IR 3001 Week 7 lecturesIR 3001 Week 7 lectures

Trans-national Actors II:Trans-national Actors II:Organised CrimeOrganised Crime

How do we define trans-How do we define trans-national organised crime?national organised crime?

Maltz (1971): ‘An organised crime is a crime in Maltz (1971): ‘An organised crime is a crime in which there is more than one offender, and the which there is more than one offender, and the offenders are and intend to remain associated with offenders are and intend to remain associated with one another for the purpose of committing crimes’.one another for the purpose of committing crimes’.

Keohane and Nye, political activity can be Keohane and Nye, political activity can be described as trans-national when 'tangible or described as trans-national when 'tangible or intangible items move across state boundaries' and intangible items move across state boundaries' and 'when at least one actor is not an agent of a 'when at least one actor is not an agent of a government or an intergovernmental organisation'. government or an intergovernmental organisation'.

Globalisation trends apply to legal as well as illegal Globalisation trends apply to legal as well as illegal trade activities:trade activities:– the same economic structure allows for corporate the same economic structure allows for corporate

expansion and trans-national organised crime gangs.expansion and trans-national organised crime gangs.

(Ambiguous) Typology(Ambiguous) Typology

Types of criminal activitiesTypes of criminal activities – Labour Labour

racketeering/extortionracketeering/extortion– people traffickingpeople trafficking– Drug traffickingDrug trafficking– goods trafficking/conflict goods trafficking/conflict

goodsgoods– Price-fixingPrice-fixing– Illegal gamblingIllegal gambling– Prostitution Prostitution – Extortion ringsExtortion rings– Private terrorismPrivate terrorism

Types of OrganisationsTypes of Organisations– Sicilian Mafia, Russian Sicilian Mafia, Russian

Mafia, Chinese Triads…Mafia, Chinese Triads…– Drug CartelsDrug Cartels– Conflict Goods NetworksConflict Goods Networks– Mercenaries/private Mercenaries/private

security firms (?)security firms (?) E.g. ‘Executive outcomes’E.g. ‘Executive outcomes’

– Illegal migration Illegal migration networksnetworks Linked to people Linked to people

traffickingtrafficking

These may overlap!These may overlap!

Trans-national MafiasTrans-national Mafias ‘‘Export’ of illegal activities through immigrant links Export’ of illegal activities through immigrant links

(e.g. Sicilian mafia in the US)(e.g. Sicilian mafia in the US) Activities expanding to cross-border illegal trade, Activities expanding to cross-border illegal trade,

use of open frontiersuse of open frontiers Case Study: Case Study: Russian Organised CrimeRussian Organised Crime Rampant growth since 1991 – economic liberalism Rampant growth since 1991 – economic liberalism

has created a new class of ‘entrepreneurs’ has created a new class of ‘entrepreneurs’ – racketeering, racketeering, – corruption, corruption, – intimidation of businesses and public officials, intimidation of businesses and public officials, – money laundering and extra-judicial killings/assassinations.money laundering and extra-judicial killings/assassinations.

Seen throughout Central and Eastern Europe as well Seen throughout Central and Eastern Europe as well as US (Brighton Beach)as US (Brighton Beach)

Involved in prostitution and people trafficking rings Involved in prostitution and people trafficking rings in Western Europe (along with Eastern European in Western Europe (along with Eastern European gangs) gangs)

Illegal Drug TraffickingIllegal Drug Trafficking Drugs and Latin America: major producerDrugs and Latin America: major producer

– Cocaine (Bolivia, Columbia, Peru)Cocaine (Bolivia, Columbia, Peru)– Heroin (Mexico)Heroin (Mexico)– Marijuana (Mexico, Jamaica)Marijuana (Mexico, Jamaica)

Key economic sector – but ‘shadow economy’Key economic sector – but ‘shadow economy’ Trans-border networks are key to operations Trans-border networks are key to operations

(focus is US market)(focus is US market) American ‘War on Drugs’ – this type of OC has American ‘War on Drugs’ – this type of OC has

been defined as a been defined as a security threatsecurity threat with security with security responsesresponses– Invasion of PanamaInvasion of Panama– Plan ColumbiaPlan Columbia– ‘‘Shiprider’ AgreementShiprider’ Agreement

Crime and MigrationCrime and Migration Migrating populations are vulnerable and often hard to account forMigrating populations are vulnerable and often hard to account for

– Most migration is illegal Most migration is illegal – Most migration is based on dire economic needs (‘Economic Most migration is based on dire economic needs (‘Economic

refugees’) from the Global Southrefugees’) from the Global South– Most migrant have families depending on them ‘back home’: Most migrant have families depending on them ‘back home’:

cannot afford to failcannot afford to fail– Most migrants cannot speak the local language or know the lawMost migrants cannot speak the local language or know the law

Criminal gangs are often the only way ‘in’ given increasingly tough Criminal gangs are often the only way ‘in’ given increasingly tough immigration controlimmigration control– Gangs are often recent immigrants themselves using their Gangs are often recent immigrants themselves using their

contacts on both sidescontacts on both sides Cost is prohibitive and often paid through ‘slave labour debt’ - Cost is prohibitive and often paid through ‘slave labour debt’ -

migrants have no legal recoursemigrants have no legal recourse Using the same network as goods being trafficked (stolen goods, Using the same network as goods being trafficked (stolen goods,

drugs…). drugs…). What is the line between goods and people trafficking?What is the line between goods and people trafficking?

