i

Investigating the Influences of Age Differences in EFL Classroom:

A case Study of Wad Medani Basic Schools,Greater Wad Medani Locality , Gezira State, Sudan

Waleed Mahjoub Ahmed Ibrahim

B.A in English Language

University of Gezira, Faculty of Education (2009)

A Dissertation

Submitted to the University of Gezira in partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Award of the Degree of Master

in

English Language Teaching (ELT)

Department of Foreign Languages

Faculty of Education – EL- Hasahisa

August, 2015

ii

Investigating the Influences of Age Differences in EFL Classroom:

A case Study of Wad Medani Basic Schools,Greater Wad Medani Locality , Gezira State, Sudan

Waleed Mahjoub Ahmed Ibrahim

Supervision Committee:

Name Position Signature

Dr .ALhaj Ali Adam Ismail Main Supervisor ………………..

Dr. Ahmed Gasm ALseed Ahmed Co- supervisor …………………

Date: August , 2015

iii

Investigating the Influences of Age Differences in EFL Classroom:

A case Study of Wad Medani Basic Schools,Greater Wad Medani Locality , Gezira State, Sudan

Waleed Mahjoub Ahmed Ibrahim

Examination Committee:

Name Position Signature

Dr ALhaj Ali Adam Ismail Chairperson ……………….

Dr. Shawgi Abdebagi Ali Musa External Examiner ………………..

Dr. Abdul Galil Abdualla Salih Internal Examiner ………………..

Date of Examination: 8 / 8 /2015

iv

DEDICATION

To my

father, mother, sisters,

brothers and friends

v

Acknowledgements

A am heartily thankful to main supervisor, Dr. AlHaj Adam Ali, for

encouragement guidance and support during this research and owe thanks to

my co- supervisor Dr. Ahmed Gasm ALseed Ahmed for help. Finally, extend

my regards to my family and all those who supported during this work.

vi

Investigating the Influences of Age Differences in EFL Classroom:

A case Study of Wad Medani Basic Schools,Greater Wad Medani Locality , Gezira State, Sudan

Waleed Mahjoub Ahmed Ibrahim

Abstract

Learning a foreign language can be a achieve through many strategies

and plans .Certain principles are to be applied. The study aims at the

influence of age factor, showing that children concentrate during English

lessons more than elder ones. It is point out that an age plays a vital role in

acquiring foreign language. The study adopted the descriptive analytical

method. A questionnaire is used as a tool for data collection. It has been

designed and distributed to the sample which consists of (40) English

teachers selected randomly from Wad Madani Locality basic schools. For

data analysis, the researcher used the (SPSS) program. The study obtained

many results, a few of teachers face difficulties when teaching students of

different ages. The majority of the respondents agreed that there is no

specific strategies and techniques for age variation. The study also found out

that teachers concentrate only on eldest students. Teachers suffer when

teaching children. Children encounter difficulties in language more than

elder ones due to the age differences has an effect of individual differences.

The study recommended that teaching should be equally in participation.

Experts should focus on age differences. Learners should expose to more

and different levels of syllabus and materials. It also recommended that:

syllabus designers should be aware of individual variations. More studies

should be adopted to alleviate the results of age difference. Language labs

must be equipped for the facilitating and supporting educational process.

vii

:اللغة الانجليزية كلغة أجنبية فصول فيالتحقق من التباين العمري وأثره

ولاية الجزيرة السودان -الكبرىمحلية ود مدني –دراسة حالة في مدارس مرحلة التعليم الأساسي

وليد محجوب أحمد

ملخص الدراسة

تعلم اللغة الأجنبية يمكن أن ينجز عبر العديد من الطرق والأوضاع والخطط وأيضاً إن

أن الأطفال ذوي الأعمار الصغيرة أكثر إبراز هدفت هذه الدراسة إلي بتطبيق مفاهيم لغوية معينة.

