irp-cdn.multiscreensite.com¹... · irp-cdn.multiscreensite.com
IRP 806 RESEARCH METHOD IN EMPLOYMENT RELATION AND … · 2018-07-27 · IRP 806 RESEARCH METHOD IN...
Transcript of IRP 806 RESEARCH METHOD IN EMPLOYMENT RELATION AND … · 2018-07-27 · IRP 806 RESEARCH METHOD IN...
IRP 806 RESEARCH METHOD IN EMPLOYMENT RELATION AND HUMAN RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT
FRANCIS C. ANYIM PhD
FCIPM, FNIM, FABS, FCAI
Department of Employment Relations and
Human Resource Management, Faculty of
Management Sciences, University of
Lagos.
E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
Tel No: 08033468317, 08078008008
CHAPTER
TWO(CONTINUATION)
1. ACKNOWLEDGING SOURCES OF INFORMATION:
Works of other people reviewed must be
acknowledged. The researcher should not
pretend that borrowed ideas are his. In fact, the
more works you acknowledge, the more regard
you are accorded for having read widely.
You may quote directly or paraphrase. The
rule about quotations demands that any
quotation that occupies more than four lines may
be entered without quotation marks but should
be centralized or indented and typed single –
spaced.
2. STYLES OF ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
There are many ways of acknowledging sources of works
consulted in the process of conducting a research. The key
thing is that the researcher must be consistent.
In reporting an author’s contribution in the text of your
work, the American Psychological Association (APA) style
requires that author’s name, date of publication and page
number of the statement being referred to are stated. The
page number should be stated if the idea, opinion or fact
being borrowed can be located in a particular page(s). but
where the idea runs through the whole work, the page
number may not be stated.
Some of the examples below are Osuala (1982), Nworgu (1991), and Asika (1991).
Example 1: Referencing at end of statement. Some of the factors cited as causes of Japan’s relatively low rate of labour turnover are status enhancement variables (Marsh and Mannari, 1971). Example 2: Referencing, Beginning of Statement. Michad (1958:17) stressed a deeper level of commitment to firm, culturally distinctive for Japan and stated that the worker, whether labourer or manager, despite potential economic advantages, is bound to remain in the company’s employment.
Example 3: Multiple – Author Referencing Used
Directly in the Text: Students of Japanese organization,
tend to be divided over the relative causal importance
of the two sets of factors. Some stress the distinctively
Japanese factor of life-time commitment norms and
values while others, such as Taira (1962, 1970), Cole
(1971) and Marxh and Mannari (1971, 19972, 1976),
give more weight to status enhancement and other
more universal factors.
Example 4: Citing Long Corporate Names: Where the
name of a corporate author is long and cumbersome,
after the first full citation, it could be abbreviated.
For example:
First Citation: (Federal Ministry of
Finance (FMF), 1981.
Subsequent citations: (FMF, 1981).
Example 5: Citing Authors with the Same Surname: If a researcher
refers to two or more authors with the same surname, the authors’ initials are included in all TEXT citations.
For example:
L.A. Nworgu (1987) and K.O. Nworgu (1982) reported that …..
Example 6 : Citing Works by the same author Published in the Same
Year: Works by the same author that were published in the same year
are distinguished by adding letters a, b, c,d, etc. to the year of
publication.
For example:
Okeke (1976a, 19776b, 1976c) made similar findings to the effect
that …..
Example 7: Citing Personal Communications,
Personal communications include letters, memos,
conversations, etc. the Citation incorporates the
surname and initials of the communicator and the
exact date as follows:
H.K. Osuji (Personal communication, September
26, 1979) has noted that …
However personal communications are not cited in
the Bibliography.
Bibliography: The method of
referencing used above has the
advantage that the researcher can
alphabetically arrange the authors’
names at the end of the report and
give fuller details about the materials
being referred to.
A bibliography is a list of all works (journals, books,
magazines, etc.) which the researcher used, whether
such works were actually referred to in the text or not.
