Invitation to oceanography - 5th Edition - PAUL R. PINET

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BOSTON TORONTO LONDON SINGAPORE
Paul R. Pinet Colgate University
Paul R. Pinet Colgate University
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Pinet, Paul R.
Invitation to oceanography / Paul R. Pinet. — 5th ed. p. cm.
ISBN 978-0-7637-5993-3 (alk. paper) 1. Oceanography. I. Title.
GC11.2.P55 2009 551.46—dc22
2008030875
6048
Printed in the United States of America 12 11 10 09 08 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To Marita E. Hyman, a wise, passionate, caring partner who shares her life with me living on a special
parcel of land on a large Earth in a vast universe.
v
CHAPTER 2 The Planet Oceanus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
CHAPTER 3 The Origin of Ocean Basins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
CHAPTER 4 Marine Sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
CHAPTER 5 The Properties of Seawater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
CHAPTER 6 Wind and Ocean Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
CHAPTER 7 Waves in the Ocean. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
CHAPTER 8 Tides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
CHAPTER 10 Biological Productivity in the Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
CHAPTER 11 The Dynamic Shoreline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
CHAPTER 12 Coastal Habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
CHAPTER 13 Ocean Habitats and Their Biota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
CHAPTER 14 The Ocean’s Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
CHAPTER 15 The Human Presence in the Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
CHAPTER 16 Global Climate Change and the Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
1-1 Oceanography: What Is It? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1-2 Historical Review of Oceanography . . . . . . . . 3 Ocean Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Early Scientific Investigations . . . . . . . . . . 13 Modern Oceanography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1-3 Current and Future Oceanographic Research . . . 24
Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
FEATURES
Science by Numbers. Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 The Process of Science. The Scientific
Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 The Ocean Sciences: Physics. Marine
Archeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Science by Numbers. Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . 24
CHAPTER 2 The Planet Oceanus . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2-1 The Earth’s Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 The Earth’s Interior Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . 31 The Earth’s Exterior Envelopes . . . . . . . . . 33
2-2 The Physiography of the Ocean Floor . . . . . . 33 Bathymetric Provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2-3 Geologic Differences between Continents and
Ocean Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 The Earth’s Topography and
Bathymetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Mass Balance and Isostasy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2-4 The Physiography of the Western North Atlantic
Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
FEATURES
Science by Numbers. Powers of 10. . . . . . . . . . . 40 The Ocean Sciences: Geology. Probing
the Sea Floor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 A Trek to the Crest of the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3-1 Continental Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3-2 Sea-Floor Spreading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 The Geomagnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Spreading Ocean Ridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3-3 Global Plate Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Subduction Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Plate-Tectonic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 The Opening and Closing of Ocean
Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 A Summary of Global Plate Tectonics . . . 80
3-4 Future Discoveries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
The Ocean Sciences: Geology. The San Andreas Fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
The Process of Science. Sea-Floor Spreading . . . 80 The Ocean Sciences: Geology. The Red Sea . . . 83 Science by Numbers. Sea-Floor Spreading
Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
CHAPTER 4 Marine Sedimentation. . . . . . . . . 92
4-1 Sediment in the Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Classification of Marine Sediment . . . . . . 93 Factors That Control Sedimentation . . . . 94
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Contents
4-2 Sedimentation in the Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Shelf Sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Deep-Sea Sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Deep-Sea Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
The Ocean Sciences: Geology. Dust Storms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
The Process of Science. Climate Variability and Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
The Ocean Sciences: Geology. Catastrophic Meltwater Scouring and Deposition . . . . . . . . . 112
The Ocean Sciences: Geology. The Drying Up of the Mediterranean Sea . . . . . . . . 126
Science by Numbers. Sedimentation Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
CHAPTER 5 The Properties of Seawater . . . . 134
5-1 Basic Chemical Notions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5-2 Basic Physical Notions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5-3 The Water Molecule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 The Solutes of Seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5-4 Salinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Principle of Constant Proportion . . . . . . . 145 Factors that Regulate the Salinity
of Seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Effects of Salinity on the Properties
of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
of the Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Salinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5-6 Gases in Seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Carbon Dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5-7 The Ocean as a Physical Chemical System . . 167 Reservoirs of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 The Global Water Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 The Ocean as a Biogeochemical
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
FEATURES
Science by Numbers. Parts per Thousand . . . . . 142 The Ocean Sciences: Chemistry.
Chemical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 The Ocean Sciences: Chemistry.
Desalination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 The Ocean Sciences: Physics. Other Physical
Properties of Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 The Ocean Sciences: Chemistry.
The Sea-Surface Microlayer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Science by Numbers. Order of Magnitude . . . . . 179
CHAPTER 6 Wind and Ocean Circulation . . . . 187
6-1 Atmospheric Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Air Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Coriolis Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 General Wind Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
6-2 Surface Ocean Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 The Wind-Driven Currents of the
Sea Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Types of Surface Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 A Model of Geostrophic Flow . . . . . . . . . . 203 Refinement of the Geostrophic-Flow
Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
The Ocean Sciences: Physics. Hurricanes and Typhoons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Science by Numbers. Volume Transport . . . . . . 211 The Ocean Sciences: Physics. Underwater
Weather and Waterfalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
CHAPTER 7 Waves in the Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . 230
7-1 Properties of Ocean Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Wind Generation of Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
7-2 Wave Motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 The Motion of Water Particles Beneath
Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Motion of the Wave Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7-3 The Life History of Ocean Waves . . . . . . . . . 239 Growth of Waves in the Fetch Area . . . . . 239 Storm Waves Outside the Generating
Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Waves in Shallow Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Shoreline under Storm Conditions . . . . . . 245
7-4 Standing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
7-5 Other Types of Progressive Waves . . . . . . . . 253 Internal Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Tsunamis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
The Ocean Sciences: Physics. Wave-Measuring Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Science by Numbers. Wave Celerity (Speed) . . . 238 The Ocean Sciences: Physics. Tiny
Waves and Giant Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 The Ocean Sciences: Physics. The
Megatsunami of December 26, 2004 . . . . . . . . 256
CHAPTER 8 Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
8-1 Tidal Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
8-2 Origin of the Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Equilibrium Model of Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Dynamic Model of the Tides . . . . . . . . . . . 271
8-3 Tides in Small and Elongated Basins . . . . . . . 278
8-4 Tidal Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
The Ocean Sciences: Physics. Currents through Tidal Inlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Science by Numbers. Speed of the Tide . . . . . . . 279 The Ocean Sciences: Biology. Tidal
