ISLAMIC ENVIRONMENTALISM - 21ST CENTURY LESSONS FROM THE QUR’AN

7/29/2019 ISLAMIC ENVIRONMENTALISM - 21ST CENTURY LESSONS FROM THE QURAN

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Since Lynn Whites 1967 essay, The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis,1 religion has

often been perceived as either the source of much of the modern environmental crisis, or at least

as negatively impacting attitudes towards that crisis. However, criticism offered by White was

directed not at religion as a whole, but rather at the Christian reading of the Biblical tradition and

its appointment of man over the entirety of the universeas both a central and supreme figure,

as well as the sole existent with inherent value.

Leaving aside the question of the validity of Whites argument against Christianity, the same

argument cannot be extended beyond that particular target with any degree of success, except

perhaps onto Judaism, given that White draws a number of problems from the Old Testament.

This is a point White himself was careful to note throughout his essay.2

In the present analysis, I wish to accomplish two specific goals, in regard to Whites

argument and environmental ethics in generalinsofar as these elements relate to Islamic

Environmental Ethics (IEE). First, I wish to demonstrate that Whites charge against Christianity

cannot be carried over to IEE. Second, I wish to posit the tenants of IEE as an effective model

from which to consider ethical solutions to modern environmental issues. It is my hope that this

approach will provide the reader with a vista from which to consider the role and implementation

of IEE in the contemporary setting.

Lynn Whites essayconsiders the historical development of science and technology in the

Judeo-Christian West, in order to arrive at the source of the human objectification and

instrumentalization of nature, which he claims has led to the present ecological crisis. White

1White, Lynn. The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis *with iscussion of St. Francis; reprint, 1967+. Ecology

and Religion in History. New York: Harper and Row, 1974.2Ibid. Pp. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10.


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finds the source of the crisis in the Biblical notion of the human being as not only supreme in

creation, but the sole creature endowed with intrinsic value, while the rest of the universe is

created solely for human utility and pleasure.3

He further traces the roots of the crisis to the

Church-sponsored destruction of animism, and the reduction of nature from a sacred to profane

status; an object with the sole purpose of being used and discarded at whim.4

White posits that this irreverent view of nature was later coupled with the scientific and

technological progress, where the Baconian notions of scientific knowledge as power over nature

have led to the destruction of the environment through its instrumentalized treatment. He

concludes that, in regards to the present crisis, [C]hristianity bears a huge burden of guilt.5

Although Whites argument focuses on the Western, Judeo-Christian religious worldview,

his proponents have unfortunately, and quite indefensibly, extrapolated the conclusions to

religion in general, and Western Abrahamic religions in particular. While Whites argument

may be sound in regards to the Judeo-Christian worldview, the overgeneralized claims of his

proponents erroneously include the Islamic worldview, despite Whites careful phrasing to the

contrary.

In response to these claims, several Islamic academics have mounted responses in defense of

the Islamic worldview against the indictment of religion as the cause of the eco-crisis. Izzi Deen,

in hisIslamic Environmental Ethics, Law, and Society,6

lays the groundwork for the Islamic

perspective of environmental ethics, its sources, and conclusions. However, the work fails to

illuminate the full scope of differences offered by different religious perspectives, and thus, in

3Ibid. Pg. 7

4Ibid. Pp. 7-9

5Ibid. Pg. 9.

6Deen, Mawil Y. Izzi. Islamic Environmental Ethics, Law, an Society. In This Sacred Earth. Ed. Roger S. Gottlies.

New York: Routledge, 1996. Pp. 164-172.


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some respects, offers little more than the Christian responses, which fail to truly dismiss Whites

claims.

Whites charge against Christianity stems from two primary points. The first of these is the

supremacy of man over the rest of the creation, and thus mans natural role as the lord and

master over it.7

The second charge comes as a result of that notion, and zeroes in on the

perceived idea that only man has inherent value, while the rest of creation has only value insofar

as it serves man.8

For the sake of clarity, we will address these points from the Islamic

perspective, in reverse order.

