tried to

arrange

these

themes

in

such

a

way

as to

make

the

relationship between strophe and

antistrophe apparent.

Depending

on

whether

the madih theme

is one of

peace

or

war,

it

can be

seen to

relate to

a

theme of the strophe by contrast

or

con-

gruence.

Again the order of the

themes

in

the diagram

is

an abstraction

and does not

correspond

to

any

order

in the

poems.

Each individual

poem is

a

free but coherent

combination

of

the

themes

mentioned.



9/17

ISLAMIC KINGSHIP AND ARABIC PANEGYRIC POETRY 27

1

b)

The

counterpart

of the

Spring

theme recalls

the short extract from

the Diwan of

al-Buhturi quoted above: "through you the expanses

of

the land

have

become

fertile".

The action

of

the

monarch is

like

the action of Spring as he brings fertility and prosperity to the land.

One line

by Abui Tammam sums up

the

connection between Spring

and Caliph:

w

~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~w

_

jI

4jbj y

4;gr19

"There are innate qualities that face us in Spring like the innate

qualities of the

Imam and

his

fortunate

guidance."14

7

b)

The

counterpart of

waff

al-rabic among the strophic themes is

dhikr

al-mawt,

the

contemplation

of

death. This theme

also

is balanced

in

the antistrophe by the Caliph's power of revival. The prosperity

and justice he brings make

life renew itself and the grief of death is

forgotten.

The

panegyric

Abfi

Tammam wrote on

the

accession

of the

Caliph

al-Wathiq provides an example. The strophe consists of an elegy on

the previous Caliph al-Mu'tasim which dwells on the omnipotence

of

death.

In

the antistrophe

aJ-Wathiq's accession is described

and

the people's joy is boundless:

5A;

_

1

j

,J

Li

v$ ,

bi W. 4o

"When

you

called

them forth

to take

their

oaths, 'Iraqi

and

Syrian

were transportedwith joy, as if one of them had returned from a

long absence

and the

other

had been told

of

the

birth of a

son."

15

This

image

of

resurrection

and birth poignantly symbolizes the

renewal

of life

in

the rise of the new ruler.

The

other two

themes of

the

strophe

which

form

a

pair, youth

and old

age, are also linked

by corresponding themes

in the

anti-

strophe.

2

b)

The poet's youthful excesses are counterbalanced by the wisdom

"4

Abui

Tammam,

II,

196.

16

Abui

Tammam,

III, 206.



10/17

28

ISLAMIC KINGSHIP

AND ARABIC PANEGYRIC POETRY

of old agewhich the Caliphpossesses.

He is "as if he had been

an old

man since before he was weaned",and he gives solace to those

whom

the folly of youth has deceived.'6

2 c)

As to the correspondingtheme of war, the enemies are paralysed

by fear in the face of his Majesty,

or destroy themselves by rashness

and confusion.

6

b)

The poet's sickness andageare overcome by the rejuvenatingowers

of the

King.

The latter's

generosity

and

the

radiance

of his

might

make the

poet forget

his

grievances

and,

as the

poems say,

"a new

flameis kindled in his flint".

6 c)

The corresponding

theme of war shows the

Caliph

in

possession

of the

prowess

of

youth

with which he crushes his enemies. Here

again the poet's weakness

is overcome.

Thus the antistrophecountersthe strophe by treatingthe negative

and

positive qualities

of

youth

and old

age according

o

a

meaningful

pattern: the Caliphpossesses

the

prowess

and

potency

of

youth

and

the wisdom of age, while his

enemiesaremarkedby the folly of youth

and

the

impotence

of

age.

With

youthful prowess

the

Caliph

fights

his enemies, with wisdom

he

gives

solace to his

subjects.'7

The

remaining

three

strophic

themes(3a, 4a, 5a)are related

to the

antistropheby

similar

correspondences.

3 b)

The hardshipof the desert journey is overcome, the endurance

of the travellers

rewarded,by

the

reception

which

greets

them

on

arrival

n

the

Caliph'spalace.