Rhythms in Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 The Ocean Sciences: Physics. Internal Tides
Shape the Bottom Gradients of the Continental Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Science by Numbers. Depth of the Bay of Fundy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
CHAPTER 9 Marine Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
9-1 Ocean Habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
9-2 Classification of Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Kingdom Monera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Kingdom Protista . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Kingdom Chromista . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Kingdom Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Kingdom Metazoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
9-3 Classification by Lifestyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
9-4 Basic Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Salinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Hydrostatic Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
9-5 Selected Adaptive Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 Life Cycles of Plankton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 Functional Morphology of
Fishes (Nekton) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 Benthic Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
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The Ocean Sciences: Biology. Sampling the Biota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
The Ocean Sciences: Biology. Killer Whales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
The Ocean Sciences: Biology. Ecology of the Giant Kelp Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
CHAPTER 10 Biological Productivity in the Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
10-1 Food Webs and Trophic Dynamics . . . . . . . . 339 Energy and Trophic Dynamics . . . . . . . . . 340 Plants as Primary Producers . . . . . . . . . . . 341 Animals as Consumers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Bacteria as Decomposers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 Food Chains and Energy Transfer . . . . . . . 349
10-2 General Marine Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Primary Production in the Ocean . . . . . . . 351 Variations in Productivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
10-3 Global Patterns of Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 Spatial Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 Estimates of Plant and Fish Production . . 363
10-4 Biological Productivity of Upwelling Water . . . 369
FEATURES
Science by Numbers. Doubling Rates. . . . . . . . . 342 The Ocean Sciences: Biology. Large Sharks . . . . 346 The Ocean Sciences: Biology. Satellite
Oceanography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 The Ocean Sciences: Biology. Migrants . . . . . . . 364 The Ocean Sciences: Physics. What Causes
El Niño and What Is La Niña? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
CHAPTER 11 The Dynamic Shoreline . . . . . . . . 382
11-1 Coastal Water Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 Shoaling Waves and Refraction . . . . . . . . . 383 Circulation in the Surf Zone . . . . . . . . . . . 384
11-2 Beaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 Beach Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 Sand Budgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
11-3 Coastal Dunes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
11-4 Barrier Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Barrier-Island Landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Origin of Barrier Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 Tidal Inlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 Storm Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
11-5 Cliffed Coasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
11-7 Impact of People on the Coastline . . . . . . . . . 409
The Ocean Sciences: Geology. San Diego County, California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Science by Numbers. Sand-Budget Study . . . . . . 411 The Ocean Sciences: Geology. Ocean City and
Assateague Island, Maryland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 The Ocean Sciences: Geology. Katrina
Drowns New Orleans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
CHAPTER 12 Coastal Habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
12-1 Estuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 Origin of Estuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 Circulation and Sedimentation in
Estuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 Salt-Wedge Estuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 Partially Mixed Estuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 Well-Mixed Estuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 The Biology of Estuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
12-2 Lagoons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
12-3 Salt Marshes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
12-4 Mangrove Swamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
12-5 Coral Reefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 Biology of Corals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 Ecology of Coral Reefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 Geology of Coral Reefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
FEATURES
The Ocean Sciences: Biology. Chesapeake Bay . . 430 The Ocean Sciences: Geology. Salt-Marsh
Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 The Ocean Sciences: Biology. San Francisco
Bay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 The Ocean Sciences: Biology. Global Decline
of Coral Reefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 Science by Numbers. Residence Time . . . . . . . . 457
CHAPTER 13 Ocean Habitats and Their Biota . 462
13-1 Biology of the Continental Shelf . . . . . . . . . . 463 Neritic Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 Sublittoral Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
13-2 Biology of the Open Ocean and the
Deep Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 The Oceanic Realm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 The Deep-Sea Bottom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
FEATURES
The Ocean Sciences: Biology. Penguins . . . . . . . 466 The Ocean Sciences: Biology. Bottom Feeding by
Whales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 The Ocean Sciences: Biology. Sargassum
Gulfweed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 The Ocean Sciences: Biology. Squids . . . . . . . . . 478
w w w . j b p u b . c o m / o c e a n l i n k xi
CHAPTER 14 The Ocean’s Resources. . . . . . . . . 488
14-1 Law of the Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 Law of the Sea Treaty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 Exclusive Economic Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
14-2 Mineral Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 Oil and Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 Gas Hydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 Sand and Gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495 Manganese Nodules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496 Cobalt-Rich Oceanic Crusts . . . . . . . . . . . 496 Phosphate Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
14-3 Living Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 Fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 Mariculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
FEATURES
The Ocean Sciences: Geology. Offshore Oil and Gas in the Gulf of Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
The Ocean Sciences: Biology. Fish Farming and “Super” Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
The Ocean Sciences: Biology. Antarctic Krill . . 502
CHAPTER 15 The Human Presence in the Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .510
15-1 Pollution: What Is It? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
15-2 Hydrocarbons in the Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
15-3 Municipal and Industrial Effluent . . . . . . . . . . 519 Sewage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522 Artificial Biocides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
15-4 Ocean Dredging and Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530 Dredging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530 Ocean Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
15-5 Overfishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
The Ocean Sciences: Biology. The Torrey Canyon Disaster. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
The Ocean Sciences: Biology. Bioremediation . . 520 The Ocean Sciences: Biology. The Exxon
Valdez Oil Spill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 Science by Numbers. Steady State . . . . . . . . . . . 526 The Ocean Sciences: Biology. Collapse of
the New England Fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534 The Ocean Sciences: Biology. Red Tides . . . . . . 540
CHAPTER 16 Global Climate Change and the Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
16-1 Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
16-2 Global Climate Impact on the Coast . . . . . . . 555 Sea-Level Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556 Water Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
16-3 The Impact of Global Climate Change
in the Open Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 The Thermohaline Conveyer Belt . . . . . . . 563 The Arctic Ocean and Its Cover of Sea Ice . . 566 Ocean Plankton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570 Seawater Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
16-4 What Do We Know, What Do We Do? . . . . . 576
Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
FEATURES
The Process of Science. The Global Rise of Sea Level and Its Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
The Ocean Sciences: Geology. The Crisis of Louisiana’s Wetland Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
The Ocean Sciences: Biology. Polar Bears . . . . . 568 The Ocean Sciences: Biology. The Great
Barrier Reef in the 21st Century . . . . . . . . . . . . 572 The Ocean Sciences: Chemistry. Iron Fertilization