Islamically, all of creationsentient or notis considered to be a product of the Creator,9

and serves a purpose (among others) of worshiping that creator by its very existence.10

Consequently, every atom has been created with a specific purpose, and has inherent value.11

Second, mans role within that creation is posited as one created being among many,

differentiated only by the presence of intellect,12

which serves to grant man a greater number of

obligations, and a somewhat increased number of rights.13

That is to say, man is not the supreme

creation of the Creator, in the sense that the universe exists for his service; rather, mankind is the

most advanced part of the creation, and as such holds a special place among it.

7White, Lynn. Pg. 7.

8Ibid.

9Malik, Muhammad Farooq-i-Azam. English Translation of the Meaning of Al-Quran: The Guidance for Mankind.

Houston, TX: Institute of Islamic Knowledge, 2002. [Henceforth referred to as Quran] 1:2, etc. ALSO

Deen, Mawil Y. Izzi. Pg. 165.10

Quran. 2:116. ALSO

Deen, Mawil Y. Izzi. Pg. 165.11

Quran. 44:38-39.12

Islamically, man is not the only creation that possesses a soul. Man is considered as the only creation with

intellect and reason to the extent that they can intentionally overcome instinct, as well as grasp and deal with

complex problems including those purely theoretical. By the possession of such intellect, and possesses free will.13

Islamically, ones obligations are proportional to ones potential, while some rights may be base on fulfillmentof obligations which all non-human creation does by default.


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The story of mans creation itself, from the Christian and Islamic perspectives, offers a clear

if subtledifference in the conception of man and his role. White notes, according to the

Biblical account, that upon his creation, Adam namedall things and thus established his mastery

over them.14 Islamically, Adam was taughtthe names of all things by the Creator, and is thus

established as a servant of the Creator, and given a place among the creation.15

In the Biblical account, man names all things, and in doing so, relates their existence to

himselfwhich necessarily entails the value-component of that relation, based on the

(instrumental) value of the creation to man. By the Quranic account, man is informed (or

educated) about the rest of creation, and is thus informed about the objective relation of all

things both to himself as well as to the Creator. This necessarily entails that the value-component

of the man-creation relation is found outside of man and his needs and desires. Given that the

Islamic value of creation is independent of humanity, it negates Whites charge of instrumental

use of nature by religion. It further ensures that creation is endowed with rights and values,

protected and mandated by the same source that establishes human rights and values.

This analysis bears out through the theological terminology employed in the two accounts.

Biblically, man plays the role of a steward, which allows him the ability to independently

administratea notion further supported by the Catholic Churchs ability to declare laws valid

on Earth and in Heaven. On the other hand, Islamically, man is granted the title of a Caliph

(vicegerent), which limits the scope of his power, by inherently placing him under the sovereign

authority of the Creator. This limitation is further supported by the religiously-legal inability of

any Muslim or Islamic state to alter the rulings set down by the Creator, in any way whatsoever.

14White, Lynn. Pg. 7.

15Quran.2: 31-33.


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Consequently, given that Islamic notions of man, as such, fail to distinguish him as either the

supreme creation, or as the only one imbued with a form of intrinsic value, Whites argument

cannot be extended to Islamic conceptions of man and his relation to the environment. With

Whites charge against Christianity deflected from the Islamic account, the analysis can now turn

to Islamic notions of environmental ethics.

Before we can fully delve into IEE, we must first briefly establish the predicates upon which

IEE is built, namely Islam and Islamic Ethics. Unlike the more common Western philosophical

approaches, where the particular elements are effectively atomized and considered as standalone

wholes, Islamic philosophy relies on a holistic (bottom-up) approachbuilding upon itself to

produce a coherent whole.