However, project supervisors do frown at a practice
whereby a work referred to in the text is not
acknowledged in the bibliography.
A bibliography appears only once in the entire work
and at the end of the project.
In a bibliography, all the works consulted by the author
are arranged in the following order: first, journals, then
books, magazines and newspapers, and finally, other
publications.
The citation for the different categories under
the bibliography section is presented below.
Referencing for Journals/Articles with
Journals/Periodicals: the major difference
between referencing for journals and books is
that in journals, the publisher is not
mentioned.
The steps involved are:
1. Exact name of the author, beginning with the
author’s last name, the surname, before other names
or initials. Put a period after initials.
2. Title of the article published in the journal in
parenthesis. Put a comma after the title of the article.
3. The name of the journal or periodical. This should be
underlined. Put a period after name of journal.
4. Volume No. Put a comma after vol. No.
5. Serial number of the publication.
6. Date of issue or publication.
Date of publication may appear immediately after
the author’s name. The key thing is to be
consistent with whichever style adopted.
For example, Swanson, D. “dialogue with a catalogue” Library
Quarterly. Vol. NO 34, 1963.
or Swanson, D. (1963), “Dialogue with a catalogue,
Library Quarterly Vol. No. 34.
Referencing for Magazines and Newspapers. The steps are:
•Name of the Magazine or Newspaper
•Date of publication.
Articles in a Newspaper and magazine.
•Name of contributor
•Title of contribution, in parenthesis.
•Name of Newspaper or Magazine which should be underlined.
•Date of publication or issue.
For example:
Babara, W,.T. “If Asia were Clay in the Hands of the West”, Atlantic, September, 1970.
Referencing for Books.
The steps are:
•Name of author, surname first followed by
initials. Put a period after the initials.
•Title of book, to be underlined. Put a period at
the end of the name of the book.
•State place of publication. Put a colon after
place of publication.
•The Printing process or outfit.
•Date of publication
For example:
One author
Chukwuma, P. Career Education. Aba: Alhaji Printing
Press, 1963.
Two – More authors
Mention the names of all authors and follow the other steps
as above. However, when citing two or more authors in the
text of a project for the first time, mention all the names of
the authors. But for all subsequent citations in the text, state
the name of the first author and add ‘et al’.
No author Given.
Skip the stage of stating name of author and follow
other steps.
For example:
Guidelines for Writing thesis. Lagos: the University of
Lagos, 1986.
Institution, Association or the like as author
For example:
Special Libraries Association, directory of Business
and financial Services. New York: special Libraries
Association; 1963.
3. TYPES OF VARIABLE
A variable can be classified in a
number of ways. The classification
developed results from looking at
variables in three different ways
•The causal relationship;
•The design of the study;
•The unit of measurement
From the viewpoint of causation
In studies that attempt to investigate a causal
relationship or association, four sets of variables may
operate (see Figure 5):
•Change variables, which are responsible for bringing
about change in a phenomenon;
•Outcome variables, which are the effects of a change
variable;
•Variables which affect the link between cause-and-
effect variables;
•Connecting or linking variables, which in certain
situations are necessary to complete the relationship
between cause-and-effect variables.
Connecting or linking variables
(4)
Figure 5.1 Types of variable in a causal relationship
Cause Effect
Change variables (1)
Variables that affect the relationship (3)
Outcome variables (2)
In research terminology, change
variables are called independent
variables, outcome/effect variables are
called dependent variables, the
unmeasured variables affecting the
cause-and-effect relationship are
called extraneous variables, and the
variables that link a cause-and-effect
relationship are called intervening
variables. Hence:
•Independent variable – the cause
supposed to be responsible for
bringing about change(s) in a
phenomenon or situation.
•Dependent variable – the
outcome of the change(s) brought
about by introduction of an
independent variable.
•Extraneous variable – several other factors operating in a
real-life situation may affect changes in the dependent
variable. These factors, not measured in the study, may
increase or decrees the magnitude or strength of the
relationship between independent and dependent variables.
