Inverter:Introduction:

A power inverter, or inverter, is an electronic device or circuitry that changes direct current DC to alternating current AC

The input voltage, output voltage and frequency, and overall  power handling depend on the design of the specific device or circuitry. The inverter does not produce any power; the power is provided by the DC source.

Input Voltage:

A typical power inverter device or circuit requires a relatively stable  DC power source capable of supplying enough current for the intended power demands of the system. The input voltage depends on the design and purpose of the inverter. Examples include:

12 VDC, for smaller consumer and commercial inverters that typically run from a rechargeable 12V lead acid battery.

24 and 48 VDC, which are common standards for home energy systems.

200 to 400 VDC, when power is from photovoltaic solar panels.

300 to 450 VDC, when power is from electric vehicle battery packs in vehicle-to-grid systems.

Hundreds of thousands of volts, where the inverter is part of a  high voltage DC power transmission system.

5.3 Output Waveform:

An inverter can produce a square wave, modified sine wave, pulsed sine wave, or sine wave depending on circuit design. The two dominant commercialized waveform types of inverters as of 2007 are modified sine wave and sine wave.

There are two basic designs for producing household plug-in voltage from a lower-voltage DC source, the first of which uses a switching  boost converter to

produce a higher-voltage DC and then converts to AC. The second method converts DC to AC at battery level and uses a  line-frequency transformer to create the output voltage.

5.3.1 Square wave

This is one of the simplest waveforms an inverter design can produce and is useful for some applications.

Fig. 5.1 Square wave

5.3.2 Sine Wave

A power inverter device which produces a multiple step sinusoidal AC waveform is referred to as a sine wave inverter. To more clearly distinguish the inverters with outputs of much less distortion than the "modified sine wave" (three step) inverter designs, the manufacturers often use the phrase  pure sine wave inverter.

Almost all consumer grade inverters that are sold as a "pure sine wave inverter" do not produce a smooth sine wave output at all, just a less choppy output than the square wave (one step) and modified sine wave (three step) inverters. In this sense, the phrases "Pure sine wave" or "sine wave inverter" are misleading to the consumer. However, this is not critical for most electronics as they deal with the output quite well.

Where power inverter devices substitute for standard line power, a sine wave output is desirable because many electrical products are engineered to work best with a sine wave ac power source. The standard electric utility power attempts to provide a power source that is a good approximation of a sine wave.

Sine wave inverters with more than three steps in the wave output are more complex and have significantly higher cost than a modified sine wave, with only three steps, or square wave, (one step), types of the same power handling.  Switch-mode power supply (SMPS) devices, such as personal computers or DVD players, function on quality modified sine wave power. AC motors directly operated on non-sinusoidal power may produce extra heat, may have different speed-torque characteristics, or may produce more audible noise than when running on sinusoidal power

Fig. 5.2 Sine wave

5.3.3 Modified Sine Wave

A "modified sine wave" inverter has a non-square waveform that is a useful  rough approximation  of a sine wave for power translation purposes.

The waveform in commercially available modified-sine-wave inverters is a square wave with a pause before the polarity transition, which only needs to cycle through a three-position switch that outputs forward, off, and reverse output at the pre-determined frequency. Switching states are developed for positive, negative and zero voltages as per the patterns given in the switching Table 2. The peak voltage to RMS voltage does not maintain the same relationship as for a sine wave. The DC bus voltage may be actively regulated or the "on" and "off" times can be modified to maintain the same RMS value output up to the DC bus voltage to compensate for DC bus voltage variation.

The ratio of on to off time can be adjusted to vary the RMS voltage while maintaining a constant frequency with a technique called  PWM. The generated gate pulses are given to each switch in accordance with the developed pattern and thus the output is obtained. Harmonic spectrum in the output depends on the width of the pulses and the modulation frequency. When operating induction motors, voltage harmonics are not of great concern; however, harmonic distortion in the current waveform introduces additional heating and can produce pulsating torques.

Numerous electric equipment will operate quite well on modified sine wave power inverter devices, especially any load that is resistive in nature such as a traditional incandescent light bulb.

Most AC motors will run on MSW inverters with an efficiency reduction of about 20% due to the harmonic content. However, they may be quite noisy. A series LC filter tuned to the fundamental frequency may help.

5.4 Output Frequency:

The AC output frequency of a power inverter device is usually the same as standard power line frequency, 50 or 60  hertz

If the output of the device or circuit is to be further conditioned (for example stepped up) then the frequency may be much higher for good transformer efficiency.

5.5 Basic Design:

In one simple inverter circuit, DC power is connected to a  transformer through the center tap of the primary winding. A switch is rapidly switched back and forth to allow current to flow back to the DC source following two alternate paths through one end of the primary winding and then the other. The alternation of the direction of current in the primary winding of the transformer produces alternating current (AC) in the secondary circuit.

The electromechanical version of the switching device includes two stationary contacts and a spring supported moving contact. The spring holds the movable contact against one of the stationary contacts and an electromagnet pulls the movable contact to the opposite stationary contact. The current in the electromagnet is interrupted by the action of the switch so that the switch continually switches rapidly back and forth. This type of electromechanical inverter switch, called a vibrator or buzzer, was once used in vacuum tube automobile radios. A similar mechanism has been used in door bells, buzzers and tattoo machines.

As they became available with adequate power ratings,  transistors and various other types of semiconductor switches have been incorporated into inverter circuit designs. Certain ratings, especially for large systems (many kilowatts) use thyristors (SCR). SCRS provide large power handling capability in a semiconductor device, and can readily be controlled over a variable firing range.

The switch in the simple inverter described above, when not coupled to an output transformer, produces a square voltage waveform due to its simple off and on nature as opposed to the sinusoidal waveform that is the usual waveform of an AC

power supply. Using Fourier analysis,  periodic waveforms are represented as the sum of an infinite series of sine waves. The sine wave that has the same frequency as the original waveform is called the fundamental component. The other sine waves, called harmonics,that are included in the series have frequencies that are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency.

Isolators:The HCPL-2530 optocouplers consist of an AlGaAs LED optically coupled to a high speed photo detector transistor. Optocouplers will be used as isolators. Isolation is necessary to separate the control circuit operating at digital voltages from the inverter circuit operating at high voltages.While selecting proper isolators, it is made sure that the selected optocouplers are able to handle the required operating voltages and high frequency signals.Features of HCPL-2530 are listed as following.

High speed -1 Mbit/s Superior CMRR-10 kV/1e-6s Dual-Channel with single supply Double working voltage – 480V RMS Operating temperature range 0-70 degree Celsius

The isolator configuration of the project developed in three phase configuration.Dual channel allows each phase to have its own independent isolator.The inputs are connected to the DSC’s PWM outputs, sharing the same ground that of control electronics.The outputs are connected to the logic side of IR2112 gate driving chips consequently referenced to its logic ground.Pull-up resistors are placed at the output, inverting the isolated input signal.This inversion has been taken care of in the DSC fuse settings.The outputs are driving the logic side of gate drivers.Inputs are configured in the current sourcing mode with a current limiting resistor of 470 Ohms allowing a maximum current of 10mA at logic high of 5V from the controller.Cathode of each input is tied to digital ground with the anodes connected to the PWM outputs of dsPIC.

Why we preferred IGBTs over MOSFET:

1. IGBTs have improved production techniques, which has resulted in a lower cost

2. IGBTs have improved durability to overloads that also fulfills our many

requirements.

3. IGBTs have improved parallel current sharing

4. IGBTs have faster and smoother turn-on/-off waveforms

5. IGBTs have lower on-state and switching losses

6. IGBTs have lower thermal impedance

7. IGBTs have lower input capacitance

8. It has a very low on-state voltage drop due to conductivity modulation and has

superior on-state current density. So smaller chip size is possible and the cost

can be reduced.

9. Low driving power and a simple drive circuit due to the input MOS gate structure.

It can be easily controlled as compared to current controlled devices (thyristor,

BJT) in high voltage and high current applications.

10. Wide SOA. It has superior current conduction capability compared with the

bipolar transistor. It also has excellent forward and reverse blocking capabilities.

Safe Operating Area (SOA)

The safe operating area (SOA) is defined as the current-voltage boundary within which a

power switching device can be operated without destructive failure. For IGBT, the area is

defined by the maximum collector-emitter voltage VCE and collector current IC within

which the IGBT operation must be confined to protect it from damage. The IGBT has the

following types of SOA operations: forward-biased safe operating area (FBSOA), reverse-

biased safe operating area (RBSOA) and short-circuit safe operating area (SCSOA).