Islam, insofar as the primary sources are concerned, developed over a 23-year period (610-

632 CE). It considers itself to be the final word of God, revealed through the Messenger

Muhammad. Islamic primary sources consist of the Quran16 and the Hadith.17 From these

primary sources, there emerges a set ofnu rulings (having a single possible interpretation and

being of the clear Do and Dont variety), considered as immutable and universal, and very

few in number.18

A broader reading of the combined primary sources provides general guidelines

and limitations for the sum of human actions. This framework is what can be considered the core

of thesharia, or Canonical Law of Islam.19

From thesharia framework emerges a set of legal

16Islams Holy Book, an is consiere to be the immutable wor of Go, an to have unergone no alterationsince its initial revelation.17

Haith might best be unerstoo as The Way of Muhamma, consisting of accounts his actions, sayings,advice, rulings, etc. Since their composition into assorted collections in the 9

thcentury, they too have remained

unchanged.18

Asad, Muhammad. The Principle of State and Government in Islam. Kuala Lumpur: Islamic Book Trust, 1980. Pg.

12.19

Ibid. ALSO

Asad, Muhammad. This Law of Ours and Other Essays. Gibraltar: Dar al-Andalus, 1987. Pp. 63-69.


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rules regarding the implementation and of specific rulings in context, depending of the

circumstances of the people and their environment. These rules provide an implementation

framework for the particular adaptation of moral/legal rulings, known as usool ul fiqh (science

of jurisprudence)or simplyfiqh.

The main importance of the notion offiqh (jurisprudence) is the framework and logical

analysis which it provides for the consideration of human actions, as well as the malleability it

embodies. The understanding of the moral/legal scale, and its flexibility, will serve a key role in

understanding Islamic ethics and its application on Islamic environmental ethics. To that extent,

we will briefly note that all human actions fall on a quintet-partition moral scale as follows:

1. Wjib (Mandatory actions on pain of punishment)2. Mandb (Desirable and supererogatory actions, but their omission is morally neutral)3. Mubh (Neutral actions)204. Makrh (Undesirable actions, morally neutral if committed, praiseworthy if avoided)5. Harm (Forbidden actions on pain of punishment)However, any number of factors can affect the final position of the act on the moral scale.

For example, drinking coffee is, by default, mubh (neutral). Drinking the same coffee so that

one will be more alert and effective in performing some morally positive obligation, turns the

action into mandb (desirable). On the other hand, drinking the same coffee so that one will be

more alert and effective in performing some morally negative act makes the coffee makrh

(undesirable) or even harm (prohibited).

Islamic ethics, unlike more traditional religious ethics, and particularly those of Abrahamic

origin, are not solely based on Divine command theory, though it is used extensively. The core

of Islamic ethics is based on the distinction between right/good (marf) and wrong/evil

20All actions are, by default, considered neutral. It is only in light of particular (primary source) rulings, or other

pertinent information, that an action gains a positive or negative moral value.


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(munker). The goal and obligation of Muslims is to act on and support marf(good), and act

against and oppose munker(evil).21 These terms are understood to entail human reason, human

decency, and to be in line with Divine command.22

As a result, the combination allows for a

flexible understanding of right and wrong, based on the circumstances and the particular

individual, or community, or a state, in question. For example, while lying is prohibited (harm),

lying in order to save an innocent life is both obligatory (wjib), and counts as if the person who

saves such a life has saved the entirety of mankind.23

Marfand munkerare umbrella terms, and contain a great number of other (more specific)

terms, which serve to more precisely delineate right from wrong within a general framework. For

the purpose of the later IEE analysis, two such terms must be introduced.

1. ulmis a term that is commonly understood as injustice or oppression. However, itscore meaning is To put a thing in a place other than its rightful place,24 and such actsare considered as severely prohibited (haram).

2. Adlis a term that commonly translates as justice, yet functions as not only the polaropposite toulm, but opposes it in such a way that it necessarily takes into account the

circumstances in which it acts.

25

In this way, adlis not only inherently doing justice,but simultaneously doing justice to the object of justice, as well as the sum total of theircircumstances. Thus, the application ofadl(justice) in Islam is not merely a blind

implementation of the existing law, but rather the result of careful analysis of onescircumstances, the particular actions of the individual in question, and the situation as a

whole.

21Quran. 9:71

22Lane, Edward William. An Arabic-English Lexicon. Beirut: Librarie du Liban, 1968. Pg. 2850; ALSO

Izutsu, Toshihiko. Ethico-religious Concepts in the Qurn. Montreal: McGill University Press, 1966. Pg. 215.23

Quran. 5:32.24

Lane, Edward William. Pg. 1920.25

Ibid. Pg. 1974.


