Race and IQHistorical misuses and contemporary issues

Race and IQThe history of IQ testingA brief introduction to IQ testsRace-group differencesA summary of the issuePossible explanationsTest biasGenetic differencesEnvironmental differences

A long (and mostly sordid) history

Craniometry (1860)Pierre BroccaBelieved brain size=intelligenceInteresting methodsConcluded:The brain is larger in mature adults than in the elderly, in men than women,in superior races than in inferior races (Brocca quoted by Gould, 1978, p. 44)

Alfred BinetLawyer, self taught in psychology, studied under Charcot (who also influenced Freud)Asked by French government to create a test to identify students who would benefit from remedial education Along with Theodore Simon, created first widely-used standardized test of intelligence, the Simon-Binet Scale

The birth of the IQ testFrance legislates mandatory primary education in 1882Government requests test to identify students who need special ed.Alfred Binet publishes (with Theodore Simon) the first widely-used standardized IQ test (with 30 subtests) the Simon-Binet Scale (1905)Digit repetitionSentence completionPoint to an object in a pictureConscious recognition of resemblancesHow are a fly, an ant, a butterfly, a flea alike?In what way are a newspaper, a label, a picture alike? Recognition of foodMoral judgmentRevised scale published in 190814 tests retained, 9 dropped, 7 modified, 33 addedIf 75-90% of children in age group pass, it was assigned that age levelRejected notion of IQ

Henry GoddardTranslated Simon-Binet into English (1908)Distributed 22,000 copies of translated test across the U.S.

Set up first laboratory to study mental retardation in New Jersey: Vineland Training School for Feebleminded Girls & Boys Strong advocate of eugenics 1912 book The Kallikak Family: A Study in the Heredity of Feeble-mindedness original article summary and analysis

Goddard (continued)Wanted to prevent the breeding of feebleminded people hesitated to promote compulsory sterilization, even though convinced it would solve problem suggested "colonies" where the feeble-minded could be segregatedEstablished an intelligence testing program on Ellis Island in 1913 rejects 80% of pre-identified immigrants as "feeble-minded" 83% of all Jews 80% of the Hungarians 79% of the Italians 87% of the Russians. resulted in an exponential increase in deportations

The Immigration Restriction Act (1924-1965) Strongly influenced by American eugenics' efforts restricted numbers of immigrants from undesirable racial groups (including Jews).Upon signing, President Coolidge commented, "America must remain American." Publicized race-group differences on Army IQ tests and claimed Americans were unfit for Democracy One of many scientists (including Galton and Terman) that inspired scientific racism movement in Europe & U.S.Goddard (continued)

Robert YerkesFounded first non-human primate research lab

Chaired committee that created the Army Alpha and Beta intelligence tests used in U.S. during World War I

David WechslerObtained Ph.D. in 1925Chief psychologist at Bellevue Psychiatric Hospital from 1932-1967Developed several intelligence tests, including Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). Born in Rumania, emigrated to U.S. at age 6Worked as a psychological examiner in army during WWI

WAIS PopularityWAIS

Defining IntelligenceGlobal capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment (David Wechsler)

1987 survey of 1020 experts on intelligenceAbstract reasoning (99.3%)Problem-solving ability (97.7%)Capacity to acquire knowledge (96.0%)Memory (80.5%)Adaptation to environment (77.2%)

Intelligence vs other types of testsAptitude tests measure a narrow range of abilityAchievement tests measure what you know or what you learned/achieved

Question: What is the SAT?

Answer: A multiple aptitude test (related to intelligence)

SAT to IQ conversion table

SATV+MIQ 15 SD%ileSATV+MIQ 15 SD%ile1600152.1899.9751010109.4673.5871590151.4599.9701000108.7471.9851580150.7399.964990108.0170.3381570150.0099.957980107.2968.6471560149.2899.949970106.5666.9161550148.5699.940960105.8465.1491540147.8399.929950105.1263.3471530147.1199.916940104.3961.5161520146.3899.901930103.6759.6591510145.6699.883920102.9457.7801500144.9499.863910102.2255.8831490144.2199.840900101.5053.9721480143.4999.813890100.7752.0521470142.7699.782880100.0550.128

Relationship between SAT and IQ1. For SAT scores before 1996IQ = (0.126 x SAT combined) + (-.4.71E - 5 x SAT combined x SAT combined) + 40.063 (Detterman and Frey, Case Western Reserve Univ.)

2. For SAT scores from 1996 -2004 IQ =(0.095 X SAT Math) + (0.003 X SAT Verbal) + 50.241 Scores for SAT were "re-centered" in 1996, raising the average SAT back to 500 (Detterman and Frey, Case Western Reserve Univ.)

SAT to IQ conversion is an inexact science, particularly for SAT's under 900. The chart's creator writes: "The lowest point of reference was the theoretical average IQ of high school students being 110 and the current average SAT I V+M (verbal + math) score being 1019. Everything below that is extrapolation. Also note that the decimal places give the impression that the numbers are more precise than they really are."

WAIS Verbal Subtests

WAIS Performance SubtestsPicture CompletionPicture ArrangementBlock DesignObject AssemblyDigit-Symbol Substitution

Interpreting IQ scores

Interpreting IQ scores (normal curve)

The Flynn Effect (1995 data)IQ scores tend to rise 3 points every 10 years

Does IQ matter?How can we tell?

Data indicateIQ and school performance (GPA)r=.50 for elementary and high school studentsr=.40 for college students IQ and years of education (r=.50, see next slide)IQ and occupational attainment (r=.50)Likely due to very high correlation (r= mid .60s) between education and occupationIQ and job performance (rs= .27 to .47)

IQ and Education

IQ and education/occupation (same data)

IQ tests strengths and weaknesses

The IQ racial gap

Possible explanations for the gapThe tests are bad Genetic differencesEnvironmental differences

Are the tests (racially) biased?Argument 1: IQ tests yield race-group differences, hence the tests are biasedArgument 2: The test item content is culturally biasedExample: What should you do when a child smaller than you begins to fight with you? (comprehension)

Chitling Intelligence Test (Dove, 1971)A "handkerchief head" is: (a) a cool cat(b) a porter(c) an Uncle Tom(d) a hoddi(e) a preacher

Many people say that "Juneteenth" (June 19) should be made a legal holiday because this was the day when: (a) the slaves were freed in the USA(b) the slaves were freed in Texas(c) the slaves were freed in Jamaica(d) the slaves were freed in California(e) Martin Luther King was born(f) Booker T. Washington died. CB

Black Intelligence Test of Cultural Homogeneity

100-item multiple-choice test, based on items drawn from Black cultureSample Questions1. Alley Apple isa) brick b) piece of fruit c) dog d) horse

2. CPT means a standard ofa) time b) tune c) tale d) twist

3. Deuce-and-a-quarter isa) money b) a car c) a house d) diceA, A, B

Are the culture-specific tests valid?Useful for building self-esteemBut low predictive validityLow correlation between Black IQ Test and achievement (Language =. 33, Math=.18)Students in MR classes did no better on the Black IQ Test than on the WISC

Cultural bias data

Are the tests (racially) biased?Argument 3: The tests have different construct validity for Blacks and Whites

Are the tests (racially) biased?Argument 4: The tests have different/inadequate predictive validity for Blacks and WhitesB.I.T.C.H. correlations: Language =. 33 Math=.18

IQ and Education (1990)

Are the tests (racially) biased?Argument 5: The tests have language bias because they are in standard English and many Blacks grow up speaking a Black dialect

Are the tests (racially) biased?Argument 6: The tests are neutral but the examiners are biased

Evidence: 25 of 29 studies published prior to 1995 found no significant relationship between the race of the examiner and Black childrens scores

Are the tests (racially) biased?Argument 7: The tests are neutral but the norms are inappropriateIn other words: Separate (rather than national) norms should be used to eliminate racial bias [recent example]

Logical outcome (if taken to logical conclusion): Race group differences would be eliminated, butScores would have little relevance to racial justice, andScores would not allow tracking of group outcomes/disparities

Possible explanations for the gapThe tests are bad (no empirical support for current racial bias!) Genetic differencesEnvironmental differences

The heritability of IQ

Historical and current understandingHeritability debate has a long, controversial historyIn the 1960's Arthur Jensen fueled debate with heritability estimate of .8The Bell Curve (1994) by Herrnstein and MurrayContemporary consensusEvidence does exist for high heritability, butEnvironmental factors are also importantStudies show heritability = .4 to .8 (best estimate probably .7)High heritability does not discount environmental influence. Consider vocabularySo are psychological factors (e.g., Carol Dwecks work)

The genetic positionA. Assumptions1. IQ is polygenetic (Gottesmans model postulates 5 genes)2. IQ is normally distributed3. Very low IQ is produced by genetic abnormalities

B. Evidence1. Average IQ correlation of identical twins is .862. Identical twins, fraternal twins, siblings, and parent-child IQ correlations all higher than that of unrelated persons3. Parent-child correlations are higher for biological vs adopted parents4. When siblings are reared together, IQ correlations are higher for biological siblings than for adopted siblings5. The high correlation in #1 resists change over time6. Many genetic abnormalities have been proven to cause lower IQa. Turners syndromeb. Fragile X syndromec. PKU

The environmentalist positionA. Assumptions1. Genetics alone cannot account for the normal range of IQ2. IQ is not necessarily normally distributed (tests are designed to yield a normal distribution)

B. Evidence1. IQ corrs of identical and fraternal twins raised together are higher than for those raised apart.2. Fraternal twins IQ correlations are higher than siblingss IQ correlations3. Assortative mating4. Adoptive parent-child correlations are higher than unrelated adults and children5. Studies of environmental influences on IQ show that a. Low birth weight decreases IQb. Malnutrition decreases IQc. Family background affects IQd. Pressure to achieve increases IQe. Birth order and family size affect IQf. Amount and quality of schooling affects IQ

But is the racial gap genetic?Hard to determine due to environmental differences.

Is the racial gap genetic?Many controversial studies

Between-group vs within-group variation

What we know about IQ heritabilityThere is strong evidence of within-group heritabilityLaws of heredity produce regression to the meanThere is a certain environment by gene interaction

What we know about IQ heritability (cont.)1987 survey of 1020 intelligence expertsThe difference is entirely due to environmental variation: 15%. The difference is entirely due to genetic variation: 1% The difference is a product of genetic and environmental variation: 45%. The data are insufficient to support any reasonable opinion: 24%. No response (or not qualified): 14%. Robert Sternberg: "science isn't done by majority rule" APA 1997 task force: It is sometimes suggested that the Black/White differential in psychometric intelligence is partly due to genetic differences. There is not much direct evidence on this point, but what little there is fails to support the genetic hypothesis. Charles Murray: Actually, there is no direct evidence at all, just a wide variety of indirect evidence, almost all of which the task force chose to ignore.

Possible explanations for the gapThe tests are bad (no empirical support)Genetic differences (data mixed, no consensus) Environmental differences

Environmental FactorsSocial class and home environment matterAttribution of intelligence matters (Dweck)Motivation and test taking stills mattersStereotype threat mattersInterventions matter

Scores have narrowed in past 30 years

Social Class mattersBell curve, 1994

Family Factors and IQR2=.0576

Home environments

Environmental FactorsSocial class and home environment matterAttribution of intelligence matters (Dweck)Motivation and test taking stills mattersStereotype threat mattersInterventions matter

Stereotype threat mattersStereotype threat literatureSteele and Aronson (1995)Ryan and Anthony (2006)

Interventions matterRecent NY Times article: Who gets to graduate?

The Culture of Poverty (Kutner, 1975)

Blaming the victim (Ryan, 1976)Four Steps to Blaming the VictimIdentify a social problemStudy those affected by the problem to discover how they are different from those who are not affected by the problem. Define the difference as the cause of the problem itselfCreate a humanitarian action (social service) program to correct the problem cause (from #3)

Real-world example:http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2005/03/20050307-5.html

Blaming the (IQ) victim1. Social problem: African American children underperforming (relative to Whites) on IQ tests

2. Study those affected by the problem to discover how they are different from those who are not affected by the problemBlack families more likely to be less educatedBlack families more likely to have poor study spacesBlack children more likely to be unmotivated to do well on testsBlack children less likely to associate education with success

3. Define the difference as the cause of the problem itselfBlack children under-perform on IQ tests because Black families dont value education

4. Create a humanitarian action (social service) program to correct the problem cause?

Blaming the (IQ) victim, continued

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