درس اللغة الانجليزية. للتحقق من أن العمر له دور فعال في اكتساب أثناءمن الكبار تركيزاً

. استخدمت الدراسة المنهج الوصفي التحليلي كما تم استخدام الاستبيان لجمع البيانات من اللغة.كما

عشوائيا من اختيارهماللغة الانجليزية تم ( معلماً و معلمة من معلمي 40الدراسين التي بلغت )عينة

الإحصائيةبرنامج الحزم الباحث استخدمبمحلية ود مدني الكبرى. الأساسيالمعلمين بمدارس التعليم

بيانات التي تم لتحليل ال برنامج الحزم الإحصائية للعلوم الاجتماعية (SPSSللعلوم الاجتماعية )

التلاميذ الصغار يكتسبون اللغة الانجليزية أن نتائج من أهمها لالحصول عليها. توصلت الدراسة

اللغة الانجليزية يركزون علي التلاميذ ذوي الأعمار معلميبسهولة أكثر من التلاميذ الكبار، كما أن

للأطفالجه المعلمين عند تدريسهم الكبيرة أكثر من التلاميذ صغار السن، هناك صعوبات عديدة توا

ذوي الأعمار الصغيرة. أوصت الدراسة بضرورة توزيع فرص المشاركة علي التلاميذ كافة داخل

الفصل مما يمكن من تعلم اللغة الانجليزية، كما يجب تنوع مصادر تعليم اللغة الانجليزية مع الاهتمام

بالبيئة المدرسية التي تساعد في تعليم اللغة الانجليزية بالفروق الفردية بين التلاميذ، أن يتم الاهتمام

وخاصة توفير المعامل التعليمية.

viii

Table of Contents

CONTENT

Page

Dedication iii

Acknowledgements iv

Abstract (English) v

Abstract (Arabic) vi

Table of Contents vii

List of Tables x

List of Figures xi

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODACTION

1.0 Background 1

1.1 Statement of the Study 1

1.2 Objectives of the Study 2

1.3 Questions of the Study 2

1.4 Hypotheses of the Study 2

1.5 Significance of the Study 3

1.6 Methods of the Study 3

1.7 Limits of the Study

3

ix

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction 4

2.1 Foreign-Language Acquisition 4

2.2 General Views and Apparent Facts 8

2.3 Concepts Behind Age and Foreign Language Learning 10

2.4. Historical Origin and Development in the Field of Age and FLL 11

2.5 Neurolingustic Factors 12

2.6 The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) 13

2.7 Universal Grammar 17

2.8 The Concept of Universal Grammar (UG) and FLL 18

2.9 Maturational Constraints 19

2.10 The Age Effect on Foreign Language Learning 20

2.11 Previous Study 21

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction 24

3.1Population of the Study 24

3.2 The Sample of the Study 24

3.3 The Tool of the Study 24

3.4 The Procedures 24

3.5 Reliability and Validity of the Questionnaire 25

x

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.0 Introduction 26

4.1 Data Analysis 26

4.3 Testing the Study Hypotheses 46

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION, FINDING AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Introduction 47

5.1 conclusion 47

5.2 Finings of the Study 47

5.3 Recommendations 48

References 49

Appendix 52

xi

The age factor in second language

acquisition Category: All posts, Linguistics 0 Comments

Is there an optimal age for second language acquisition? Everybody agrees that age is a crucial factor in language learning. However to which extent age is an important factor still remains an open question. A plethora of factors can influence language learning: biological factors, mother tongue, intelligence, learning surroundings, emotions, motivation and last but not least: the age factor. Lenneberg´s critical period hypothesis (1967) suggests that there is a biologically determined period of life when language can be acquired more easily. Beyond this time a language is more difficult to acquire. According to Lenneberg, bilingual language acquisition can only happen during the critical period (age 2 to puberty). The critical period hypothesis is associated with neurophysiological mechanisms suggesting that in late bilinguals the early and the late acquired languages are represented in spatially separated parts of the brain (Broca’s area). In early bilinguals on the other hand a similar activation in Broca’s area takes place for both languages. This loss of the brain´s plasticity explains why adults may need more time and effort compared to children in second language learning.

The advantages of early second language acquisition

In early childhood, becoming bilingual is often an unconscious event, as natural as learning to walk or ride a bicycle. But why? According scientific surveys, language aspects such as pronunciation and intonation can be acquired easier during childhood, due to neuromuscular mechanisms which are only active until to the age of 12. Another possible explanation of children’s´ accent-free pronunciation is their increased capability for imitation. This capability fades away significantly after puberty. Another factor that we should take into consideration is children’s flexibility, spontaneity and tolerance to new experiences. Kids are more willing to communicate with people than adults, they are curious and they are not afraid of making mistakes. They handle difficulties like missing vocabulary very easily by using creative methods to communicate, such as non-verbal means of communication and use of onomatopoetic words. Also the idea of a foreign civilisation is not formed in their minds yet. Only at the age of 8 does it become clear to them that there are ethnic and cultural differences. Last but not least, aspects such as time, greater learning and memory capacity are in any case advantages in early language learning. On the other hand there are surveys which point out the risk of semi-lingualism and advise parents to organise language planning carefully.

