Iran Through the Looking Glass

History, Reform, and Revolution

Part 1: From Cyrus to Reza Shah

Iran’s Culture and history played an important role in the Iranian Revolution of 1979

The Iranians have obtained these cultural values through their long and complex history

Early Iran

Formally known as Persia Many tribes inhabited this area, they spoke

different languages and had different ethnic origins

But these tribes were pulled together by one environmental factor, The scarcity of water

The desire for the equal distribution of this scarce resource gave them 2 major cultural ties– Development of religion that emphasized justice and

fairness– Development of an effective government able to

implement the rules that governed society

What Was Zoroastrianism?

Born around the 10th century BCE, a prophet named Zoroaster traveled through Iran teaching about the responsibilities of humans

Zoroastrianism emphasized order, social justice, the idea that people were on earth to improve the world, and ultimate accountability before a single god

What were the contributions of the Achamenian Empire? (530-330 bc)

Persian King Cyrus was the first in a dynasty called the Achamenian Empire

Cyrus and his successors developed a postal system, built roads established a legal system, taxation system and a gvmt so efficient that the Romans later used it as a model for their own gvmt

Ended aprox. 330 BC after Alexander the Great invaded

130 years later the Greeks were overthrown and a series of nomadic wars insued

A man named Ardeshir reestablished central rule over the tribes

This era was known as the Sassanian Dynasty and lasted until 637 BC

What were the important developments of the Sassanian Dynasty? (220-647 CE)

One of the main goals was to unify the empire and to create political stability

–Persian culture flourished in this era

Rigid Class structures developed with the king at the top of the hierarchy

The barriers between classes were rigid These social rules marked the beginning of a

political order and hierarchy that was viewed as oppressive and unjust

The peoples opposition to this hierarchy set the stage for the arrival of Islam

Islam and the Safavids

Islam arrived when the Arabs conquered Iran between 637-651 BC

The message of justice and fairness appealed to the many Iranians who resented the Sassanian rule

Islam shared some common ideas with Zoroastrianism making it easier for Islam to take root

By the 10th century most Iranians were Islamic but they still held on to their pre-Islam culture

Who was the Prophet Mohammad?

According to Islam in 610 CE, Mohammad had a revelation form the angel Gabriel

His preaching had a great effect on the impoverished people because he talked about sharing wealth with the poor

About 100 years after Mohammad’s death a controversy divided the Islamic Faith into two branches, the Shi’i and the Sunni

Shi’ism

Shi’ism is the main form of Islam in Iran today The Muslims elected a new prophet after

Mohammad's death called a Caliph The Shi’a only recognize the fourth caliph, Ali, as a

true caliph because he was related to Mohammad Shi’a- followers of Ali Later the Shi’a later split up over succession

conflicts– Twelvers because they recognize 12 Imams (leaders) after

Ali– Seveners (Isma’ilis) because they recognize the seventh

leader

What was economic life like during the Safavid Dynasty? (1501-1736)

To gain control of the largely nomadic population Shah Isma’il granted tribal leaders large areas of land in return for payments and taxes

The Safavids built roads and exported silk and other textiles as well as ceramics to European countries

The most famous Safavid ruler, Shah Abbas encouraged support of other religions to help trade with Europe

Shah Abbas collected huge amounts of money in taxes and trades, he used this money to fund a large army to protect the Iranians from the boardering Ottoman Empire

The Qajar Dynasty (1779-1925)

Established by Agha Mohammad Khan in 1779 The Qajars weren’t really religious. This enhanced the

separation of the clergy that had greater influence over the population than the Shah

In the early 19th century almost ½ of the population was nomadic, the leaders of these tribes were of the appointed as governors of their area and the surrounding areas

The Qajar dynasty was hierarchical and corrupt, with the citizens taxes going to provide a life of luxury for the Shah

The economy lacked the infrastructure to grow making it susceptible to interventions by other countries (Britain & Russia) looking to expand their own wealth

How did Russia and Britain compete over Iran?

Russia wanted to expand southward and obtain ports on the Persian Gulf

Britain viewed this expansion as a threat to their colony, India.

Iran fought (and lost) 2 wars with Russia and eventually signed the Treaty of Turkomanchai which allowed Russian merchants special privileges and favorable Tariff

Britain informed Russia that it would not tolerate any further expansion in Iran. Iran became a buffer state between the 2 nations empires

Britain later negotiated a treaty with Iran that gave their merchants similar rights as the Russians

What were concessions?