of the Ocean—Yes, No, or Maybe? . . . . . . . . . . 577
Appendices
II Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
V Principal Marine Organisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
VI The Coriolis Deflection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
Photo Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
w w w . j b p u b . c o m / o c e a n l i n k xiii
This book deals with the workings of the ocean, the
dynamic processes that affect its water, sea floor, and
abundant life forms. The approach used is a broad one,
relying on basic concepts to explain the ocean's many
mysteries. Anybody—whether sailor, surfer,
beachcomber, or student—can learn about the
processes and creatures of the oceans. No background
in science is required to grasp the many important
ideas that are relevant to the working of the oceans.
Wherever appropriate, the underlying science is first
explained clearly, and only then is it used to account
for ocean processes. These overarching scientific
concepts are summarized conveniently as “Key
Concepts” at the end of every chapter. In order to help
those unfamiliar with the practice of science, a series
of “process of science” boxes provides an explanation
of how scientists reason and draw conclusions about
the natural world. In the glossary, important words are
clearly defined and are accompanied by page numbers
that refer you to the critical section of the book where
the term in question was first introduced.
The figures and their accompanying captions do not
merely illustrate but also supplement the written text.
Many photographs have been added to this new
edition. All the drawings have been beautifully and
accurately rendered by a team of talented artists and
illustrators in order to present in visual form ideas that
are at times necessarily abstract. They should be stud-
ied carefully before advancing to the next section of the
chapter, because they help provide concreteness to the
ideas discussed. It has been the author's experience
that those students who truly understand the “ins and
outs” of the illustrations tend to have a solid grasp of
the chapters’ main concepts. This will take a bit of
time, but it is time well invested.
ORGANIZATION
porates new and updated material, based on the many
valuable suggestions made by faculty and students who
have worked with the previous editions of the book.
This means that the organization of the material, the
development of the ideas, and the quality of the prose
and illustrations are better than ever. We are always
working to improve each succeeding version of the
book, and so we welcome all comments and criticisms
from our readers. Both faculty and students agree that
the development of key oceanographic concepts flows
logically and systematically from chapter to chapter, as
well as from section to section.
The first two chapters review the long history of
ocean exploration and research and the fundamental
structure of the Earth's interior and its exterior ocean
basins. An imaginary trek across the sea bottom of the
North Atlantic Ocean, beginning in New Jersey and
ending at the very top of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, is the
highlight of Chapter 2 for many readers, including the
author. Chapters 3 through 10 examine the geology,
chemistry, physics, and biology of the sea, highlighting
the key scientific concepts and latest discoveries in
these subdisciplines of oceanography. In some sense,
the material and concepts in these seven chapters repre-
sent the core ideas of the ocean sciences, and when
comprehended and synthesized, they provide the frame-
work for understanding ocean habitats as whole,
functional ecosystems—the chapter topics of the
remainder of the book. For example, Chapters 11 and 12
examine the intriguing intricacies of dynamic coastal
environments, including beaches, dunes, barrier
islands, estuaries, deltas, salt marshes, mangrove
swamps, lagoons, and coral reefs. Two chapters are
devoted to coastal ecosystems, because we are most
familiar and come in regular contact with the shoreline
rather than the open ocean. It is likely that many of us
as voting citizens will be in a position to influence regu-
latory legislation and management practices of these
fragile habitats. Chapter 13 provides an overview of the
many fascinating and exotic ecosystems that are found
far offshore, either in open water or on the deep-sea
floor. Chapter 14 surveys the ocean's abundant
resources, both living (fish) and nonliving (petroleum,
metals, phosphate), that are vital for the modern human
world. Chapter 15 presents a balanced appraisal of the
environmental stresses brought about by human activ-
ity, showing the nature and alarming extent of this
impact and providing examples of groups of concerned
citizens who are striving hard and successfully to
reverse environmental despoilment. Throughout the
book, local and regional examples are drawn from all
parts of the U.S. coastline, including the Pacific coast as
far north as Alaska, the Atlantic seaboard as well as
xiv
Preface
from foreign seas are used where appropriate.
Chapter 16, a new addition to the book, examines a
most timely global issue—climate change. How will
warming of the atmosphere and oceans affect the
processes and biodiversity of marine ecosystems? What
can we do individually and collectively to mitigate the
impacts of global warming so that our children can
enjoy the ocean’s beauty?
WEB ENHANCEMENT
tion to Oceanography. Students can reach the OceanLink
home page by entering the URL http://www.jbpub.com/
oceanlink into a World Wide Web browser.
OceanLink includes “Tools for Learning,” a free, on-
line student review area that provides a variety of
activities designed to help students study for their
class. Students will find lecture outlines, review ques-
tions, key term reviews, animated vocabulary
flashcards, and figure labeling exercises. The site also
includes math tutorials and critical thinking exercises.
As you look through the pages of Invitation to
Oceanography, Fifth Edition, you’ll see three
distinctive icons that call out the book’s connection to
the OceanLink web page:
Critical Thinking on the Web
Math Tutor on the Web
You’ll find the Web Navigator buoy icon next to sec-
tion titles in the chapters and at the end of “The Ocean
Sciences” boxes. The buoy identifies topics that are
matched to relevant independent web sites that
students and instructors can visit through OceanLink.
These Web sites, run by research institutes, scientists,
educational programs, and government agencies
reinforce and enhance the topics in the book.
The starfish icon can be found next to many critical
thinking questions at the end of each chapter. The icon
indicates that students can find—within Tools for
Learning—tips for researching the question and links
to additional resources.
Numbers” questions at the end of each chapter. The
Math Tutor icon means that Tools for Learning has an
area in which the author, Paul Pinet, patiently guides
the student through the mathematical solving process
without giving away the answer. He believes the effort
in seeking the solution must still come from the
student’s own work.
above, OceanLink has an on-line glossary and links to
sites offering the latest oceanography news. For links to
other sites, we provide a brief description to place the
link in context before the student connects to the site.
Jones and Bartlett Publishers constantly monitors the
links to ensure there will always be a working and
appropriate site on-line.
w w w . j b p u b . c o m / o c e a n l i n k xv
FEATURED BOXES
Featured boxes, The Ocean Sciences, abound in all of the
chapters. They consist of four types, based on the princi-
pal subfields of oceanography: biology, chemistry, geol-
ogy, and physics. Each is identified as such by a colorful
and distinctive logo placed near the title of the box.
The boxes serve several purposes. Some review com-
mon research techniques employed by oceanographers
to investigate the seas. Some flesh out a concept
merely outlined in the text. Others spotlight case his-
tories in which the oceanography of a specific place is
presented in concrete terms from the standpoint of an
idea introduced in the text. A few featured boxes
review a concept that is simply interesting, and that
otherwise could not be integrated easily into the main
text of the chapter. They are like eating dessert after
finishing the main course of a meal. Enjoy them! Six
new boxes have been added to this edition. Here is a
list of each box in the book and where each appears in
the respective chapters.
Chapter 1
Science by Numbers: Graphs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 The Process of Science: The Scientific Process . . . . 16 Physics: Marine Archeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Science by Numbers: Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Chapter 2
Science by Numbers: Powers of 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Geology: Probing the Sea Floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 A Trek to the Crest of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge . . . . 46
Chapter 3
Geology: The San Andreas Fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 The Process of Science: Sea-Floor Spreading . . . . . . 80 Geology: The Red Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Science by Numbers: Sea-Floor Spreading Rates . . . 85
Chapter 4
Geology: Probing the Sea Floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Geology: Dust Storms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 The Process of Science: Climate Variability
and Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Geology: Catastrophic Meltwater Scouring
and Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Geology: The Drying Up of the Mediterranean Sea126 Science by Numbers: Sedimentation Rates . . . . . . 129
Chapter 5
Science by Numbers: Parts per Thousand . . . . . . . 142 Chemistry: Chemical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Chemistry: Desalination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Physics: Other Physical Properties of Water . . . . . 170 Chemistry: The Sea-Surface Microlayer . . . . . . . . . 177 Science by Numbers: Order of Magnitude . . . . . . . 179