xii

The advantages of late second language acquisition

First of all it is important to clarify that by late second language learning we mean learning a language after puberty. Linguists, psychologists and pedagogues have been struggling for years to answer the following question: is it possible to reach native-like proficiency when learning a language after puberty? In order to give an answer we have to consider the following factors: First of all, adults (meaning people after puberty) have an important advantage: cognitive maturity and their experience of the general language system. Through their knowledge of their mother tongues, as well as other foreign languages, not only can they achieve more advantageous learning conditions than children, but they can also more easily acquire grammatical rules and syntactic phenomena. According to Klein Dimroth (see references), language learning is an accumulative process that allows us to build on already existing knowledge. Children cannot acquire complex morphological and grammatical phenomena so easily.

It would be useful to point out that sometimes incorrect pronunciation is not a matter of capability but of good will. According to different surveys, adults do not feel like themselves when they speak a foreign language and they consider pronunciation an ethno- linguistic identity-marker. A positive or negative attitude towards a foreign language should not be underestimated. Another factor to consider is the adults’ motivation to learn a foreign language. When an adult learns a foreign language there is always a reason behind it: education, social prestige, profession or social integration. The latter is considered a very strong one, especially in the case of immigrants.

Conclusion

It is obvious that the language learning processes in adults and children have advantages and disadvantages. However, age is an important but not overriding factor. All people, regardless of age, perceive a language learning process differently and individually. Personality and talent can influence this process significantly: there are shy children and very communicative adults. Our conclusion? It is advisable to encourage language learning at an early age. The younger the child is, the more they can take advantage of neuromuscular mechanisms that promote language learning and thus reach a native-like level with less effort and time. Other advantages, such as increased communication abilities, better articulation, tolerance to foreign cultures and personal cognitive development, are among the benefits of early language learning. Yet this does not exclude effective language learning in adults. Under ideal learning situations, with motivation and a positive attitude, everybody can reach an excellent language level.

Article written by Katerina Karavasili, translator and master´s student of German as a foreign language.

TermCoord communication team

xiii

References

Klein,Dimorth:http://www.mpi.nl/world/materials/publications/Klein/157_2003_Der_ungesteuerte_Zweitspracherwerb_Erwachsener.pdf, S .19.

Klein, W., & Dimroth, C. (2003). Der ungesteuerte Zweitspracherwerb Erwachsener: Ein Überblick über den Forschungsstand. In U. Maas & U. Mehlem (Eds.), Qualitätsanforderungen für die Sprachförderung im Rahmen der Integration von Zuwanderern. IMIS 21, 127-161. Osnabrück: IMIS. Aufrufbar unter: http://www.mpi.nl/world/materials/publications/Klein/157_2003_Der_ungesteuerte_Zweitspracherwerb_Erwachsener.pdf

Mutter, Karl und Ritter, Anna (Hg.). Sprachentwicklung und Spracherwerb fremdsprachiger Kinder. Edition Soziothek, Bern 2008.

Nauwerck, Patricia. Zweisprachigkeit im Kindergarten, Fillibach Verlag, Freiburg im Breisgrau 2005.

Pagonis, Giulio. Kritische Periode oder altersspezifischer Antrieb. Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main 2009.

Reich, Hans. Zweisprachige Kinder (Band 16), Waxmann Verlag, Berlin 2009.

xiv

Top factors that influence second

language acquisition Why language schools are often ineffective? I did about about one month German language

course and found that I was gaining very little out of it. I had different teachers and I noticed

that a good teacher can make a huge difference by creating a learning environment that

involves students and does not bore them.

When I started to read literature about the factors that influence language learning, but also

“learning” in general, I found out that the approach that some of my teachers were following

was totally wrong.

I summarize what I think are crucial factors for efficient language learning and will then explain

each one more in detail:

1. Motivation 2. Regular practice 3. Emotional involvement 4. Playfulness and willingness to make mistakes 5. Humble approach – The basic first 6. Grammar is secondary to practice, theory is secondary to practice.