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Rights of Humanity:

Man occupies a specific role within the Islamic worldview; and is considered as the sole

creation possessed with free will, which stems from the mans possession ofrh (intellect).26

Since man is able to function beyond the level of mere instinct, he is assigned corresponding

obligations. Islamic concept of Divine judgment is established on this premise, and is based

entirely on a persons individual actions.27

Humanity, according to Islam, has been given a series of instructions since its inception.

These can be broken down into two rough categories: 1) specific requirements and prohibitions

that mostly pertain to mans relation with the Creator and, 2) the general and specific phrasing of

the golden rule (do unto others), which mostly pertain to mans relation with the rest of

creation. These instructions are then to be filtered through the aforementioned quintet of moral

categories, in order to ascertain the manner and degree to which the commands ought to be

applied, and finally arrive at the implementation on personal, communal, state, and global levels.

However, fulfilling the rights of the Creator in no way serves to make up for the failure to

fulfill the rights of all other beings. Moreover, the Creator may choose to forgive the sins against

Himself, but not the sins against othersas forgiveness belongs to the primary wronged party.28

Islamic primary texts are replete with aforementioned principles and they, perhaps, speak best

about the relation of mankind towards the Creator and creation.29

26Rhis commonly translate as soul, though the nuance meaning of the term reners it closer to reason an

intellect.27

Quran. 35:18, 53:39, etc.28

Al-Ghazali. Ghazl's Book of Counsel for Kings. Tr. F. R. C. Bagley. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964. Pg. 13.29

El-Munziri, Zekijjudin Abdu-l-Azim Ed-Dimiki., comp. Muslimova Zbirka Hadisa: Izbor. 3 Vols. Translate by efikKurid. Zenica: Kuda Murosti, 2004. Vol. 3. #1836. Pg. 292. *Henceforth referre to as Muslim]He [Muhammad] said: The bankrupt among my followers, is the one who will arrive on the Day of Judgment with

[obligatory] prayers, fasting, and alms, but he insulted one person, lied against another, ate [misappropriated] the


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He [Muhammad] said: Who desires to save themselves from the fire [hell] and enter paradise Let him

deal with others as he would wish them to deal with him.30

He [Muhammad] said: I swear by God, he does not believe whose neighbor is not free from their

evil/harm.31

The rights of others are not limited only to ones immediate community or to ones

immediate timedirectly or indirectly. In this sense, a Muslim has an obligation to all people,

everywhere, and at all times. That is to say, any act which causes evil, regardless of the target

and the time of the effect (immediate or in a 100 years), is prohibited. Further, all that man

possesses is considered as a blessing and a gift of the Creator upon man, and as such does not

belong to man. Consequently, some of the resources man commands are given to him for the

specific purpose of extending them to others 32whether by need or obligation. From this notion

comes the Islamic mandatory tax (zekat), which is to be distributed to those in need.

Rights ofFlora:

Plants, or ratherflora in general, is addressed quite often in the Islamic primary sources.

Flora is considered as existing for its own purpose, and with its own intrinsic value. Similarly,

the use which humanity gets out of any type of plant and for any purposebe it food, medicine,

firewood, etc.is considered a gift of the Creator upon man. 33 To that extent, the destruction of

flora is prohibited even in warfare.34

Quran often describes the Earth (soil) as dead, and only by

the will of the Creator does it give life, in conjunction with the rain etc., all controlled by the

Creator. In that sense, even those things man plants do not grow and bear fruit by mans effort

possessions of a third, spilled the blood of a fourth, and harmed yet another. Then, his good deeds will be

distributed to the wronged parties. And when his good deeds are gone, and he has not returned what he owes

[them as their right], their bad deeds will be taken, and heaped onto him; and he will be thrown into the fire [hell].30

Muslim. Vol. 2. #1199. Pp. 313-14.31

Ez-Zubejdi, Abdullatif, comp. Buharijina Zbirka Hadisa: Saetak. Translate by Mehmealija Haicd. Sarajevo: El-Kalem, 2008. # 2022. Pg. 914. [Henceforth referred to as Bukhari)32

Quran: 2:333

Ibid. 36:33-3534

Ullah, Hamid. Muslim Conduct of State. Pg. 73-73.