Chapter 6
Physics: Current-Measuring Techniques . . . . . . . . 196 Physics: Hurricanes and Typhoons . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Science by Numbers: Volume Transport . . . . . . . . 211 Physics: Underwater Weather and Waterfalls . . . . 221
Chapter 7
Physics: Wave-Measuring Techniques . . . . . . . . . . 234 Science by Numbers: Wave Celerity (Speed) . . . . . 238 Physics: Tiny Waves and Giant Waves . . . . . . . . . . 248 Physics: The Megatsunami of December 26, 2004 256
Chapter 8
Physics: Currents through Tidal Inlets . . . . . . . . . . 274
Science by Numbers: Speed of the Tide . . . . . . . . . 279 Biology: Tidal Rhythms in Organisms . . . . . . . . . . 282 Physics: Internal Tides Shape the Bottom
Gradients of the Continental Slope . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Science by Numbers: Depth of the Bay of Fundy. . 286
Chapter 9
Biology: Larval Dispersal and Settlement . . . . . . . . 304 Biology: Sampling the Biota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Biology: Killer Whales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 Biology: Ecology of the Giant Kelp Community . . 328
Chapter 10
Science by Numbers: Doubling Rates. . . . . . . . . . . 342 Biology: Large Sharks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 Biology: Satellite Oceanography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Biology: Migrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 Physics: What Causes El Niño and What
is La Niña? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Chapter 11
Geology: The Oregon Coastline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 Geology: Cape Cod, Massachusetts. . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Geology: Padre Island, Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 Geology: San Diego County, California . . . . . . . . . 406 Science by Numbers: Sand-Budget Study . . . . . . . . 411 Geology: Ocean City and Assateague
Island, Maryland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 Geology: Katrina Drowns New Orleans . . . . . . . . . 414
Chapter 12
Biology: Chesapeake Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 Geology: Salt-Marsh Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 Biology: San Francisco Bay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 Biology: Global Decline of Coral Reefs. . . . . . . . . . 447 Science by Numbers: Residence Time . . . . . . . . . . 457
Chapter 13
Biology: Penguins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 Biology: Bottom Feeding by Whales . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 Biology: Sargassum Gulfweed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 Biology: Squids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Chapter 14
Geology: Offshore Oil and Gas in the Gulf of Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
The Process of Science: Fish Farming and “Super” Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Biology: Antarctic Krill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Chapter 15
Biology: The Torrey Canyon Disaster. . . . . . . . . . . 516 Biology: Bioremediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 Biology: The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill. . . . . . . . . . . . 524 Science by Numbers: Steady State . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526 Biology: Collapse of the New England Fisheries . . 534 Biology: Red Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
Chapter 16
Geology: The Global Rise of Sea Level and Its Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
Geology: The Crisis of Louisiana’s Wetland Loss . . . 559 Biology: Polar Bears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568 Biology: The Great Barrier Reef in the 21st Century . 572 Chemistry: Iron Fertilization of the Ocean—
Yes, No, or Maybe? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
END-OF-CHAPTER FEATURES
arranged into three groupings. The first set, the Review
Questions, is just that. The questions address the main
notions developed in the chapter. The second set, the
Critical Thinking Essays, requires more thought
because you must synthesize ideas, sometimes drawing
from concepts developed in previous chapters. In other
words, verbatim answers might not be found anywhere
in the book. However, you can develop an answer by
thinking deeply about the question posed and applying
common sense and logic to the information provided in
the book. The third set of questions, Discovering with
Numbers, deals with making straightforward
calculations about ocean processes. The questions rely
on basic mathemat-
high-school graduate
teach the art of computation and are included in most
chapters. Each box deals with a basic mathematical
concept and provides a step-by-step solution to a
specific problem. The trick to answering math
questions is to understand conceptually what it is you
are trying to solve. These math boxes will help you
upgrade your math skills and develop self-assurance
about reasoning with numbers. With the proper learn-
ing attitude, the math problems actually become fun to
solve and provide the insights into ocean processes that
only numerical calculations reveal. The fifth edition
contains many new questions that are designed to help
you master the chapter topics.
A reading list is provided at the end of each chapter
and includes both classical, but still relevant,
references and more recent writings on the ocean's
dynamic processes and diverse habitats. Some are
books; most are articles. They should prove valuable
for delving deeper into an area of oceanography that
intrigues you and for writing term papers. Over 90 new
reference citations have been added to this edition of
the book. Also, the appendices at the end of the book
provide important ancillary material including conver-
sion factors, a geologic time chart, map-reading
techniques, a discussion of the Coriolis deflection, and
the classification of marine organisms.
ANCILLARY MATERIALS
your students with the best in teaching aids, Jones and
Bartlett Publishers has prepared a complete supplemen-
tal package available to all adopters. Additional
information and review copies of any of the following
items are available through your Jones and Bartlett
Sales Representative.
with the following traditional ancillaries. All the files
are cross-platform for Windows and Macintosh systems
and ready for online courses using WebCT or
Blackboard formats.
tions, photographs, and tables (to which Jones and
Bartlett holds the copyright or has permission to repro-
duce digitally) inserted into PowerPoint slides. With
the Microsoft PowerPoint viewer, you can quickly and
easily copy individual images or tables into your exist-
ing lecture slides.
package provides lecture notes, graphs, and images for
each chapter of Invitation to Oceanography.
Instructors with the Microsoft PowerPoint software
can customize the outlines, images, and order of
presentation.
provide dynamic presentations of difficult concepts
w w w . j b p u b . c o m / o c e a n l i n k xvii
such as the Coriolis deflection, Ekman transport, and
the motion of water particles beneath waves. The CD
also includes MPEG clips of deep-sea hydrothermal
vents.
ner, Memorial University, provided as a text file,
includes chapter outlines, teaching tips, sample syllabi,
learning objectives, and additional concept and essay
questions.
and contains approximately 1,500 multiple-choice, fill-
in-the-blank, essay, and research questions.
FOR THE STUDENT
TO OCEANOGRAPHY
chapter outlines, learning objectives, diagram labeling
exercises, graph and table interpretation exercises, and
practice exams organized by chapter sections.
LABORATORY EXERCISES TO ACCOMPANY
make use of safe, readily available, inexpensive, and
reusable materials. Many of the labs are group-based
activities that demonstrate principles typically
discussed in lecture. The exercises require just
minimal knowledge of science and math. Jones and
Bartlett makes the Laboratory Exercises available with
the text, or it can be purchased separately.
xviii P R E F A C E
Jones and Bartlett Publishers is committed to
producing the finest introductory textbook in oceanog-
raphy possible. This fifth edition of Invitation to
Oceanography testifies to the staff’s earnest
commitment to that ideal. During my long association
with these professionals, I was impressed by their
patience, their creativity, their willingness to listen
carefully and critically to my perspectives, and their
attentive concern for visual and written aesthetics. The
outcome of our collaborative effort is what you have in
front of you. I am especially grateful to Lou Bruno,
Production Manager, Leah Corrigan, Associate Produc-
tion Editor, Molly Steinbach, Acquisitions Editor, and
Christine McKeen, Senior Photo Researcher. Also,
Shoshanna Goldberg, who was recently promoted, was
instrumental in getting this version of the book under-
way. A textbook of this ilk succeeds only if there is a
dynamic balance among syntheses, coverage, and
details, which was achievable because of our collabora-
tive effort. The few remaining errors and unintentional
misrepresentations in this fifth edition are my own
alone. I am truly privileged to be working as an author
with Jones and Bartlett Publishers.
Paul R. Pinet
Hamilton, New York
and constructively criticized drafts of the various
editions, vastly improving their quality. Those who
were particularly helpful and generous with their time
and expertise over the years include:
Charles Acosta
Community College
Ronadh Cox
Williams College
Brent Dugolinsky
John Ehleiter
Jack C. Hall
Chris Harrison
Science, University of Miami
Robert W. Hinds
Slippery Rock University
w w w . j b p u b . c o m / o c e a n l i n k xix
Acknowledgments
Science, University of Miami
Charles E. Knowles
Phillip Levin
James Loch
John E. Mylroie
Mississippi State University
C. Nicholas Raphael
Eastern Michigan University
Jill Singer
Charles R. Singler
Youngstown State University
1
A COMPLETE HISTORICAL account of oceanographic
exploration and research would be a massive
undertaking. The record stretches back over several
millennia to the time when ancient mariners built
boats and ventured boldly onto the sea to explore the
unknown. However, a brief sketch of maritime history