With Britain and Russia competing for trade in Iran, the shah decided to grant “concessions” to foreign merchants

They gave foreigners the right to develop parts of Iran’s economy

British and Russian squabbles over these concessions slowed the development of infrastructure in Iran

The Foreign influence and wealth, along with the thought that they were plundering Iran lead to increased distrust of Europeans and other outsiders, this played a powerful role in Iran’s politics

Why did the Shah’s policies anger Iranians?

The concessions benefitted the British, Russian and the Shah but did little to help the political hardships in Iran’s economy

The Iranians who had contact with Europeans of had studied abroad worried that Iran had fallen behind

The government of Iran had stood in contrast with the organized European governments

They viewed western science and technology as the key to building Iranian national power and wealth

These brought liberal ideas, In response to these ideas, Nasir al-Din Shah resorted to repressive measures.

Constitutional Revolution of 1906-1911

Some Iranians believed that the influx of foreigners, the Shah’s corruption and economic hardship threatened the well-being of Iranians

Intellectuals, merchants, and clergy formed secret societies to discuss their unhappiness about the state of Iran

Intellectuals- wanted an Iran without the absolute and corrupt monarchy

Merchants- wanted an economic system that would be more fair and efficient

Clergy- wanted to strengthen the role of Shi’i Islam in the government

The intellectuals brought the idea of reform to Iran but the clergy spread it to the masses

How did protests lead to a parliament and constitution?

1905- Protests against the Shah began The public demands for change led to

the Constitutional Revolution Protestors demanded a constitution and

a parliament (Majlis- Persian word for parliament)

The shah, who was mortally ill and had hoped to preserve the monarchy, agreed

1906- Iran’s first elections for the parliament were held

How did the Constitution change Iranian politics?

Majlis received authority over treaties, loans, budgets, and concessions, and the power to appoint and dismiss cabinet members

Constitution defined the rights of the Iranian citizens

Members of the Majlis debated each other in public and had to answer to the citizens

Twelver was designated as the official religion of Iran, and a group of clergy was hired to make sure that the government didn’t contradict the principles of Shi’ism

How did foreign roles in Iran help the Shah weaken the new constitution?

Mohammad Ali Shah didn’t want to relinquish his power as monarch

Public discontent helped him helped him challenge the new constitution

He argued that the new gvnmt was even worse at protecting Iran from foreign interference

After encouragement from Russia the shah ordered his army to attack the Majlis building and had the officers arrested and executed

Once the society was divided and the central government was weakened fighting broke out

1909- Pro-constitution militias deposed the shah and replaced him with his 9 year old son

How did Russia and Britain respond to war in Iran?

1911-Britain sent troop to protect the newly discovered oil fields

The occupation of the Russians and British increased resentment because they were seen as helping the Shah end the Constitutional Revolution

How did WWI affect Iran?

Iran’s economy shrunk by 25% Parts of Iran were occupied by the Ottoman Empire,

Russia, and Great Britain Iran considered itself an unwilling victim of war and

petitioned for redress at the Paris Peace Conference The Russian Revolution of 1917 led to the withdrawal of

Russian Troops from the north Britain became the biggest influence The Iranian PM decided to embrace the British

involvement, in hope that it would help strengthen the central government

Anglo-Persian Agreement of 1919 would have made Iran a British protectorate

The Majlis refused to ratify the agreement

Reza Shah (1925-1941) Pahlavi Dynasty

1921-Colonel Reza Khan took 3,000 soldiers into Tehran arrested some leading politicians, and demanded the Shah to appoint a new PM

1923-Reza Khan had become PM himself, expanded the armed forces and purchased weapons

1925- Majlis abolished the Qajar dynasty and appointed Reza Khan as shah

What did Reza Shah hope to change in Iran?

Hoped to build Iran into a modern state and economy like the western states of Europe

He worked to strengthen the central gvmnt, concentrate his power

Ordered the construction of new roads, railroads, factories, hospitals and ports

Expanded public education for both boys and girls

Limited the tribes’ movements and forced them to disarm

How did Reza Shah try to reduce the power of the ulama?

Reza Shah believed that the clergy’s power prevented Iran’s modernization, so many of his plans were designed to weaken the clergy and make Iran a more secular society

Central component of his reforms included significant changes in the legal system

New laws required men to dress in the western style and prohibited hijab (veiling) for women

Many Iranians embraced his modernization of Iran, his efforts to reduce Islam nade him unpopular

Enforced his policies with Violence, terror and fear 1935- Religious leaders protested the forced unveiling of

women at a mosque. Reza Shah had the army massacre more than 100 protestors

How did the lives of women change during the reign of Reza Shah?