1. Motivation

Turns out that the more you are motivated toward learning the faster and better you will learn.

This seems obvious but the crucial point is that to be motivated you have actually to believe that

you can learn the language, and that you can learn it pretty quickly.

2. Regular practice

It is better to practice the language every day 20-30 minutes than 2 hours 2 times a week.

Regular practice it is very much linked to other factors such as time management and

motivation.

3. Emotional involvement

Our memory can retain much better information that is associated with strong emotions and

more than one sense. For example, associating the sound of a word with images and smell could

be more effective than just reading the word on a dictionary. One important factor is that a

person memory may have preference for one of the senses. Therefore, discovering what is your

favourite sense for memory retention can be highly useful to decide how to learn languages.

xv

4. Playfulness and willingness to make mistakes

When we are bored we do not learn. When we are having fun we are more receptive. This is one

of the reason why boring language school is usually very ineffective. I think that is also

important to not worry about sounding a bit ridiculous during the first months speaking a

foreign language. Willingness to make mistakes allows you to improve by getting feedback on

what are you doing wrong and how to fix it. A playful approach to language learning can be

highly rewarding because allows you to say anything and without having to worry too much

about it.

5. Humble approach – Starting from the basic

We learn better when we interiorize very well some small knowledge chuncks or principles

before adding new ones. Therefore, a beginner that start by an humble approach, and recognize

that is better to learn very good very few things at the beginning before learning a lot of

advanced rules will actually learn faster. In other words, I think that the secret to learn fast is

actually to learn “slowly” (gradually).

Using this principle I recently created an app to learn italian pronunciation.

6. Grammar is secondary to practice.

Generally speaking I believe that second language acquisition is more successful when it imitates

children language acquisition. Children do not learn grammar first and then how to speak, they

learn how to speak by a trial and error process which involve constant engaging with their

environment. Children do not learn reading by starting to read literature. They learn to read by

starting to read simple single words, and then simple single sentences. Grammar should be

taught very sparingly and sparingly used to check the sentences that one has already

pronounced instead than the opposite.

if you found this post interesting you may also find interesting my infographic on three essential

ingredients to learn a language.

Peter

Second-language acquisition

Second-language acquisition, second-language learning, or L2 acquisition, is

the process by which people learn a second language. Second-language

acquisition (often abbreviated to SLA) also refers to the scientific discipline

devoted to studying that process. Second language refers to any language

learned in addition to a person's first language; although the concept is

xvi

named second-language acquisition, it can also incorporate the learning of

third, fourth, or subsequent languages.[1] Second-language acquisition refers

to what learners do; it does not refer to practices in language teaching,

although teaching can affect acquisition.

Individual variation

There is considerable variation in the rate at which people learn second

languages, and in the language level that they ultimately reach. Some

learners learn quickly and reach a near-native level of competence, but

others learn slowly and get stuck at relatively early stages of acquisition,

despite living in the country where the language is spoken for several years.

The reason for this disparity was first addressed with the study of language

learning aptitude in the 1950s, and later with the good language learner

studies in the 1970s. More recently research has focused on a number of

different factors that affect individuals' language learning, in particular

strategy use, social and societal influences, personality, motivation, and

anxiety. The relationship between age and the ability to learn languages has

also been a subject of long-standing debate.

Age

The issue of age was first addressed with the critical period hypothesis.[79]

The strict version of this hypothesis states that there is a cut-off age at about

12, after which learners lose the ability to fully learn a language. This strict

version has since been rejected for second-language acquisition, as adult

learners have been observed who reach native-like levels of pronunciation

and general fluency. However, in general, adult learners of a second-

language rarely achieve the native-like fluency that children display, despite

often progressing faster in the initial stages. This has led to speculation that

xvii

age is indirectly related to other, more central factors that affect language

learning.

Strategies

There has been considerable attention paid to the strategies which learners

use when learning a second language. Strategies have been found to be of

critical importance, so much so that strategic competence has been

suggested as a major component of communicative competence.[80]

Strategies are commonly divided into learning strategies and communicative

strategies, although there are other ways of categorizing them. Learning

strategies are techniques used to improve learning, such as mnemonics or

using a dictionary. Communicative strategies are strategies a learner uses to

convey meaning even when she doesn't have access to the correct form, such

as using pro-forms like thing, or using non-verbal means such as gestures.