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alone, but obey the Creators will in doing so. In this way, the Quran uses the process of plant

growth as a sign to people as a demonstration of the Divine presence, power, and

knowledge.35

In a more metaphysical sense, the notion of plants, as well as environment, is

constantly used in conjunction with the notion of Heaventhe term which literally translates

into garden. Given these elements, it is not hard to understand the importance offlora in the

Islamic context; it constitutes a source of food, of enjoyment, of divine signs, and that which is

necessary for human survival, yet remains beyond human power to control in any absolute sense.

Furthermore, as noted above, man is answerable for all his actions which cease at the

moment of death. However, several acts may continue to accumulate good deeds for the

deceased. These include charitable trusts for the support of human beings or animalssuch as

schools, hospitals, veterinary hospitals, grazing lands, orphanages, etc. Additionally, planted

trees continue to accumulate good deeds, for as long as the trees provide any sort of benefit for

man or animalby food, shade, or shelter.36

Rights of Fauna:

Islamically, as we have noted, animals (fauna) are considered as created with a purpose

in relation to their Creator.37 They are described as having value in and of themselves, to their

respective communities, and in maintaining balance in creation.38

The notion of animal

communities and their purpose in maintaining balance and harmony is rather similar to the

modern discussion of the role each species plays a part in the local ecological systems.

35Quran. 36:33, etc. ALSO

Lane, Edward William. Pg. 131.36

Bukhari. #2019.Pg. 914.37

Ibid. 2:11638

Ibid. 7:56, 26:149-152, etc. ALSO

Deen, Mawil Y. Izzi. Pg. 167.


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The relation of man to animals (particularly those domesticated) is posited in a way that

is unambiguously one of the Creators blessings upon man, by mans ability to utilize some

animals for his own benefit.39

At the same time, given that mans use is neither the sole purpose

of animals, nor an inherent right of man, but rather that it is a favor of the Creator for man, the

use of animals becomes a position of responsibility for humans. That is to say, humanity is given

a loana sort of right to use that which belongs to anotherand is expected to treat the things

on loan with great care. To do otherwise would be to show ingratitude to the ownerwhich is

the literal translation of the term kufrthe root word of the term infidel.40 The gratitude for

this blessing amounts to righteous treatment of animals, whether domesticated or wild, and

obligates man to extend his care, time, and resources to their benefit. Additionally, animals are

protected from harm, even in warfare, where the destruction of enemy livestock might provide an

advantage.41

In this way, Muslims (individually or communally) are supposed to pursue the good

(marf), through the principle ofadl, by doing justice to the creation.

Even when man avails himself of the animal flesh, necessitating the animals death, there

are a series of Hadith rules for the proper method of doing so (to take the life of an animal for

sport is strictly forbidden)42

. These rules, when followed, result in the least distress for the

animal, and are in that respect, more humane than the modern slaughtering methods.43

39Quran. 36:71-73

40 Lane, Edward William. Pg. 2620.41

Ullah, Hamid. Muslim Conduct of State. Edited by Syed Mahmud-un-Nasir. Lahore: Mansoor Book House, 1973.

Pp. 73-73.42

Ozdemir, Ibrahim.An Islamic Approach to the Environment. 2002. Accessed from:

http://www.islamawareness.net/Nature/environment_approach.html. Via: Nasai Hadith Collection.