Women’s TraffickingWomen’s Trafficking prostitution or sexual slavery? Trafficked women are prostitution or sexual slavery? Trafficked women are

abducted or duped, ‘broken in’ by the gang, and then abducted or duped, ‘broken in’ by the gang, and then prostituted to pay an immigration debt or through threats prostituted to pay an immigration debt or through threats to them and familyto them and family– E.g. Sub-saharan African women in Italy, women from the Balkans E.g. Sub-saharan African women in Italy, women from the Balkans

in the UK…in the UK…– Different from prostitution: no consent, no money…high risks of Different from prostitution: no consent, no money…high risks of

battery, STIs and long term mental health problemsbattery, STIs and long term mental health problems Estimate 700,000 women and children a year: core human Estimate 700,000 women and children a year: core human

security concern?security concern? Why would women take such risks to emigrate illegally? – Why would women take such risks to emigrate illegally? –

linked to gross economic inequalitieslinked to gross economic inequalities Fuels shadow economies linked to other illegal activitiesFuels shadow economies linked to other illegal activities Shows failure of immigration regimes (and prostitution Shows failure of immigration regimes (and prostitution

laws)laws) Children’s trafficking (male and female) for peadophile Children’s trafficking (male and female) for peadophile

prostitution ringsprostitution rings

Crime and War EconomiesCrime and War Economies Wars create ‘law and order’ vacuum which Wars create ‘law and order’ vacuum which

criminals fill:criminals fill:– Sometimes black market economy is the only way Sometimes black market economy is the only way

to get basic goods during wars…to get basic goods during wars…– But goods traffickers have a vested interest in the But goods traffickers have a vested interest in the

conflict conflict not endingnot ending – they may become actors in – they may become actors in the conflict!the conflict!

Other side of the coin:Other side of the coin:– Parties in civil wars fund their activities through Parties in civil wars fund their activities through

criminal activities – export and import… criminal activities – export and import… Trans-border involvement to destabilise Trans-border involvement to destabilise

neighbours and exploit their resources illegally neighbours and exploit their resources illegally (conflict diamonds in Sierra Leone)(conflict diamonds in Sierra Leone)

Estimated Revenue from Conflict Resources, Selected Cases

Combatant Resource Period Estimated Revenue

UNITA (Angola) Diamonds 1992-2001 $4-4.2 billion

RUF (Sierra Leone)

Diamonds 1990s $25-125 million/yr

Taylor (Liberia) Timber Late 1990s $100-187 million/yr

Sudan gvt Oil Since 1999 $400 million/yr

Rwanda government

Coltan (from DRC) 1999-2000 $250 million

Taliban (Afghanistan)

Opium, heroin Mid-1990s-2001 $30-40 million/yr

Northern Alliance(Afghanistan)

Lapis lazuli, emeralds, opium

Mid 1990s-2001 $ 60 mill/yr

Khmer Rouge (Cambodia)

Timber Mid-1990s $120-140 million/yr

Cambodia gvt Timber Mid-1990s $100-150 million/yr

Burma gvt Timber 1990s $112 million year

FARC (Colombia) Cocaine Late 1990s $140 million/yrSource: Michael Renner, The Anatomy of Resource Wars, Worldwatch Paper 162, October 2002, p. 7, Table 1.

OC and security studiesOC and security studies How high on the agenda should this trans-national How high on the agenda should this trans-national

threat be (I.e. who does it threaten, and do we care?)threat be (I.e. who does it threaten, and do we care?)– How can this be tackled by states and International How can this be tackled by states and International

Organisations?Organisations? Link to extreme wealth inequalities: the victims are the Link to extreme wealth inequalities: the victims are the

most vulnerablemost vulnerable– Russian Mafia used liberalisation to endanger Russian Mafia used liberalisation to endanger

industries, jobs… and Russia’s ability to govern itself industries, jobs… and Russia’s ability to govern itself (risk of illegal nuclear arms deals?) (risk of illegal nuclear arms deals?)

– Poor states like Sierra Leone have their only mineral Poor states like Sierra Leone have their only mineral wealth plundered and their population mutilatedwealth plundered and their population mutilated

– Cannot secure post-conflict reconstruction after civil Cannot secure post-conflict reconstruction after civil wars when criminals control the economy and wars when criminals control the economy and securitysecurity

– Cheap goods, drugs and sex are Cheap goods, drugs and sex are in demandin demand… Issues … Issues of responsibility in host stateof responsibility in host state

ConclusionConclusion OC impacts on security both directly and indirectlyOC impacts on security both directly and indirectly Is it linked to other trans-national forces such as Is it linked to other trans-national forces such as

terrorist groups?terrorist groups?– Overlap (e.g. GIA) in some cases, cooperation on Overlap (e.g. GIA) in some cases, cooperation on

WMDs the worst fearWMDs the worst fear– Ultimately contradicting forces? Organised crime Ultimately contradicting forces? Organised crime

does not work in anarchy, it relies on state does not work in anarchy, it relies on state structures, stability.structures, stability.

Can we treat OC and terrorism as a separate Can we treat OC and terrorism as a separate threat to wider questions of nuclear threat to wider questions of nuclear proliferation?proliferation?

Can a system dominated by states and Can a system dominated by states and economic inequalities reach the criminals, economic inequalities reach the criminals, can it help the victims? can it help the victims?