is needed in a book that deals with the physical,
chemical, geological, and biological processes of the
ocean in a scientifically rigorous manner. First and
foremost, this reminds us that for eons there have
been people in the field of “oceanography”—people
with an insatiable desire to make the unknown
familiar. Knowledge that is commonplace today
The Growth of Oceanography
1
1
What is the sense of owning a good boat if you hang
around in home waters?
phy, we should understand exactly what the
word means. The first part of the term is
coined from the Greek word okeanos, or Oceanus,
the name of the Titan son of the gods Uranus and
Gaea, who was father of the ocean nymphs (the
Oceanids). Eventually oceanus was applied to the
sea beyond the Pillars of Hercules, the North
Atlantic Ocean. The second part of the term comes
from the Greek word graphia, which refers to the
act of recording and describing. In fact, the word
oceanography is inadequate to describe the science
of the seas, because scientists do much more than
merely record and describe the ocean’s physical,
chemical, geological, and biological characteris-
tics. Oceanographers investigate, interpret, and
model all aspects of ocean processes, using the
most modern and sophisticated techniques of sci-
entific and mathematical enquiry. The term
oceanology (the suffix ology meaning “the science
of”) is etymologically more accurate. The distinc-
tion between oceanography and oceanology is sim-
ilar to that made between geography (the physical
description of the world and its biota) and geology
(the scientific study of the Earth and its processes).
The word oceanology has not, however, displaced
oceanography, because the latter term is solidly
entrenched in the minds of the laypeople as well as
the Western practitioners of the science. Hence,
this book will follow convention, using the more
familiar term to denote the scientific study of the
oceans.
is a pure science in its own right, practiced by
women and men who are specifically and narrowly
instructed in its investigative methods. Most
oceanographers are, in fact, trained in one of the
traditional sciences (physics, chemistry, biology,
and geology) or a related field (engineering, meteo-
rology, mathematics, statistics, or computer sci-
ence) and choose to apply their research expertise
to the study of the oceans. After obtaining under-
graduate training in a traditional science, they gain
2 1 T H E G R O W T H O F O C E A N O G R A P H Y
required painstaking investigations by numerous
seafarers throughout centuries of exploration. Many
intended to become rich by exploiting resources
and by controlling sea routes for commerce. All
were driven by a yearning to understand the
mysteries of the Earth and its seas.
Today’s oceanographers (modern sea explorers)
carry forward this quest to satisfy humankind’s
curiosity. They owe a huge debt to the courage and
vision of earlier mariners, who by slow increments
replaced ignorance and myth with knowledge.
GEOPHYSICS
BIOCHEMISTRY
graduate school or at a marine institute. Recently,
new career opportunities in oceanography have
developed in marine policy and management,
marine law, resource and environmental assess-
ment, and other related fields. Marine studies com-
monly rely on collaboration among many types
of scientists, mathematicians, engineers, techni-
cians, and policymakers.
It is customary to subdivide oceanography into
the four fields of physical, geological, chemical,
and biological oceanography (Figure 1–1). These
fields are in turn linked to one another by the cross-
disciplines of geochemistry, biochemistry, geo-
physics, and biophysics.
oceans have changed markedly over
time. Although this book stresses the
most current ideas championed by marine scien-
tists, these attitudes and impressions did not sud-
denly appear out of an intellectual vacuum. They
grew out of—and evolved from—the ideas and
deductions of prior generations of ocean explorers
and scientists. Marine scientists are well aware of
the fact that all of their work rests on the contri-
butions of the innumerable investigators that
came before them. But, obviously, this does not
mean that all the conclusions of those early inves-
tigators have been validated. Rather, as the sci-
ence of oceanography has matured and as research
vessels, sampling devices, and electronic instru-
mentation have become increasingly sophisticated
and more widely applied to probe the ocean’s
secrets, many beliefs of the past have been dis-
proved. The lesson from history is clear-cut. Our
ideas of the oceans today, which seem so appeal-
ingly final and are written about and taught with
so much fervor and certainty, will be refined by
the findings and thoughts of future generations of
marine scientists.
been the gradual and systematic development of a
body of thought. Rather, bold concepts and opin-
ions have often burst onto the scene, necessitating
critical reexamination of the wisdom of the past,
and stimulating fresh insights into the workings of
the oceans.
record of oceanography is to arrange the events into
three broad stages. The first includes the early
efforts of individual mariners as they attempted to
describe the geography of the Earth’s oceans and
landmasses. During this time of ocean exploration,
w w w . j b p u b . c o m / o c e a n l i n k 3
F I G U R E 1-1
The field of oceanography. This diagram organizes oceanography into four principal categories—biological, geological, physical, and chemi-
cal oceanography—that are linked to one another by cross-disciplines.
the very limits of the world were sought. The
second includes the early systematic attempts to
use a truly scientific approach to investigate the
oceans. The third covers the growth of modern
oceanography that has resulted from the wide-
spread application of state-of-the-art technology
and the international collaboration of scientists.
We will conclude this historical review with an
assessment of future prospects and try to predict
the nature of oceanographic investigations in the
middle part of the twenty-first century.
A limited number of the innumerable events that
contribute to the rich history of oceanography can be
highlighted in a single chapter. Although the details
of only a few of the many important research cruises
and studies are elaborated here, synopses of many
others are cataloged chronologically in Table 1–1.
Also, books that discuss the historical context of
ocean exploration and the science of oceanography
are listed at the end of the chapter.
OCEAN EXPLORATION
Humans have been going to sea for tens of thou-
sands of years. Anthropologists suspect, for exam-
ple, that the ancestors of aboriginal people reached
Australia by sea-going vessels some 40,000 to
60,000 years ago, an incredible feat requiring
courage, skill, and determination. They lived
through a glaciation and deglaciation, following
the shoreline as sea level dropped and then rose to
its present position. These events are recorded in
their powerful myths and art.
In many respects the Polynesian migration to
the many large and small islands of the Pacific
Ocean (Figure 1–2), completed well before the birth
of Christ, ranks as one of the most spectacular
exploration feats ever. Their canoes, which they
sailed and paddled, were made by hollowing out
logs or by lashing planking together with braided
ropes. These seaworthy vessels were built with
simple tools made of rock, bone, and coral. In order
to travel safely from one island to the next, these
Pacific seafarers relied on sound seamanship,
extensive navigational skills, and detailed local
knowledge, all of which—in the absence of a writ-
ten language—was passed on to others orally in the
recitation of epic poems. Polynesian seafarers
could depend on accurate, detailed lore of local
wind, wave, current, and weather patterns as well
as on the position of key navigational stars in mak-
ing a planned landfall after a deep-sea crossing of
hundreds, even thousands, of kilometers.
The ability to explore and chart the seas safely
depends on navigation. Records of sailing vessels
indicate maritime activity in Egypt as far back as
4000 B.C. It is likely that the extent of these voy-
ages was restricted, with mariners remaining well
in sight of land, probably in the immediate vicinity
of the Nile River and the shores of the eastern
Mediterranean Sea. By the sixth century B.C., how-
ever, Phoenicians had established sea routes for
trading throughout the entire Mediterranean
region and had even ventured westward into the
Atlantic Ocean, sailing as far north as the coast of
Cornwall in England. Historians suspect that
Phoenicians, around 600 B.C., were probably the
first to circumnavigate the continent of Africa.
True ocean navigation was difficult at the time.
Navigators charted the courses of their vessels
according to the stars. Undoubtedly, sailors steered
their craft in sight of the coastline whenever possi-
ble, relying on distinctive landmarks to find their
way and establish their position. This process is
called piloting.
civilization, plying the Mediterranean for trade as
it established its influence and control over the
entire region, was highly dependent on its mar-
itime prowess. A notable sea adventurer of the
time was Pytheas, the first Greek to circumnavi-
gate England and gauge the length of its shoreline.
Although his travels are not documented by first-
hand accounts, some historians believe that Pyth-
eas may have voyaged as far north as Norway and
as far west as Iceland. If he did, this stands as an
incredible navigational accomplishment. Histori-
mated latitude (Appendix IV) by the length of the
day, correcting for the time of the year. However,
without mechanical timepieces (accurate chrono-
meters) it was impossible for them to determine
longitude. Pytheas’s discovery that the tides of the
Atlantic Ocean vary regularly with the phases of
the moon underscores his deep understanding of
ocean processes.
Australia
M I C R O N E S I A
M E L A N E S I A
Caroline Is.
N O R T H P A C I F I C O C E A N
S O U T H P A C I F I C O C E A N
F I G U R E 1-2
Polynesia. (a) Polynesians settled these Pacific Islands, navigating across an ocean area
the size of a continent. (b) Polynesians used canoes made of hollowed-out logs or planks.
(a) POLYNESIA
(b) POLYNESIAN CANOE