Affective factors

The learner's attitude to the learning process has also been identified as

being critically important to second-language acquisition. Anxiety in

language-learning situations has been almost unanimously shown to be

detrimental to successful learning. A related factor, personality, has also

received attention. There has been discussion about the effects of extravert

and introvert personalities. However, one study has found that there were no

significant differences between extraverts and introverts on the way they

achieve success in a second language.[81]

Social attitudes such as gender roles and community views toward language

learning have also proven critical. Language learning can be severely

hampered by cultural attitudes, with a frequently cited example being the

difficulty of Navajo children in learning English. Also, the motivation of the

individual learner is of vital importance to the success of language learning.

xviii

Studies have consistently shown that intrinsic motivation, or a genuine

interest in the language itself, is more effective over the long term than

extrinsic motivation, as in learning a language for a reward such as high

grades or praise.

Classroom second-language acquisition

Main article: Second-language acquisition classroom research

While considerable SLA research has been devoted to language learning in a

natural setting, there have also been efforts made to investigate second-

language acquisition in the classroom. This kind of research has a significant

overlap with language education, and it is mainly concerned with the effect

that instruction has on the learner. It also explores what teachers do, the

classroom context, the dynamics of classroom communication. It is both

qualitative and quantitative research.

The research has been wide-ranging. There have been attempts made to

systematically measure the effectiveness of language teaching practices for

every level of language, from phonetics to pragmatics, and for almost every

current teaching methodology. This research has indicated that many

traditional language-teaching techniques are extremely inefficient.[82] cited in

Ellis 1994 It is generally agreed that pedagogy restricted to teaching

grammar rules and vocabulary lists does not give students the ability to use

the L2 with accuracy and fluency. Rather, to become proficient in the second

language, the learner must be given opportunities to use it for

communicative purposes.[83][84]

Another area of research has been on the effects of corrective feedback in

assisting learners.This has been shown to vary depending on the technique

used to make the correction, and the overall focus of the classroom, whether

on formal accuracy or on communication of meaningful content.[85][86][87]

xix

There is also considerable interest in supplementing published research with

approaches that engage language teachers in action research on learner

language in their own classrooms.[88] As teachers become aware of the

features of learner language produced by their students, they can refine their

pedagogical intervention to maximize interlanguage development.[89]

ferences

Allwright, Dick; Hanks, Judith (2009). The Developing Language Learning: An Introduction to Exploratory Practice. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-8531-6.

Anderson, J. R. (1992). "Automaticity and the ACT* theory". American Journal of Psychology 105 (2): 165–180. doi:10.2307/1423026. JSTOR 1423026. PMID 1621879.

Bailey, N.; Madden, C.; Krashen, S. D. (1974). "Is there a "natural sequence" in adult second language learning?". Language Learning 24 (2): 235. doi:10.1111/j.1467-1770.1974.tb00505.x. edit

Bates, E.; MacWhinney, B. (1981). "Second-Language Acquisition from a Functionalist Perspective: Pragmatic, Semantic, and Perceptual Strategies". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 379: 190. Bibcode:1981NYASA.379..190B. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1981.tb42009.x. edit

Brown, Roger (1973). A First Language. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-30325-6.

Canale, M.; Swain, M. (1980). "Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing". Applied Linguistics 1 (1): 1–47. doi:10.1093/applin/1.1.1.

Chang, Charles B. (2012). "Rapid and multifaceted effects of second-language learning on first-language speech production". Journal of Phonetics 40 (2): 249–268. doi:10.1016/j.wocn.2011.10.007.

Cook, Vivian (2008). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. London: Arnold. ISBN 978-0-340-95876-6.

DeKeyser, Robert (1998). "Beyond focus on form: Cognitive perspectives on learning and practicing second language grammar". In Doughty, Catherine; Williams, Jessica. Focus on Form in Classroom Second Language Acquisition. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 42–63. ISBN 978-0-521-62390-2.

Doughty, Catherine; Williams, Jessica, eds. (1998). Focus on Form in Classroom Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-62390-2.

Dulay, H. C.; Burt, M. K. (1973). "Should we teach children syntax?". Language Learning 23 (2): 245. doi:10.1111/j.1467-1770.1973.tb00659.x. edit

Dulay, Heidi; Burt, Marina (1974). "Natural sequences in child second language acquisition". Language Learning 24: 37–53. doi:10.1111/j.1467-1770.1974.tb00234.x.