He

heals

all

wounds and

his

generosity

satisfies he needs of everyone.

3

c)

In the

theme

of war the notion of arrival is contrastedby the

notion of

departureymbolized

in the

flight

of the

enemy

after his

defeat.

Thus the friends arrive and are nourished while the

enemies are

suppressedand depart.

16

Cf. Kitdb al-Aghdni, III, 157.

17

For parallels to this cf. George Dumezil,

Mi/ra

Varuna,

Essai sur

deux

RepresentationsIndo-Europiennes de la Souvrainti, Gallimard

1948,



11/17


ARABIC PANEGYRIC POETRY 29

5

b)

The

ruins of

the

campsite

are

contrasted

with

the

state which

the

Caliph protects, constructs, or

restores

to its

former greatness. This

action is symbolized by the "House of

Glory" (bayt al-majd) which

he "builds"

for

himself and his subjects.'8

5

b)

The

powers of destruction on

the

other

hand are

reserved for the

enemies: the

Caliph

is

the

"key

to

every

well-defended

fortress",

"the emptier of the houses of his enemies". Thus while he constructs

the state,

he

destroys he

strongholds

of his

foes.

Since

the nasib is

the

most important strophic theme,

its

relation-

ships to the antistrophe

are

multiple

and

complex.

I

mention

only

those that seem to me the

most important.

Among the experiences the poet describes

in the

nasib,

two

are

prominent: the frustration of

his love

and

the

ultimate

separation

between

him

and his beloved. Both

experiences

are

reflected

and

transfigured

in

the madih.

4 b)

The

poet's unrequited

love is overcome

in

the

relationship

between

him and the monarch. The physical and passionate attachment to

his lady

is

sublimated by

his

spiritual and temperate devotion

to

the

Caliph. In exchange, the sovereign does not reject him

as

did his

beloved but

rewards

him

by

integration

into

a society

of

prosperity.

The conclusion here

is

that

the

individualistic

quest

for

happiness

in a passionate attachment cannot

be successful.

Fulfillment is attain-

ed

by integration

into

society under the guidance

of the

monarch,

and by devotion to the ideals of state.

The

annulment

in

the

antistrophe

of the

experience

of

separation

elucidates

this

further.

The

relationship

between

poet

and

beloved

remains

barren,

it

is

never consumated since the two are separated. This barrenness s

overcome

by

the

fertility

the

Caliph brings

to

his

realm.

Many poems

describe

in

lavish

imagery

the

Caliph's generosity

which

is

compared

to

the

Spring rains and the

morning dew, and which revives society,

"making

affluence

and

plenty

abound".

The theme is closely related to the counterparts of waif al-rabi' and

dhikr

al-mawt

in the antistrophe. Al-Mu'tasim's qualities are

"like

18

Cf.

e.g.

Sari'

al-Ghawani,

218.



12/17

30

ISLAMIC KINGSHIP AND ARABIC PANEGYRIC POETRY

those of Spring", the joy over al-Wathiq's

accession is like "the joy

over a newborn child". Both passages

point to the resurgence of life

brought

to

society by

the monarch.

In some poems this newly found fertility

is expressed by an image

reminiscent of the pagan "hierosgamos"

(the sacred marriage of the

ruler): al-khildfa or al-imama appear as

females linked to the Caliph

to

stay

with him

faithfully."'

The separation between poet and

beloved is overcome

in

the union between King and Kingship, the

threat of barrenness banished

by

its life giving force.

4

c)

The recreation of fertility has an equivalent among the themes of

war. Many poems link the Caliph's slaughter

of his enemies with the

creation of new life in his realm. Their death is portrayed as

an

act

of sacrifice which

will

ensure

prosperity

for the

land.

The idea has been

given

a most condensed expression by Abui

Tammam.

In

the poem on the capture of Armorium which explores

the paradox of the emergence of life from the destruction of death,

he says:

"the two

deaths brought

about

by

swords and lances are the water-

buckets

of two lives

containing

water and fodder."20

The

source of life for the

Caliph's subjects

is

the

death

brought

to

his enemies.

The contrast between

barrenness

and

fertility

in

strophe

and

antistrophe

is illustrated

by

the imagery

of the

panegyric. Three

liquids areprominent in the imagery of the nasiband the corresponding

war and

peace

themes of the section

of praise:

the tears of the aban-

doned

lover,

the dew or

rain

of

generosity

bestowed by

the

Caliph,

and the blood of the slain

enemies. Blood and water

symbolize

the

new fertility

which

the Caliph

creates in the

land; they

overcome the

grief

of barrenness

expressed

in

the tears.

A word must be added about those

poems

that do not

begin

with

any

of

the themes of the

strophe

but embark

at

once

upon praise

of

the sovereign. Despite

the absence of

the

strophe, they

revolve

around the same thematic elements as the other panegyrics: the

"I

Cf. e.g. Abu Tammam,

III, 208. The image figures prominently in

the

Diwan of

MihyAr

al-Daylami.

20

Abul Tammam, I, 61.



13/17

ISLAMIC KINGSHIP AND ARABIC PANEGYRIC POETRY 31

creation

of

prosperity

and

justice

through

the defeat

of the

enemies

of state.

Aba Tammam wrote several such works

in

praise

of

al-Muctasim.

One of them starts as

follows:

LP

L

Ij

3-l

LL

Iz

4S

"The forecourt

and

dwelling places

of

Kingship

have

become

thronged

with people, its luxuriant gardens are flourishing and its watering

places

sweet,

Through one

Seeking

Refuge

with

God

(Mucfasim

billah)

who

has

become a

sanctuary,

a

refuge (muctasam)

and

magic stronghold

for

each

afflicted."21

The

imagery

of

the

lines

sums

up

what

has

been

said about

the

beneficent role of

the

Caliph as

it

appears

in

the

panegyrics:

there

is

the

affluent

resurgence

of

life under his

rule, the

protection and

nourishment extended to

his

subjects

and

the

divine

approval which

marks his reign.

The lines also illustrate the

thematic

interaction between

strophe

and

antistrophe

which

constitutes the form

of

the

panegyric: the

picture

of

the dwelling places

of

Kingship thronged with

life

and

plenty establishes a

deliberate

contrast to the

traditional

beginning

of

many

a

poem:

the

picture

of

the

abandoned campsite

(often also

called

mand.il,

theme 5a).

This

type of contrast

is

a

sign

of

the

unity

of

the

panegyric

as a

poetic mode. The

strophic themes

are contained

in

the

antistrophe

even when the strophe itself is missing: the Caliph's power is always

portrayed

as

an

assertion

of

order and

prosperity

in

the

face

of

barrenness and

chaos.

III

I

have been

concerned

to show

that the

characteristic

themes of

the

two

parts

of

the

panegyric can

be

arranged in

such

a

way as to

form a

meaningful

pattern of

development.

Each

theme of the

strophe can

be

related

to

a

corresponding

set of themes in

the anti-

strophe. The common denominator to the various thematic links

between

strophe and

antistrophe may be

found in the

relationships

between

Caliph and

poet,

and

Caliph

and fate.

21

Abiu

Tammam,

III,

79.



14/17

32


ARABIC PANEGYRIC POETRY

Fate or Time (al-dahr,

al-ayydm,al-laydli,

al-zamdn

etc.) is

the

ruler

of the

world

in the

strophe; in the antistrophe the Caliph as

represen-

tative

of

God is the supreme power.

Caliph

and fate do

not exert their power in the same way

nor for

the same ends. Fate is

master over life and death, generation and

decay,

but its rule is

chaotic and arbitrary, amoral and hostile

to

human

society.

The nature of fate's rule

is expressed

in

the themes of the

strophe.

In the

"bacchanal" and

the section on old age, the poet possesses

both the negative and positive qualities of youth and age. Prowess

and folly characterize his

behaviour in the "bacchanal", while the

wisdom of

age brings

only the awareness of his impotence and death.

The atl/l theme shows the

campsite ruined, though life

has re-

turned to it in the form

of plants and animals. In the nasibfate leads

poet

and

lady together

only to make them suffer the pain of separation,

and

in

the rakil, the poet is virtuous but nevertheless

beset

with

hardship and danger. Time's renewal of nature in Spring

does

not

lead

to

a

renewal of order and justice, and death at the hand

of

fate

is a cruel end without purpose.

Thus

the rule of fate does not follow any principle of

order.

It

creates life and brings death indiscriminately, and in all

situations,

good

and

bad, negative and positive cancel

each other. The human

being is left confused

and helpless and human life cannot prosper,

as is shown in the separation between poet and beloved.

The

Caliph's rule,

however,

is not

arbitrary

but in accordance

with virtue, justice and

divine will. His accession

to

the

throne marks

the

defeat of fate; as a prize he acquires its power over life and death.

With life-giving powers he protects and nourishes his subjects, the

forces of

death he turns against his enemies.

.,,j.=LIJYll f)

jc

L..

J

"We take

delight

in his rule

despite Time.

Can

anyone

oppose

an

order

spoken by the one enthroned?

Die he will who offers his heart's core to the

edge

of

a

spearhead

whose shaft is

brought

to action

by

the

hand

of

God."

22

However

the

relationship

between fate

and

the

sovereign

has

an

"elegiac counterpoint".

Even

though

he assumes its

powers

the

22 Abul

Tammam,

III,

27.



15/17

ISLAMIC

KINGSHIP

AND

ARABIC

PANEGYRIC POETRY

33

Caliph can never ultimately defeat fate. Like the pre-Islamic hero he

is enmeshed

in constant

warfare: unceasingly

he is

forced

to reaffirm

the divine

order

in the

face of erupting

chaos.

In this

constant

struggle

the panegyric

qa.ida

has its

place.

In it,

fate is always

defeated

anew,

the sovereignty

of

the

monarch

re-

asserted, the

ultimate victory

made

tangible.

The

relationship

between poet

and monarch

has

similar

features.

The poet

is the

protagonist

of the strophe

and

as such

the prime

victim

of fate's power.

By defeating

fate,

the

Caliph

saves

the poet

from his afflictions. All the ills he has suffered become those of the

enemies,

all his

virtues

are

transfigured

in the sacred virtue

of

the

monarch.

The development

suggest

that poet

and Caliph

represent

human

nature in

the stages of imperfection

and perfection.

The

transfigura-

tion of the

poet

from an imperfect

to a perfect

being

in the character

of the

monarch is

a

reflection

of the identity

of King

and society.

As the

poet

is saved,

strengthened

and rejuvenated

in the

person

of

the monarch,

so

society as

a

whole exists

and survives

through

him.

The relationship between Caliph and fate, and Caliph and poet

is thus of similar

nature: the sovereign

defeats

fate and as

a perfect

ruler assumes

the

powers of

fate;

similarly,

he saves

the poet

and

as a

perfect

human

being

assumes

and

heightens

the virtues

of

the

poet.

Thus both poet

and fate are

transfigured

in the person

of the monarch.

IV

The

analysis

of the

poetic

form

of the

"royal"

panegyrics

show

that its development

is a

perfect

illustration of

the

function

of King-

ship in society. It suggests

that this

poetry

is a

liturgical

expression

of

the basic

values

and political

ideals of

the 'Abbasid state.

This

conclusion

makes it

possible

to

re-evaluate

some

of the characteristics

of

panegyric

poetry

which in the

past

have

given

rise to

doubts

about

its merit as literature.

The stereotyped

structure,

the repetitiveness

and formalism

of the

poems

have

been seen as the

result of a conservative literary

public

which stifled

poetic

genius,

or simply

as

a lack of inventiveness.

The

study

of the panegyric,

however, suggests

that

these

are not

fair

judgements.

It

was not the poet's

task

to demonstrate

his

origi-

nality by

creating

new

forms, but

to re-explore

and recast

the existing

elements of

the

qa-ida

in order to emphasize

the basic meaning

of

its

structure. How essential

this meaning was,

has,

I believe, been shown.

3



16/17

34

ISLAMIC

KINGSHIP

AND ARABIC

PANEGYRIC

POETRY

To search

for a

different one would

have been to seek

a

lesser thing.

Another factor

which

has impeded the appreciation

of panegyric

poetry

on its own terms

are the

doubts critics have

felt about the

sincerity

of some poets.

When a cruel or undeserving

monarch

was

praised this was

seen as

flattery and hypocrisy

on the part of the

poet

whose work, as a result,

was considered

to be of little

merit.

It is clear, however,

that the panegyric

does not attempt to

portray

the character of

individual

monarchs. Instead,

it

extolls

the role of

Kingship

which an individual assumes. Its

thematic development,

its liturgical formalism,

and the expression

it

gives

to

essential

social

values

all

suggest

that the

public

recitation of panegyric

poetry

was

an act of ritual.

This ritual celebrated the vision

of

political

authority of the

'Abbasid state:

a divinely

endowed Kingship

as the only guarantor

of

peace

and stability

for the

realm.

In

the panegyric this

essential role

of Kingship is

recreated and

reaffirmed as the

development proceeds

from

chaos and suffering

to

order

and prosperity.

Its recitation

amounts to a

public renewal

of faith in the state

while reminding the

sovereign of

the

duties

of

his

high office.

The sumptuous reward

of

the court poet is part

of

the ceremony: it

is a public

demonstration of

generosity and symbol-

izes the life-giving

function

of the King.

V

The

preceding

conclusions about

the form and function

of

poems

dedicated to the Caliphs can also be

applied,

with some modifications,

to the other panegyrics which fill the Diwans of Abui Tammam and

al-Buhlturi:

those in praise of notables,

military leaders

or

provincial

governors.

Their thematic

structure

scarcely

differs

from

those

of

the

royal poems,

and the

human

ideal

of social

responsibility

and good

government

which

they

proffer

remains

essentially

the same.

The

difference between the addressees of

the

panegyrics

is one

of

degree

and not of kind: they are all representative

of the

authority

of

state,

persons

in

power,

leaders of men.

Neither

is the thematic

pattern

of

interaction between

strophe

and

antistrophe characteristic only of "Abbasid panegyrics. The ancestry

of this form can be traced back to

the earliest surviving

Arabic poems.

The same

applies

to the

ritualistic character of the

panegyrics.

The

societal resurrection

brought

about

by

the

sovereign

is as

important



17/17

ISLAMIC

KINGSHIP

AND

ARABIC

PANEGYRIC POETRY

35

a theme

in

the poems

al-Nabigha

wrote for the Kings of

Ghassan

as

it is in

the

Diwan of Abiu Tamnmam.

The ultimate origin

of this ritualistic

form and its metaphors

of

praise

must be sought in the

vision of political authority traditionally

celebrated

in the

ancient Near

East. In

the royal panegyrics of the

'Abbasid

poets

this

ancient

heritage

is brought

to

life

with

majesty

and splendour.

What distinguishes

them from all

other Arabic pane-

gyrics is the picture

they present of the

Caliph's

authority: like the

King of Babylon and Egypt, he is the ruler of the world, the divinely

chosen source of prosperity

and justice for the

realm.

L4.jIL---.

--

UJ

L4 SLW1;

>,"1

j;,

TJ

4jIJT,,~-

a

-elUl

L4;t

"You are forever a sea

of sustenanceto the needy

among us

How

can this be, since you

face us owning the world

and all it holds?

God

granted

it to

you as

a

right of which he saw

you worthy,

And

you by the right of

God grant it to us."

23

(al-Buhturi

o the Caliph al-Mutawakkil)

STEFAN

SPERL

23

al-Buhtiirl,

IV,

2421.

Islamic Kingship and Arabic Panegyric Poetry in the Early 9th Centurymic Kingship and Arabic...

Documents

Transcript of Islamic Kingship and Arabic Panegyric Poetry in the Early 9th Centurymic Kingship and Arabic...