ca. 1000–600 B.C.
Phoenicians explored the entire Mediterranean Sea, sailed into the Atlantic to Cornwall, England, and probably circumnavigated Africa.

A.D. 995 Leif Ericson, son of Eric the Red, established

A.D. 673–735 The English monk Bede published De Temporum Ratione, in which he discussed the lunar control of the tides and

A.D. 982 The Norseman Eric the Red completed the first transatlantic crossing and discovered
Baffin Island in the Arctic region of Canada.

450 B.C.

325 B.C.
The Greek Pytheas explored the coasts of England, Norway, and perhaps Iceland. He developed a means of determining latitude from the angular distance of the North Star
and proposed a connection between the phases of the Moon and the tides. Aristotle published Meteorologica, in which he described the geography and physical structure

276–192 B.C.
The Greek Eratosthenes, a scholar at Alexandria, determined the circumference of the Earth with remarkable accuracy using trigonometry and noting the specific angle of sunlight

54 B.C.–A.D. 30 The Roman Seneca devised the hydrologic cycle to show that, despite the inflow

ca. A.D. 150 The Greek Ptolemy compiled a map of the entire
Roman World that showed latitudes and longitudes.

A Chronology of Ocean Exploration

Most islands of the Pacific Ocean settled by Polynesians.
w w w . j b p u b . c o m / o c e a n l i n k 7w w w . j b p u b . c o m / o c e a n l i n k 7
Adapted from D. E. Ingmarson and W. J. Wallace, Oceanography: An Introduction, Table 1.2 (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1979); B. H. McConnaughey and
R. Zottoli, Introduction to Marine Biology, Chapter 24 (St. Louis, Miss.: Mosby, 1983); J. C. McCormick and J. V. Thiruvathukal, Elements of Oceanography,
Tables 1.1 and 1.2 (New York: Saunders College Publishing, 1981); H. S. Parker, Exploring the Oceans, Chapter 1 (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1985);
and H. V. Thurman, Introduction to Oceanography, Chapter 1 (Columbus, Ohio: Merrill, 1988).
Landmark Events in Early Ocean Exploration

1452–1519 Leonardo da Vinci observed, recorded, and interpreted details about currents and waves and noted that fossils

by sailing to the islands of the West Indies.

salinity, and pressure with depth and reported his findings in
“Observations and Experiments on the Saltiness of the Sea.”

1569 Geradus Mercator constructed

the globe; Sebastian del Cano completed the voyage.
1700 1725 1750 1775 1800 1825 1850

1740 Leonhard Euler calculated the magnitude of the forces that generate

1839–1843 Sir James Ross, nephew of the Arctic explorer Sir John Ross, led

1820 Alexander Marcet, a London physician, noted

1769–1770 Benjamin Franklin published the first ocean chart of the Gulf Stream, which

1768–1771, 1772–1775, 1778–1779 Captain James Cook commanded three major ocean voyages, gathering extensive data on the

1802 Nathaniel Bowditch published the New American Practical Navigator, a superb

1817–1818 Sir John Ross ventured into the Arctic Ocean to explore Baffin
Island, where he sounded the bottom successfully and recovered starfish and mud worms from a depth of 1.8 kilometer.
Milestones in Early Oceanography

1888 The Marine Biological Laboratory was established at Woods Hole, Massachusetts, and Dr. Charles
Otis Whitman served as its first director.

1884–1901 The USS Albatross was designed and constructed specifically to conduct scientific research at sea
and undertook numerous oceanographic cruises.

modern laboratory at Woods Hole, Massachusetts.

1872–1876 Under the leadership of Charles Wyville Thomson, the HMS Challenger
conducted worldwide scientific expeditions, collecting data and specimens that were later analyzed in over fifty large volumes of the Challenger Reports.

1877–1880 Alexander Agassiz, an American naturalist, extensively sampled life in the deep sea while aboard the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey ship Blake. He also founded the Museum of Comparative
Zoology at Harvard University and the first U.S. marine station, the Anderson School of Natural History, on Penikese Island, Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts.

1957–1958 The International Geophysical Year (IGY) was organized—an ambitious international effort to coordinate the geophysical investigation of the Earth, including its oceans.

1949 The Lamont (later changed to Lamont Doherty) Geological

1942 Harald Sverdrup, Richard Fleming, and

1925–1927 A German expedition aboard the research vessel Meteor studied
the physical oceanography of the Atlantic Ocean as never before, heralding the modern age of oceanographic investigation.

1932 The International Whaling Commission was organized
to collect data on whale species and to enforce voluntary regulations on the whaling industry.
w w w . j b p u b . c o m / o c e a n l i n k 11w w w . j b p u b . c o m / o c e a n l i n k 11
The Era of Modern Oceanography

1980s–1990s The Coordinated Ocean Research and Exploration Section program (CORES) was organized to continue the scientific

1978 Seasat-A, the first oceanographic satellite, was launched, demonstrating

1972 The Geochemical Ocean Sections Study (GEOSECS) was organized to obtain accurate measurements of seawater chemistry in an effort to explain the nature of ocean

1970s The United Nations initiated the International Decade of Ocean Exploration

1992 NASA launched the TOPEX/Poseidon satellite to monitor sea

1998 International Year of the Ocean is organized to educate the public
about the value and importance of the ocean’s resources.
2001 Joint launching of Jason-1 satellite by NASA and the French Space Agency to improve forecasting of currents and climate. Implementation of GLOBEC (GLOBal Ocean ECosystem Dynamics), an inter-
national research program designed by oceanographers, marine ecologists, and fishery scientists.

A map compiled by Herodotus in 450 B.C. shows
the extent of the Greeks’ understanding of world
geography (Figure 1–3). The Mediterranean Sea
prominently occupies the center of the map and is
surrounded by three landmasses of enormous pro-
portions—Libya (northern Africa), Europe, and
Asia. The polar limits and coastline configurations
of the latter two continents were unexplored at the
time and are not marked on the map. All of the
familiar land is surrounded by enormous expanses
of ocean that the Greeks believed extended to the
very ends of the world.
Throughout the Middle Ages (between 500 and
1450 a.d.), there was little ocean exploration by
Europeans, with the notable exception of the Viking
seafarers. Between the ninth and the twelfth cen-
tury, Scandinavians extended their influence over
Europe and across the Atlantic Ocean by acquiring
new lands. The Norse ventured boldly to Iceland,
Greenland, and the Baffin Islands, for example, and
established a North American settlement known as
Vinland in the area that we now call Newfoundland.
These Viking outposts eventually were abandoned
because of the harsh climates. Also, the onset of the
“Little Ice Age” (A.D. 1430 to 1850) caused the
extensive buildup of sea ice that cut off the northern
sea routes from Scandinavia.
navigators in the Western world at that time—
sailed westward by maintaining a course on a pre-
determined line of latitude. They accomplished
this navigational feat by sailing to a coastal point
along Norway and measuring the angular height of
the North Star. They then kept it at the same angle
on the starboard beam of the vessel throughout the
night. Their daytime navigation relied on the care-
ful calculation of the sun’s position for the time of
year. A map dated at about 1570 shows the remark-
able state of the Viking’s geographic knowledge of
the North Atlantic Ocean (Figure 1–4).
Economic, political, and religious motives
encouraged western Europeans to undertake long
F I G U R E 1-3
The Greek world. Herodotus compiled a map of the known world around 450 B.C., showing the Mediterranean Sea surrounded by the land
masses known as Europa, Asia, and Libya. Large tracts of ocean in turn surrounded this land, extending to the very edges of the world.
(Reproduced from an 1895 Challenger Report, published in Great Britain.)
F I G U R E 1-4
A Viking chart of the North Atlantic Ocean. This Viking map,
dated at about 1570, demonstrates how extensive the knowl-
edge of the North Atlantic Ocean was at that time. Familiar
land features include Great Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Green-
land, and a portion of the northeastern shoreline of Canada.
The voyages of Erik the Red (982) are shown in red, those of
Lief Eriksson (~1,000) in green.
Iceland
Ireland
Great
Britain
Eastern
Canada
the Pacific Ocean. Portuguese sailors were particu-
larly successful explorers during this time. In 1487
and 1488 Bartholomew Diaz rounded the Cape of
Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa. After sail-
ing around the Cape of Good Hope in 1498, Vasco
da Gama continued as far eastward as India.
Perhaps the crowning achievement of this age is
the circumnavigation of the globe by Ferdinand
Magellan. Departing from Spain in late September
of 1519, Magellan proceeded southwestward with
his flotilla of five age-worn ships to the northeast-
ern coast of Brazil (Figure 1–5). There he began to
search for a seaway to the Pacific and, in the
process, lost two of his vessels, one by desertion.
Almost one year after his departure from Spain,
Magellan located the 500-kilometer-wide (~310
miles) passage that now bears his name and sailed
around South America and into the Pacific Ocean.
The following three months were desperate for
Magellan’s crew, who endured starvation, disease,
and doubtless suffered much from fear of the
unknown. They eventually reached Guam on 6
March 1521. After proceeding to the Philippines
later that month, Magellan was killed on 27 April
on the small island of Mactan while participating
in a dispute among local tribes. Sebastian del Cano
eventually completed the circumnavigation under
tremendous hardship, reaching Spain on 8 Sep-
tember 1522, in the last remaining vessel of the
expedition, the Victoria. Of the original 230 sea-
men, only 18 reached Seville and completed their
three-year-long circumnavigation of the globe.
EARLY SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS
probings of the ocean’s secrets were made in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The British
were preeminent during this stage of ocean investi-
gation. Through government sponsorship, and
often under the auspices of major scientific soci-
eties such as the Royal Society of London, they
expanded their geographic and scientific knowledge
about the world’s seas, which was vital if they were
to uphold their maritime and economic superiority.
Captain James Cook best represents the British
seafaring adventurer of that day. Cook constructed
accurate charts of coastlines and made important
observations about the geology and biology of
unexplored regions, as well as of the customs of
native populations. In 1768, on his first major voy-
age commanding the HMS Endeavour, Cook
sighted the coast of New Zealand and charted
much of its shoreline. He demonstrated convinc-
ingly that it was not part of Terra Australis (a large
0° 30°E 60°E30°W60°W90°W120°W150°W180°150°E120°E90°E
0°
Departure (September 1519)
Home Arrival (September 1522)
The circumglobal voyage of Magellan. Ferdinand Magellan embarked on a three-year-long voyage in 1519, intent on discovering
a seaway to the East Indies. In 1520 he rounded the Straits of Magellan and continued to the Philippines, where he was killed dur-
ing a skirmish with natives. Sebastian del Cano completed the journey as leader of the expedition.
continent then believed to extend into the polar lat-
itudes, conjectured on the conviction there was an
equal proportion of land and ocean on the Earth).
He then proceeded westward to Australia and
explored and mapped its eastern coast, almost
foundering on the Great Barrier Reef.
During his second major voyage between 1772
and 1775, commanding the HMS Adventure and
the HMS Resolution, Cook used the prevailing
westerly winds to round the Cape of Good Hope
and circumnavigate the globe. He maintained a
course as close to the latitude 60°S as possible, con-
tinually avoiding icebergs. In the final report of his
findings, Cook wrote:
Thus, I flatter myself that the intention of the voy-
age has in every respect been fully answered, the
Southern Hemisphere sufficiently explored and a
final end put to the searching after a Southern Con-
tinent, which has at times engrossed the attention
of some of the maritime powers for near two cen-
turies past, and the geographers of all ages. That
there may be a continent or large tract of land near
the pole, I will not deny. On the contrary I am of the
opinion there is. (John R. Hale, Age of Exploration
[New York: Time, Inc., 1966], 192)
Cook’s final voyage (1778–79) led him to the
Pacific Ocean once again, where he discovered
numerous islands, including the Hawaiian Islands.
Becoming the first mariner to sail the polar seas of
both hemispheres, Cook also ventured northward
into the Bering Sea until stopped by pack ice at a
north latitude of 70°44’. After returning to Hawaii,
Cook was killed while attempting to recover a large
boat stolen by a group of natives.
Important work in marine science during the
mid-nineteenth century was conducted by Matthew
Fontaine Maury, director of the U.S. Naval Depot of
Charts and Instruments. While compiling Wind
and Current Charts, a task that began in 1842,
Maury realized the need for international coopera-
tion in making ocean measurements: “[A]s these
American materials are not sufficient to enable us
to construct wind and current charts of all parts of
the ocean, it has been judged advisable to enlist the
cooperation of the other maritime powers in the
same work.” In 1855 Maury published an important
and successful book, The Physical Geography of the
Sea, to familiarize the general public with the most
As you know, scientists strive to display information clearly and accurately. A useful and reveal-
ing way to display data is to plot the information on a graph. A data plot summarizes the infor-
mation quickly and reveals trends and relationships among variables. Sometimes the relationship between variables is direct, meaning
that an increase in one leads to an increase in the value of the other, and a decrease leads to a corresponding decrease. Other times, the
relationship is inverse, meaning that an increase in one leads to a decrease in the other, and vice versa.
In many cases relationships between variables are not linear, but are curved in some complicated way. Also, scientists may choose
not to use linear scales for one or both variables plotted on a graph. Oceanographers, for example, commonly graph a variable as a
power of 10. Let’s look at Figure B1–1. At first glance, it appears as if the concentration of tiny zooplankton suspended in the water
above the Kurile-Kamchatka Trench of the northwestern Pacific Ocean decreases regularly with water depth, except near the sea sur-
face, where the zooplankton are a bit more abundant than they are lower down in the water column (the vertical extent of water from
sea surface to sea bottom). The relationship between water depth and zooplankton abundance is inverse. To the unsuspecting, the plot
suggests that zooplankton concentrations decrease gradually downward and that significant numbers of zooplankton exist even at
depths below 5 kilometers. This impression is not, however, correct, because the zooplankton abundances are plotted on a scale that
varies as the power of 10. Thus, the minute quantities of zooplankton found in water deeper than 1 kilometer are amplified by the
scale chosen to plot them.
A conventional plot of the data using a linear scale for zooplankton concentrations shows a very different graph (Figure B1–2). This
reveals that zooplankton are essentially confined to water that is no deeper than 1 kilometer below the sea surface. Below 2 kilometers,
there are virtually no zooplankton. Also, the sharp downward curve of the graph between 1 and 2 kilometers is masked by plotting the
data along a scale that varies as a power of 10 (compare Figures B1–2 and B1–3). The lesson to be learned from this is that one must
always note the scale intervals that are used for all the variables plotted on a graph.
S C I E N C E B Y N U M B E R S
Graphs
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
W at
e r
Nonlinear plot.
Data for water above the Kurile-Kamchatka Trench
W at
e r
Linear plot.
into several languages. This first book dedicated
entirely to the science of oceanography earned him
the title, “father of physical oceanography.”
One of the best known ocean expeditions of the
nineteenth century was the cruise of the HMS Bea-
gle, with Captain Robert Fitzroy as commander
and Charles Darwin as the ship’s naturalist. The
Beagle embarked on a five-year voyage, beginning
in late December of 1831; Darwin spent the bulk of
that time studying the geology and biology of the
South American coastline (Figure 1–6). He was par-
ticularly impressed by the unique animal popula-
tions of the Galápagos Islands off Ecuador and by
the latitudinal changes in the makeup of the biota
of the coastal environments of South America.
After the successful completion of the voyage, Dar-
win spent the next twenty years examining and
reflecting on his copious data. He eventually devel-
oped a most elegant theory of organic evolution,
suggesting that the appearance and evolution of
new species result by natural selection,which oper-
ates slowly over very long periods of deep geologic
time. His arguments, observations, and conclu-
sions led to the publication of his seminal work,
On the Origin of Species, in 1859. In addition, Dar-
win’s numerous observations on the morphology
of coral reefs in the Pacific Ocean resulted in an
insightful theory of their geological development
that remains the accepted explanation today.
One of the more successful and significant
scientific voyages of the nineteenth century was
T H E P R O C E S S O F S C I E N C E
The Scientific Process
oceanography indicates, scien-
natural world; they assume that natural
processes are orderly and therefore
knowable by a rational mind. Statements
made by scientists are not merely ran-
dom opinions about the workings of the
world. Rather they are logical explana-
tions, termed hypotheses, that are
grounded solidly on a set of observations
and tested rigorously in order to evaluate
their credibility.
natural world. Examples of such ques-
tions in oceanography might be:
What is the geologic origin of a partic-
ular estuary?
this estuary and what controls it?
What effect does lead dissolved in the
water have on a species of clam in
this estuary?
cific, theoretical or applied, abstract or
concrete.
then conduct laboratory, field, or model-
ing (mathematical) experiments in order
to generate accurate facts (observations)
that bear on an answer to the question
being investigated. A legitimate answer
(the hypothesis) to a scientific question
is one that can be tested. A hypothesis
is always considered to be a tentative
explanation. Scientists first and foremost
are skeptics, trying to disprove hypothe-
ses in order to eliminate falsehoods
from the scientific understanding of the
natural world.
repeatedly in different ways and not dis-
proved, scientists then assume that it is
“correct” and the hypothesis becomes a
theory, as new facts continue to support
it. For example, Charles Darwin pro-
posed his hypothesis of biological evolu-
tion by natural selection during the
middle part of the nineteenth century.
Today, after repeated tests and countless
facts that support the idea, his hypothe-
sis of biological evolution by natural
selection has been elevated to the status
of a theory.
many believe, primarily concerned
about the natural world and then try to
answer them by proposing hypotheses—
creative insights about what the truthful
responses to those questions might be.
What really separates the scientific
method from other ways of knowing is
its reliance on the rigorous testing of
each hypothesis by experimentation or
by the gathering of additional observa-
tions; the explicit intent of the test is to
determine whether the hypothesis is
false or true. If the test results disagree
with the prediction, then the hypothesis
being evaluated is disproved, meaning
that it cannot be a legitimate account of
reality. Then it is either modified into a
new hypothesis that is compatible with
the test findings or discarded altogether
and replaced by other, still-to-be-tested
hypotheses. Keep in mind, however,
that agreement between expected and
experimental test results is not proof
that the hypothesis is true. Rather, it
means only that the hypothesis contin-
ues to be a valid version of reality for
the time being. It may not survive the
next test. If a hypothesis repeatedly
avoids falsification, then scientists
the truth. A flow diagram of this version
of the scientific method is presented as
Figure B1–3.
a long-standing interest among scientists
in answering questions about the work-
ings of the oceans. It is a current update
of the facts, hypotheses, and theories
of ocean processes. Undoubtedly, as
oceanographers
scientific process.
the scientific method is presented as
a simple flow diagram.
directed by C. Wyville Thomson aboard the 2,360-
ton corvette, the HMS Challenger (Figure 1–7a).
Between 1872 and 1876, the Challenger completed
a globe-encircling voyage, covering almost 125,000
kilometers (~77,500 miles) (Figure 1–7b). A primary
goal of the cruise was to resolve the controversy
about whether or not life existed in the abyss of the
oceans. Edward Forbes (1815–1854), an influential
English naturalist, maintained that the ocean
depths below 550 meters (~1,750 feet) were azoic
(lifeless). A staff of six scientists tirelessly followed
the dictates of the Royal Society of London, deter-
mining the chemical composition of seawater and
the distribution of life forms at all depths, conduct-
ing observations of coastal and ocean currents, and
describing the nature of the sedimentary deposits
that blanket the sea floor. This global approach to
ocean studies represented a fundamental step in the
evolution of marine science and heralded a new era
in ocean exploration.
success of the Challenger Expedition. The crew
completed more than 360 deep-sea soundings and
raised an equal number of dredged samples off the
bottom (Figure 1–8a). They obtained no fewer than
7,000 sea-life specimens, some from as great a
depth as 9 kilometers (~5.6 miles). Each specimen
was described, cataloged carefully, and preserved
for later laboratory analysis. The findings of the
Challenger crew left no doubt that organisms lived
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