Dulay, Heidi; Burt, Marina (1974). "You can't learn without goofing". In Richards, Jack. Error Analysis. New York: Longman. pp. 95–123. ISBN 978-0-582-55044-5.

Dulay, Heidi; Burt, Marina (1975). "Creative construction in second language learning and teaching". In Dulay, Heidi; Burt, Marina. On TESOL '75: New Directions in Second

xx

Language Learning, Teaching, and Bilingual Education: Selected Papers from the Ninth Annual TESOL Convention, Los Angeles, California, March 4–9, 1975. Washington, DC: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. pp. 21–32. OCLC 1980255.

Elley, W. B. (1991). "Acquiring Literacy in a Second Language: the Effect of Book-Based Programs". Language Learning 41 (3): 375–411. doi:10.1111/j.1467-1770.1991.tb00611.x. edit

Ellis, N. C. (1998). "Emergentism, Connectionism and Language Learning" (PDF). Language Learning 48 (4): 631–664. doi:10.1111/0023-8333.00063. Retrieved 2011-03-01. edit

Ellis, Rod (1993). "Second language acquisition and the structural syllabus". TESOL Quarterly 27 (1): 91–113. doi:10.2307/3586953. JSTOR 3586953.

Ellis, Rod (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-437189-1.

Ellis, Rod (1997). Second Language Acquisition. Oxford Introductions to Language Study. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-437212-1.

Ellis, Rod (2002). "Does form-focused instruction affect the acquisition of implicit knowledge?". Studies in Second Language Acquisition 24 (2): 223–236. doi:10.1017/s0272263102002073.

Ellis, Rod; Barkhuizen, Patrick (2005). Analysing Learner Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-431634-7.

Ellis, Rod (2008). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-442257-4.

Flege, James Emil (1987). "The production of "new" and "similar" phones in a foreign language: evidence for the effect of equivalence classification" (PDF). Journal of Phonetics 15: 47–65. Retrieved 2011-02-09.

Gass, Susan; Selinker, Larry (2008). Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course. New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-8058-5497-8.

Harley, B. (1989). "Functional Grammar in French Immersion: A Classroom Experiment". Applied Linguistics 10 (3): 331–360. doi:10.1093/applin/10.3.331. edit

Haynes, Judie (2007). Getting Started With English Language Learners: How Educators Can Meet the Challenge. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. ISBN 978-1-4166-0519-5.

Krashen, Stephen (1977). "Some issues relating to the monitor model". In Brown, H; Yorio, Carlos; Crymes, Ruth. Teaching and learning English as a Second Language: Trends in Research and Practice: On TESOL '77: Selected Papers from the Eleventh Annual Convention of Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Miami, Florida, April 26 – May 1, 1977. Washington, DC: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. pp. 144–158. OCLC 4037133.

Krashen, Stephen (1981). Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. New York: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-025338-5. Retrieved 2011-02-28.

Krashen, Stephen (1981). "The "fundamental pedagogical principle" in second language teaching" (PDF). Studia Linguistica 35: 50–70. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9582.1981.tb00701.x. Retrieved 2011-03-24.

Krashen, Stephen (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-028628-3. Retrieved 2010-11-25.

Krashen, Stephen (1994). "The input hypothesis and its rivals". In Ellis, Nick. Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages. London: Academic Press. pp. 45–77. ISBN 978-0-12-237475-3.

xxi

Krashen, Stephen (2004). The Power of Reading, Second Edition. Littleton: Libraries Unlimited. ISBN 978-1-59158-169-7.

Lenneberg, Eric (1967). Biological Foundations of Language. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0-89874-700-7.

Lightbown, Patsy (1990). "Chapter 6: Process-product research on second language learning in classrooms". In Harley, Birgit. The Development of Second Language Proficiency. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 82–92. ISBN 978-0-521-38410-0.

Lightbown, Patsy; Spada, Nina (1990). "Focus-on-Form and Corrective Feedback in Communicative Language Teaching: Effects on Second Language Learning". Studies in Second Language Acquisition 12 (4): 429–48. doi:10.1017/S0272263100009517.

Lightbown, Patsy M.; Spada, Nina (2006). How Languages Are Learned (3rd ed.). Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-442224-6.

Long, M. (1996). "The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition". In Ritchie, William; Bhatia, Tej. Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 413–468. ISBN 978-0-12-589042-7.