•Intervening variable – sometimes called the confounding
variable (Grinnell 1988:203), links the independent and
dependent variables. In certain situations the relationship
between an independent and a dependent variable cannot
be established without the intervention of another variable.
The cause variable will have the assumed effect only in the
presence of an intervening variable.
To explain these variables, let us take some
examples. Suppose you want to study the
relationship between smoking and cancer. You
assume that smoking is a cause of cancer. Studies
have shown that there are many factors affecting
this relationship, such as the number of cigarettes
or the amount of tobacco smoked every day; the
duration of smoking; the age of the smoker;
dietary habits; and the amount of exercise
undertaken by the individual.
All of these factors may affect
the extent to which smoking
might cause cancer. These
variables may either increase or
decrease the magnitude of the
relationship.
In the above example the extent
of smoking is the independent
variable, cancer is the dependent
variable and all the variables that
might affect this relationship,
either positively or negatively, are
extraneous variables.
Figure 5.2 Independent, dependent and extraneous variable in a causal relationship
Counselling service
(Assumed cause)
Independent variable
Marriage problems
(assumed effect)
Dependent variable
Affect the relationship
The age of the person
The extent of his her smoking
The duration of smoking
The extent of daily exercise etc.
Extraneous variables
Let us take another example. Suppose
you want to study the effects of a
marriage counseling service on marital
problems among clients of an agency
providing such a service. Figure 5.2
shows the sets of variables that may
operate in studying the relationship
between counseling and marriage
problems.
Figure 5.3 Independent, dependent, extraneous and intervening variables.
Independent variable
Mortality The extent of the use of contraceptives
Intervening variables
Fertility
Dependent variable
•Attitudes towards contraceptive use
among the population
•Level of education f the population
•Socioeconomic status of the population
•Provision and quality of health services
•Another person in the relationship
•The extent of communication between the
couple
•The couple’s motivation to improve the
situation
•The competence of the counselor, etc.
Extraneous variables
In studying the relationship between
a counseling service and marriage
problems, it is
Status and age, religion, and
provision and quality of health
services. These are classified as
extraneous variables.
In the above example, decline in mortality is assumed to
be the cause of a reduction in fertility, hence, the
mortality level is the independent variable and fertility
is the dependent variable. But this relationship will be
completed only if another variable intervenes – that is,
the use of contraceptives. A reduction in mortality
(especially child mortality) increases family size, and an
increase in family size creates a number of social,
economic and psychological pressures on families,
which in turn create attitudes favourable to a smaller
family size.
This change in attitudes is eventually operationalised in behavior through the adoption of contraceptives. If people do not adopt methods of contraception, a change in mortality levels will not be reflected in fertility levels. The population explosion in developing countries is primarily due to lack of acceptance of contraceptives.
The extent of the use of contraceptives determines the
level of the decline in fertility. The extent of contraceptive
adoption by a population is dependent upon a number of
factors. In this causal model, the fertility level is the
dependent variable, the extent of contraceptive use is the
intervening variable, the mortality level is the
independent variable, and the unmeasured variables such
as attitudes, education, age, religion, the quality of
services, and so on are all extraneous variables. Without
the intervening variable the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables will not be
complete.
Counselling service
(Assumed cause)
Marriage problems
(assumed effect)
affect the relationship
Figure 5.4. Sets of variables in Counselling and Marriage Problems
Dependent variable
Independent variable
An improvement in the couple’s economic situation
The birth of a child
Pressure’ from friends and relatives
Self-realization
Another person in the relationship
The extent of communication between the couple
The couple’s motivation to improve the situation
The competence of the counselor, etc.
Extraneous variables
In studying the relationship between a
counseling service and marriage problems,
it is assumed that the counseling service
will influence the extent of marital
problems. Hence, in the study of the above
relationship, the type of counseling service
is the independent variable and the extent
of marriage problems is the dependent
variable.
The magnitude or strength of this relationship can
be affected, positively or negatively, by a number
of other factors that are not the focus of the study.