The Shah encouraged the education of women, though 3x as many boys received a formal education

Women began to have more opportunities for work.

Women were admitted to the University

Mainly only affected women in middle and upper classes and did little to change traditional assumptions about the subjugation of women to men

How did Reza Shah attempt to limit the influence of foreign powers in Iran?

Reza Shah attempted to reduce the role of foreign powers in Iran- particularly Britain

The Shah prohibited the sale of property to foreigners, refused to take loans from foreign countries to fund his building projects, and ended a concession that had given the British the sole right to manage Iranian currency

Britain controlled its monopoly on Iranian oil

How did the German presence in Iran lead to the Shah’s abdication?

1930’s the shah allowed Nazi Germany to play an increasing role in Iran

The Shah’s deep distrust of Britain hoped a German presence would balance the power of the British

Allied leaders worried that Nazi Germany would use Iran as a base for military operations against the USSR

After the Allies had expelled the Nazis, Reza Shah gave the throne to his young son, Mohammad Reza

Mohammad Reza was seen as someone whom the allies could influence

How did the occupation of Iran during WWII affect Iran’s Politics?

During WWII, neither the shah nor the Majlis had final control over the policy in Iran

The US sent financial advisors to assist the Iranian Government and military officers who trained the Iranian police and army

The US and the USSR wanted a share in Iran’s oil after the war

How did WWII affect Iran’s economy?

The wartime allies took the use of Iran’s transportation facilities like the railroad to send supplies, making internal trade more difficult for Iran

There was little money for the government to invest in infrastructure or programs to develop Iran’s economy

By the time WWII ended Iran was economically destroyed, still subject to foreign influence, and ruled by a weak shah

Part II: Mossadegh to Khomeini

At the end of WWII Iran stood at a crossroads

Britain, the Soviet Union, and the US agreed to withdraw their occupation forces six months after the end of the war

The constitution of 1906 was still in affect, and with the departure of the dictator Reza Shah, the Majlis and PM assumed increasingly important roles in Iranian politics

How did the shah attempt to strengthen his power?

Following an assassination attempt in 1949, Mohammad Reza Shah drew on public sympathy to back his efforts to increase his power

He put pressure on the Majlis to accept a new law that would allow him to dissolve the Majlis and call for new elections. He was also given the power to appoint a new PM

Cont.

Many different political views developed during this time

The lower class was concerned about basic economic issues

60% of Iranians who lived in towns and cities lived in slums

The upper class wished for a more efficient government, free from foreign control

University graduates used their education to join and lead social protest movements

Mohammad Mossadegh and Oil Nationalization

Increasing profits and rising prices brought more and more profit to the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, but no more to the Iranian gvmt

By the late 1940’s, Iran had become the world’s fourth largest oil exporter, and produced 90% of Europe’s oil

While the AIOC provided jobs for many Iranians, they were low level with no chance of moving up in the company

Working conditions were atrocious, paying only around 50cents a day with no vacations or sick days

Riots in Abadan (1946) demanded that the gvmt renegotiate the terns of the arrangement with the AIOC

What were the results of negotiations between AIOC and Iran?

Britain had built its empire by extracting resources from its colonies greatly advantageous

Local interests were never a concern Britain manipulated local politicians with bribes

or coercion Britain needed the oil money for its post war

expenses They offered to train more Iranians for high level

positions and promised that royalty payments would not drop below 4 million pounds per year ($134 million)

Why did the shah want to support the Supplemental Agreement with Britain?

British officials were responsible for Mohammad Reza succeeding his father to the throne, so Mohammad felt he owed the British for this

He thought he could strengthen his power by helping the British even though the agreement benefited Britain more that Iran

The Shah ordered the cabinet members to accept this agreement, which they did, but the Majlis refused to pass it

Why did the Majlis refuse to support the Supplemental Agreement?

The constitution required the Majlis to ratify the agreement for it to become law

Majlis knew that the public was strongly against accepting the terms dictated by the British, but they were afraid to anger the shah

The Shah used bribes and electoral fraud to place his supporters in the Majlis

Prominent politician named Mohammad Mossadegh led protests in Tehran for new and fair elections of the Majlis

Many political groups sprang forth at this time with one united factor: the desire to nationalize Iran’s oil

How did the shah respond to demands of the political parties?

In Feb.. 1951 Mossadegh proposed full nationalization of the AIOC

The PM rejected this proposal. On march 7, a member of the Fedaian-e Islam assassinated him

On March 15, the Majlis passed a bill nationalizing the AIOC. They also requested that the shah appoint Mossadegh as the PM

How did Britain respond to the nationalization?

Britain increased its military forces in the region, filed a complaint with the ICJ and asked the UN Security council to intervene

The US worried that a continuing crisis in Iran could lead to increased Soviet influence or even control of Iran

Britain led an international boycott of Iranian oil British spying proved to Mossadegh that the

British could not be trusted In Oct. 1952, Mossadegh broke diplomatic relations

with Britain and expelled all British officials form Iran

What other reforms did Mossadegh attempt to enact in Iran?

Mossadegh was a strong nationalist who hoped to rid Iran of foreign influence

Strong advocate for the rule of law and the Constitution

Reduce the power of the shah and the size of the army

Enact land reforms- reduce power of wealthy landowners and allow peasants to own their own land

How did the British and the Americans overthrow Mossadegh ?

US officials worried about Iran falling under Soviet influence

US & Britain aimed to rid Iran of the Mossadegh gvmnt, and increase the power of the shah, whom they thought would do their bidding

The CIA and the SIS came up with a plan to overthrow Mossadegh

Cont.

The plan was to convince the Iranian people that Mossadegh was corrupt, an enemy of Islam, and pro-communist

CIA agents bribed newspapers and religious leaders to spread these Ideas

CIA also paid for physical attacks on Religious leaders and made it appear as if the attacks had been by Mossadegh supporters

Us involvement turned Iran into a hotbed of instability, rioting and chaos

Aug 19, 1953 they captured Mohammad Mossadegh

He was dismissed as prime minister

Royal Dictatorship

To avoid a repeat of the threats to his power the Mohammad Reza Shah took steps to ensure that these events would not occur again

He had the support of the US and Britain, who wanted a stable, oil-producing Iran as an ally against the USSR

What steps did the shah take to consolidate his power?

The shah moved to settle the oil dispute: Iran would receive 50% of oil revenues, similar to other US deals in the Region

Banned the Pro-soviet Tudeh party Formed SAVAK (Intelligence and Security

Organization of the Country), a secret police organization which he used to hunt down his opponents, known for its mistreatment, torture and execution of opponents

US gave more than $500 million in military aid to the shah; shah followed a strongly Pro-American foreign policy

And the Shah only allowed 2 political parties to exist which were both under his control

The White Revolution: “Plagued by the West”

An economic downturn in Iran coincided with US pressure on the shah to ease restrictions on political expression as a conditioned for ongoing financial and military aid

As the repression eased, unrest and discontent simmered again in Iran

A Cleric named Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini opposed the shah’s close relations with the US, Iran’s sale of oil to Israel, the corruption of the regime, and Iran’s failure to help its masses of poor people

What was the White Revolution?

Not a revolution at all Name given to reforms the shah adopted to reduce the

growing unrest Most important reform was the redistributing land to

peasant farmers and sharecroppers, giving women the right to vote and creating the Literacy Corps (increasing education)

Gave 2 million peasants ownership of the land that they farmed

This took land away from wealthy landowners as well as the ulama who used the land to support religious schools and mosques

75% of the peasants did not receive enough land to even reach a level of subsistence

How did the shah change the status of women?

He gave women the right to vote and increased educational and employment opportunities

He also introduced laws that gave women more rights in marriage

Polygamy was still permitted, but now the husband had to obtain permission of his current wife before taking another

Why were relations with the US a sore point for many Iranians?

The shah spent hundreds of millions of dollars on US weapons

The US was happy to supply most of it’s advanced weapons to an ally against the USSR

Majlis approved a law that made Americans residing in Iran exempt from Iranian laws and taxation, the Ayatollah Khomeini spoke out, risking the wrath of the shah

Khomeini believed the shah and his reforms were an assault on Islam and the role of the clergy in Iranian society

Khomeini considered the shah to be an enemy on Islam and a ruler who was unconcerned about the welfare of the Iranian people

Why did Khomeini’s message appeal to so many Iranians?

Khomeini’s ideas struck a chord with Iranians of many classes and ideologies

When the shah’s soldiers killed protesting theology students, Khomeini compared the shah to the man who had ordered the killing of Iman Hussein, a central figure in Shi’ism

The students were seen as Shi’i martyrs Not all Iranians agreed with Khomeini’s ideas

but they were pleased to have someone speak out against the shah

What important idea did Khomeini develop in exile?

The shah ordered Khomeini arrested and exiled to Najaf in Iraq, a shrine frequently by Iranian pilgrims

These pilgrims would smuggle pamphlets and cassette recordings made by Khomeini back into Iran

Khomeini developed a religious and political framework for Iran’s future

Frame work called Velayat-e Faquh –Guardianship of the Jurist

Thought that clergy should be the ultimate conscience of the state

And that an Islamic gvmnt needed to replace the corrupt influence of kings, which believed were illegitimate rulers

How did the shah respond to Khomeini?

The shah used SAVAK to suppress and weaken the religious leadership in Iran

Prevented large religious gatherings from taking place The shah hoped to reduce the influence of Islam by

replacing it with Iranian nationalism and by emphasizing monarchy as the lynchpin of the Iranian nation

1971- more than $100 million (almost 500 million in today’s dollars) was spent for a celebration al Persopolis only a few wealthy or powerful Iranians were invited

For many, $100 million dollars spent on a banquet while Iranians remained in poverty illustrated his lack of compassion and judgment

How did opposition begin to grow?

The ulama quietly spread the word that the shah’s celebration of the pre-Islamic kings showed his disrespect for Islam

The shah repressed political dissent, but small groups met in secret

SAVAK fiercely repressed dissent through arrests, torture, and executions.

1975- shah’s efforts to tighten control, made 1 political party

He was able to remain in power for 3 reasons: brutal suppression of his opponents and political dissent, nearly unconditional support from the US & Britain, vast amounts of money brought into Iran through oil revenues

How did the rising price of oil affect Iran?

1973- Arab-Israeli War led Arab nations to impose an oil boycott on nations that supported Israel

Oil prices doubled worldwide, the shah pushed OPEC to double the prices again due to the huge sums of money now flowing into Iran

The shah devoted new oil revenue to large scale industry and agriculture, and billions of dollars on the most advanced US armaments

The new large-scale agricultural business failed to produce more food. Shortages led to price increases outpaced growth in wages

How did international criticism of Iran’s human rights record affect Iran?

Amnesty International had drawn attention to Iran’s terrible record on human rights 1975

The shah, anxious to restore its international image, loosened press censorship and promised to allow more political participation

This hindered the shah’s ability to use brutality and force against those who dared to oppose him publicly

Those who dared speak out called for the 1906 constitution to be followed

They also demanded freedom of the press and fair elections

How did the shah’s efforts to discredit Khomeini backfire?

In Jan. 1978, a gvmnt newspaper published an article attacking Khomeini in an effort to discredit him

Leading members of the clergy who opposed the shah called for Iranians to protest, and then attend mosques for forty days to mourn the slaying of the Iranian martyrs by the shah, in accordance with the Islamic tradition

Protests were mainly peaceful, except in the city of Tabriz where the gvnmt sent in tanks to control the demonstrations, and killed more than 100 protesters

The crowds attacked buildings that they considered symbols of the West, like banks liquor stores, and movie theatres

The shah was loosing his iron grip on Iran

1979: Iranians Debate Their Future

1978- the shah imposed a new economic policy that was intended to help the economy, instead it froze wages and lead to a sharp increase in unemployment

The protests had moved beyond demanding the restoration of the constitution to demanding the death of the shah

Sept 8, 1978 soldiers with tanks put down a massive protest in Tehran. Hundreds died on this day which would be known as Black Friday

In early Dec. more than 2 million people took to the streets of Tehran

Many soldiers especially those who had been drafted into the army, refused to fire on unarmed demonstrators, some even joined the protests

Cont.

The PM , Shapour Bahkriar, negotiated a departure for the shah

On Jan. 16 1979 the shah left, people sand and danced and celebrated

Khomeini announced that he would return from exile, he was seen as the leader who ended the tyranny of the shah

Many Iranians saw the PM as a puppet of the US and a tratior because he was appointed by the shah, but he vowed to review foreign contracts, eliminate SAVAK and to cut back on military

Khomeini claimed that he had appointed a man named Mahdi Bazargan as the actual prime minister

Cont.

In March 1979 a referendum was held. Iranians could only vote for or against forming an

Islamic republic 98% of the 20 Million Iranians voted for an

Islamic republic, process of drafting a new constitution began

Iran was in turmoil: groups from all points of the political spectrum attempted to assert that their vision for the future of Iran was the correct one

The unity Iranians had used to overthrow the shah was dissolving