Muhammad said: If without good reason anyone kills a sparrow, or a creature lesser than that even, the living

creature will put his plaint to God on the Day of Judgement, saying: So-and-so killed me for no purpose.43

Schulze, W.; Schultze-Petzol, H.; Hazem, A. S.; Gro, R. Experiments for the objectification of pain andconsciousness during conventional (captive bolt stunning) an religiously manate (ritual cutting) slaughter
http://www.islamawareness.net/Nature/environment_approach.htmlhttp://www.islamawareness.net/Nature/environment_approach.htmlhttp://www.islamawareness.net/Nature/environment_approach.html


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Rights of the Environment:

With the relation of man-to-Creator, and that of man-to-animals and plants established, we

can now turn to the notion of IEE in regards to the environment in general. Islam, unlike many

Christian denominations, allows for the possibility of man-made destruction of the environment

(such as global warming), rather than positing an eternally preserved stasis or balance. In this

way, the notions of goodness and justice take on a concrete meaning in terms of the outcome of

human actions.

The destruction of plants and animals leads to the destruction of ecosystems, which damages

the environment in which man resides, and thus damages the potential of the people and

communities living in that area. Thus, such destruction harms others, and the world as a whole.

This process, as noted, stands in complete opposition to the imperatives of action in the

foregoing sections.

The environment itself is considered as a sign (or proof) from the Creator of his presence,

and includes not only the Earth and what is upon it, but also the universe as a whole.44

A number

of verses in the Quran deal with the sun, the moon, and the stars as signs. The universe is

Islamically posited as having been created in balance.45 The destruction of that balance, in any

form, can be conceptually reduced to the notion of placing chaos in place of order, or dissonance

in place of harmony. As such, it constitutes munker(evil) andulm (injustice)which, as noted,

is strictly prohibited.

proceures for sheep an calves. In. Deutsche Tieraerztliche Wochenschrift (German veterinary weekly) volume85 (1978), pages 62-66 Tr. Dr Sahib M. Bleher. 1987. Accessed from: http://www.mustaqim.co.uk/halalstudy.htm44

Quran. 36-37-40.45

Ibid. 7:56.


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At this point, it will be fruitful to note exactly what the notion of balance entails, in the

Islamic context. The Islamic notions of natural balance are synonymous with the ecological

notions of balance and sustainability. To begin with, balance relies on order and precise

placement of all pertinent factors within the system. The Quran notes:

You do not see in the creation of the Most Merciful any inconsistency. So turn [your] vision [to the heavens];do you see any faults? Then return [your] vision again and again. [Your] vision will return to you humbled [by

its awe] and fatigued [from searching].46

In this sense, balance also carries the connotation of adl (justice), while negatingzulm

(injustice and misplacement). In terms of the environment, these implications further stress that

all creation should be free and able to fulfill its role whether predator, prey, or otherwise.

Human interaction should find a way to fit within this system, and can use it so long as it does

not destroy it. Thus, hunting deer for food, or wolves for fur (clothing), is permissiblebut only

within the limit which preserves the general ecological balance, as well as satisfying a legitimate

need that cannot be otherwise met. Consequently, hunting a species to extinction is outright

prohibited, as is any action which leads to the destruction of ecological balance whether by

hunting, urban expansion, overuse of resources, etc.

However, where the balance is already problematized, such as the extinction of top predators

across much of the continental USA and the subsequent population expansion of other species in

absence of predatory population control, human interaction must aim to reestablish the balance in

the short and long term. Thus, in considering the expanding deer populations in absence of

wolves, human role would Islamically include culling the deer population in the short term, and

reintroducing wolves into the environment in the long term.

46Ibid. 67:3-4.


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Any abuse of the environment, whether of the living entities such as people, animals and

plants, or non-living entities like water, is considered the creation of chaos where balance should

reign. Consequently, it is a form of evil (munker). However, Islamic notions of what constitutes

abuse are rather sensitive. The following Hadith will serve to clarify.

It is narrated that Gods Messenger [Muhammad] appeared while Sad was taking the ablutions. When he

saw that Sad was using a lot of water, he intervened saying: What is this? You are wasting water.Sadreplied asking: Can there be wastefulness while taking the ablutions? To which Gods Messenger

replied:Yes, even if you take them on the bank of a rushing river.47

It is important to note several things about this example. First, the ablutions are a necessary

prerequisite of a mandatory act

namely Islamic prayer. Second, Muhammads retort

categorically prohibits the abuse of a resource, even where it is plentiful, free, and its use causes

no harm to the resource, or the environment. Thus, the notion of abuse becomes redefined as the

use of any resource beyond that which is necessary. Taken in the context of the preceding

understanding of rights of humans, animals, and plants, it becomes clear that, if abuse in a way

that causes no harm is prohibited, then any abuse in a way that may be harmful is significantly

more problematic. Such an act would constitute a form of evil (munker) insofar as it harms the

creation, and more specifically injustice (ulm) insofar as it displaces the rights of other beings,

as well as disrupting the balance and harmony otherwise present.

However, the IEE is concerned not only with the prevention of future harm. It is also

engaged in all aspects of human activity through the use of the quintet of moral scale, as posited

by the science of jurisprudence. The aforementioned flexibility of this approach makes IEE a

highly useful tool in considering environmental management and the present environmental

crisis.

47Ozdemir, Ibrahim.An Islamic Approach to the Environment. Via: Musnad and Ibn Maja Hadith Collections.


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IEE is applicable particularly to considering the development of science in general, of new

technologies, or new understanding of the effects and scope of old technologies. Islamic ethics is

able to reevaluate the moral validity of an ongoing or future project, by assimilating new

information into the moral equation. In some cases, the new information will have no new

bearing on the project, while in others it may either constrain the scope of the project in order to

mitigate the negative effects to a manageable size, or even outright prohibit a project if the

consequences are dire enough, or no methods of mitigating the effects to a manageable size are

available. Similarly, new information may lead to green-lighting a project which had been

sidelined, by providing either a means of management of the negative effects, or by uncovering a

method which bypasses the effects altogether.

Finally, in certain circumstances, it is possible that the new information would ordinarily lead

to the prohibition of a project, yet the already present and ingrained aspects of that project cannot

be simply abandoned, due to the necessary services the project provides. In such a case, the

resolution is found in the principle ofdharra (necessity), which stipulates that, when a thing

becomes necessary for survival, even when it is otherwise morally prohibited, it becomes

permissiblebut only in the absolutely necessary amounts. In this way, the consumption of

alcohol and pork is permissible for Muslims under life-or-death duress, while it is otherwise

explicitly prohibited.

For example, the use of gasoline/diesel-powered vehicles has become so standardized that

the information about the pollution they cause cannot be used to simply ban them. To do so

would cripple economies, disable ambulances, fire response and police vehicles, and generally

prevent the functioning of a society dependent upon those means of transportationto say

nothing of energy production. Yet, simply going about using oil as before its dangers became


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known is not an option, given the now-known destructive effects of such resources on the global

ecosystem.

In such cases, dharra allows for the continuation of the activityin this case the use of

gasoline/diesel-powered vehiclesbut requires (makes wjib) two things in order to preserve the

moral validity of the action. First, it requires that the harmful activity be reduced to a degree

which is necessary, and so limit the negative effects of the activity as much as possible. Second,

it requires that one turns their time, attention, and resources to finding either an alternative means

of providing the same service (which will not be destructive), or finding ways to mitigate the

destructive parts of the existing activity, in a way that will eliminate or reduce its harmful effects

to manageable levels.

Thus, Islamically, the correct course of action would be first to limit vehicle use so that at

least the majority of their use would be for purposes which are categorized as necessary. Second,

it would require research into alternative means of transportation, or non-pollutant fuels, or

means of negating the pollutants in the fuel. As soon as the research yielded verifiable results, it

would have to be implementedwhile at the same time discouraging or outlawing the use of

polluting sources of transportation in a way that would be viable for the scale on which the

project was taking place. Finally, the Islamically moral course would also demand that the

Islamic community undertaking this project work on a global level, and in partnership with all

other willing nations which utilize the same polluting methods, in order to achieve the maximum

influence of the corrective process.48

48This step is Islamically necessary, as Islam consiers itself to be universal, an unerstans all evil everywhere

to be a problem that Muslims should seek to address even more so when the impact of the action is global.


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In summary, the foregoing analysis should clearly indicate that Islam does have an

established environmental ethics. Beyond the general restrictions and obligations, the Islamic

legal theory provides a means of incorporating modern scientific elements into a coherent

framework for addressing environmental issues. In this way, Islamic Environmental Ethics are

not bound by the timeframe of their introduction in the 7th

century, and are able to adapt to the

new developments, as well as provide a series of environmental guidelines going forward. They

also offer a flexibility of approach, which enables them to tackle problems in progress, rather

than merely laying out a series of preventative Dos and Donts.

Finally, an observer of global environmental policies might rightly ask why the nations

which consider themselves Islamic are failing to utilize this methodology, and are quite often

some of the greatest producers of pollutants like oil and gas? The answer is both simple and

complex. The simple answer is that, as Muhammad Asad points out, [T]here has never existed a

trulyIslamic state after the time of the Prophet [Muhammad] and of the Medina Caliphate

headed by the Prophets immediate successors [ending in 661 CE.]49 The complex answer, in its

entirety, is too great to tackle within these few pages. However, we can note that it has much to

do with geo-politics, the fact that oil and gas are just about the only resource and source of

income for many modern Islamic nations, and that for these nationsthe continued export of

these resources can often mean the difference between peace, and sudden regime change.

49Asad, Muhammad. The Principle of State and Government in Islam. Pg. v.


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WORKS CITED

1. Al-Ghazali. Ghazl's Book of Counsel for Kings. Tr. F. R. C. Bagley. Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress, 1964.

2. Asad, Muhammad. The Principle of State and Government in Islam. Kuala Lumpur: IslamicBook Trust, 1980.

3. Asad, Muhammad. This Law of Ours and Other Essays. Gibraltar: Dar al-Andalus, 1987.4. Deen, Mawil Y. Izzi. Islamic Environmental Ethics, Law, and Society. In This Sacred Earth.

Ed. Roger S. Gottlies. New York: Routledge, 1996.

5. El-Munziri, Zekijjudin Abdu-l-Azim Ed-Dimiki., comp.Muslimova Zbirka Hadisa: Izbor. 3Vols. Translated by efik Kurdi. Zenica: Kua Mudrosti, 2004.

6. Ez-Zubejdi, Abdullatif, comp.Buharijina Zbirka Hadisa: Saetak. Translated by MehmedalijaHadic. Sarajevo: El-Kalem, 2008.

7. Izutsu, Toshihiko.Ethico-religious Concepts in the Qurn. Montreal: McGill University Press,1966.

8. Kamali, Muhammad Hashim. The Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence. 3rd. Ed. Cambridge: TheIslamic Text Society, 2005.

9. Khadduri, Majid. War and Peace in the Law of Islam. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1955.10.Lane, Edward William. An Arabic-English Lexicon. Beirut: Librarie du Liban, 1968.11.Malik, Muhammad Farooq-i-Azam.English Translation of the Meaning of Al-Quran: The

Guidance for Mankind. Houston, TX: Institute of Islamic Knowledge, 2002.

12.Ozdemir, Ibrahim.An Islamic Approach to the Environment. 2002. Accessed from:http://www.islamawareness.net/Nature/environment_approach.html

13.Schulze, W.; Schultze-Petzold, H.; Hazem, A. S.; Gro, R. Experiments for the objectification ofpain and consciousness during conventional (captive bolt stunning) and religiously mandated

(ritual cutting) slaughter procedures for sheep and calves. In. Deutsche TieraerztlicheWochenschrift (German veterinary weekly) volume 85 (1978), pages 62-66 Tr. Dr Sahib M.

Bleher. 1987. Accessed from:http://www.mustaqim.co.uk/halalstudy.htm

14.Ullah, Hamid.Muslim Conduct of State. Edited by Syed Mahmud-un-Nasir. Lahore: MansoorBook House, 1973.

15.White, Lynn. The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis [with discussion of St. Francis;reprint, 1967]. Ecology and Religion in History. New York: Harper and Row, 1974.
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ISLAMIC ENVIRONMENTALISM - 21ST CENTURY LESSONS FROM THE QUR’AN

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