These extraneous variables might be the birth of a
child; improvement in a couple’s economic
situation; the couple’s motivation to change the
situation; the involvement of another person; self-
realization; and pressure from relatives and
friends. Extraneous variables that work both ways
can increase or decrease the strength of the
relationships.
The example in Figure 5.5 should help you to
understand intervening variables. Suppose you
want to study the relationship between fertility
and mortality. Your aim is to explore what
happens to fertility when mortality declines. The
history of demographic transition has shown that
a reduction in the fertility level follows a decline
in the mortality level, though the time taken to
attain the same level of reduction in fertility
varies markedly from country to country.
As such, there is no direct relationship
between fertility and mortality. With the
reduction in mortality, fertility will
decline only if people attempt to limit
their family size. History has shown that
for a multiplicity of reasons people have
used one method or another to control
their fertility, resulting in lower fertility
levels.
It is thus the intervention of contraceptive
methods that completes the relationship: the
greater the use of contraceptives, the greater
the decline in the fertility level. The extent
of the use of contraceptives is also affected
by a number of other factors, for example,
attitudes towards contraception, level of
education and socioeconomic conditions.
4. DEVELOPING A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
• Examining the literature can be a
never-ending task, but as you
have limited time, it is important
to set parameters by reviewing the
literature in relation to some main
themes pertinent to your research
topic.
As you start reading the literature, you will
soon discover that the problem you wish to
investigate has its roots in a number of
theories that have been developed from
different perspectives. The information
obtained from different books and journals
now needs to be sorted under the main themes
and theories, highlighting agreements and
disagreements among the authors and
identifying the unanswered questions or gaps.
You will also realize that the literature deals with a
number of aspects that have a direct or indirect
bearing on your research topic. Use these aspects
as a basis for developing your theoretical
framework. Your review of the literature should
sort out the information, as mentioned earlier,
within this framework. Unless you review the
literature in relation to this framework, you will
not be able to develop a focus in your literature
search; that is, the theoretical framework provides
you with a guide as you read.
This brings us to the paradox
mentioned previously; until you go
through the literature you cannot
develop a theoretical framework and
until you have developed a
theoretical framework, you cannot
effectively review the literature.
The solution is to read some of the literature
then attempt to develop a framework, even a
loose one, within which you can organize the
rest of the literature you read. As you read
more about the area, you are likely to change
the framework. However, without it, you will
get bogged down with a great deal of
unnecessary reading and note-taking that may
not be relevant to your study.
Literature pertinent to your study
may deal with two types of
information:
•Universal;
•More specific (i.e local trends or a
specific program).
In writing about such information you
should start with the general
information, gradually narrowing it
down to the specific.
Look at the example in figure below:
If you want to study the relationship
between mortality and fertility, you
should review literature about:
•Fertility – trends, theories, some of the indices and
critiques to them, factors affecting fertility, methods
of controlling fertility, factors affecting acceptance
of contraceptives, and so on;
•Mortality – factors affecting mortality, mortality
indices and their sensitivity in measuring change in
mortality levels of a population, trends in mortality,
and so on; and, more importantly.
•The relationship between fertility and mortality –
theories that have been put forward to explain the
relationship, implications of the relationship.
Out of this literature review you need to develop the theoretical framework for your study. Primarily this should revolve around theories that have been put forward about the relationship between mortality and fertility.
You will discover that a number of theories
has been proposed to explain this
relationship. For example, it has been
explained from economic, religious,
medical and psychological perspectives.
Within each perspective several theories
have been put forward; ‘insurance theory’, fear of non-survival’, ‘replacement theory’, ‘price theory’, ‘utility theory’, ‘extra’ or
‘hoarding theory’ and ‘risk theory’.
Your literature review could be written
under the following headings, with most
of the review involving the examination
of the relationships between fertility and
morality:
•Fertility theories;
•The theory of demographic transition;
•Trends in fertility (global, and then
narrow it to national and local levels);
•Methods of contraception (their acceptance
and effectiveness);
•Factors affecting mortality;
•Trends in mortality (and their implications);
•Measurement of mortality indices (their
sensitivity);
•Relationships between fertility and mortality
(different theories such as ‘insurance’, ‘fear
of non-survival’, ‘replacement’, ‘price’, ‘utility’, ‘risk’ and ‘hoarding’).
5. DEVELOPING A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
• The conceptual framework stems from the
theoretical framework and concentrates, usually,
on one section of that theoretical framework
which becomes the basis of your study. The latter
consists of the theories or issues in which your
study is embedded, whereas the former describes
the aspects you selected from the theoretical
framework to become the basis of your inquiry.
The conceptual framework is the basis of your research problem. For instance, in the example earlier cited the theoretical framework includes all the theories that have been put forward to explain the relationship between fertility and mortality.
However, out of these, you may
be planning to test only one, say,
the fear of non-survival. Hence
the conceptual framework grows
out of the theoretical framework
and relates to the specific
research problem concerning
the fear of non-survival theory.
Furthermore, after a thorough
review of the relevant literature,
the researcher should by now be
concerned with developing an
appropriate conceptual framework
for his research problem.
The development of scientific
knowledge through the research
process has been substantially
aided by the use of appropriate
theories, concepts and constructs
to elucidate and classify
relationships among observed
phenomena.
Consequently, a researcher will earn a great
deal of credibility and enhance the
acceptability of his study by stating and
explaining the conceptual base on which his
study is grounded. From his review of
literature, a researcher will have come across
many theories, models and assumptions that
may provide him with far greater insights and
clarify and enrich his framework of thinking
as far as his research problem is concerned.
Consequently, a researcher needs to
be able to fashion out appropriate
conceptual frameworks which will
guide them in formulating
appropriate hypotheses, in using
appropriate research design and in
enhancing the acceptability of his
findings.
A theory is a set of propositions that seeks to
explain interrelationship among events.
Simply put, a theory is a systematic way of
looking at phenomena. Concepts are
abstractions representing an object, a
property of an object or a certain
phenomenon. For example in political
science, words like ‘status’, ‘power’, and
‘authority’ are common concepts.
In business or social sciences,
concepts like ‘turnover’,
‘strike’, ‘absenteeism’,
‘lateness’ are all symptomatic
of the relationship between the
objects or individuals within a
particular organization.
Consequently, a researcher who is interested in
studying, for example, job dissatisfaction in a
particular organization will be interested in
assessing the link between each of the concepts
mentioned above and the level of job
dissatisfaction within the organization. Thus, his
theoretical framework will cover the network of
theories or studies that have established some
relationships between turnover and job
dissatisfaction, between strikes and job
dissatisfaction and so on.
From a given particular theoretical
framework, a researcher can develop his own
conceptual framework. Since concepts are
abstractions from reality, a researcher can
build up a network of variables and
assumptions, not necessarily from available
theories, which he considers to have some
interrelationships or some productive power
in explaining the occurrence or non-
occurrence of a particular phenomenon.
Thus, while a researcher’s theoretical framework
may be a network or set of assumptions and
propositions that logically explain the occurrence
or non-occurrence of phenomenon, a conceptual
framework may be an abstraction from existing
theories including certain assumptions or models
that the researcher may perceive as possessing
some explanatory powers in terms of enhancing
proper understanding of the influence of the
variables or their relationships with regard to an
observed phenomenon.
TOPIC: EFFECT OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT ON WORKPLACE RELATIONSHP
FIGURE ON CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Internal -Working Conditions
-Managerial Style
-Corporate Culture
External -Economic
-Political/Legal
-Socio-Cultural
-technological
-Grievance
Procedure
-Collective
Bargaining/Negotiat
ions
-Dispute Settlement
Mechanism (DSM)
-Alterative Dispute
Resolution (ADR)
Harmonious
of
Adversarial
CONFLICT SOURCES (IV) RESOLUTION MECHANISMS WORKPLACE
RELATIONSHIP (DV)
Source: Developed by the Research (Year)
IV = Independent Variable (Cause) Change)
DV = Dependent Variable (Effect) Outcome)
THE END