Lyster, R.; Ranta, L. (1997). "Corrective feedback and learner uptake: Negotiation of form in communicative classrooms". Studies in Second Language Acquisition 19: 37–66. doi:10.1017/s0272263197001034.

Lyster, R.; Mori, H. (2006). "Interactional feedback and instructional counterbalance". Studies in Second Language Acquisition 28: 269–300. doi:10.1017/s0272263106060128.

MacWhinney, Brian (1987). "Applying the Competition Model to bilingualism" (PDF). Applied Psycholinguistics 8 (4): 315–327. doi:10.1017/S0142716400000357. Retrieved 2011-03-02.

MacWhinney, B. (2005). "Extending the Competition Model". International Journal of Bilingualism 9: 69–05. doi:10.1177/13670069050090010501. edit

Paradis, M. (1994). "Neurolinguistic aspects of implicit and explicit memory: Implications for bilingualism and SLA". In Ellis, Nick. Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages. London: Academic Press. pp. 393–420. ISBN 978-0-12-237475-3.

Penfield, Wilder; Roberts, Lamar (1959). Speech and Brain Mechanisms. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08039-9.

Prabhu, N. (1987). Second Language Pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-437084-4.

Rounds, P. L.; Kanagy, R. (1998). "Acquiring linguistic cues to identify AGENT: Evidence from children learning Japanese as a second language". Studies in Second Language Acquisition 20 (4): 509–542. doi:10.1017/s0272263198004033.

Schmidt, R. (2001). "Attention". In Robinson, Peter. Cognition and Second Language Instruction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–32. ISBN 978-0-521-80288-8.

Selinker, L. (1972). "Interlanguage". International Review of Applied Linguistics 10: 209–241. doi:10.1515/iral.1972.10.1-4.209.

Siegel, Jeff (2003). "Social Context". In Doughty, Catherine; Long, Michael. The handbook of second language acquisition. Malden, MA: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-21754-1.

Skehan, Peter (1998). A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-437217-6.

Swain, Merrill (1991). "French immersion and its offshoots: Getting two for one". In Freed, Barbara. Foreign language acquisition research and the classroom. Lexington, MA: Heath. pp. 91–103. ISBN 978-0-669-24263-8.

xxii

Swain, Merrill (1995). "Three functions of output in second language learning". In Cook, Guy. Principle & Practice in Applied Linguistics: Studies in Honour of H.G. Widdowson. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 125–144. ISBN 978-0-19-442147-8.

Tarone, Elaine; Bigelow, Martha; Hansen, Kit (2009). Literacy and Second Language Oracy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-442300-7.

Tarone, Elaine; Swierzbin, Bonnie (2009). Exploring Learner Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-442291-8.

VanPatten, Bill; Benati, Alessandro G. (2010). Key Terms in Second Language Acquisition. London: Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-9914-1.

Watson-Gegeo, Karen Ann; Nielsen, Sarah (2003). "Language Socialization in SLA". In Doughty, Catherine; Long, Michael. The handbook of second language acquisition. Malden, MA: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-21754-1.

Yuan, F.; Ellis, R. (2003). "The Effects of Pre-Task Planning and On-Line Planning on Fluency, Complexity and Accuracy in L2 Monologic Oral Production". Applied Linguistics 24: 1. doi:10.1093/applin/24.1.1. edit

Sign in

Hidden fields

how age effects on EFL acquisition

how age effects on EFL acquisition

Submit

Advanced Book Search

Books

Add to my library

xxiii

Write review

Page 89

Get print book

No eBook available

Multilingual Matters

Amazon.com

Barnes&Noble.com - $29.04 and up

Books-A-Million

IndieBound

Find in a library

All sellers »

3

Reviews

Write

review

Age and the

Rate of

Foreign

Language

Learning edited by Carmen

Muñoz

Clear search Result 1 of 19 in this

book for how age effects on EFL

acquisition- ‹ Previous Next › - View

all

xxiv

how age effects on EFL acquisition

Go

About this book

Get Textbooks on

Google Play

Rent and save from the world's largest eBookstore. Read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone.

Go to Google Play Now »

My library

My History

Books on

Google Play

Pages

displayed by

permission of

Multilingual

Matters. Copyri

ght.

xxv

2.10T he Relationship between Learning Strategy use and Starting Age of

Learning EFL: