Introduction to Sociology

February 7, 2010Introduction to SociologyWhat is SociologySociology is the systematic study of social behavior and human groupsSystematic approach is:SCIENTIFIC METHOD or METHODOLOGY systematic, organized series of steps insures maximum objectivity and consistency researching a problemshared basis for discussion and analysispromote reliability and validity Modernity and Social Theory"What experience and history teach us is this: that people and governments never have learned anything from history, or acted on the experience deduced from it

prospect of learning something from history developing a systematic understanding of the forcesIntimate relationshipsocial change instituted in the development of the modern world that a discipline such as sociology - and social science in general - could either exist or have anything to studySociological JorgenSociologismEnglishSocial agents/ individuals/social actors Consumers Workers Social totalities, status groups, collectivities, networks or classes Society

Discourse peoplePeople when they buy things people when they do thingsgroups of people

a lot of groups of people trying to live togetherwhat people say they doSociological JorgenSociologismEnglishConsciousness Action OppressionRepression

Historical contextStructure Agencywhat they think they dowhat they actually do (always very different) what some people do to other people when they do things they disapprove ofwhat people do to themselves when they think things that other people disapprove ofthe way people have done things in past influences how people do things now the fact that way in which other people do things influences how you do things means the opposite of 'structureNature & Scope of SociologySociology is Both Rational and Empirical ScienceEmpirical: Experiences & factsRational: Reasons & TheoriesSociology is a General and not a Special Social ScienceSociology is relatively an Abstract and not a Concrete ScienceSociology is a Pure and not an Applied ScienceSociology is a Categorical and not an Normative ScienceSociology is a Social and not a Physical ScienceSociology is an Independent Science

February 9, 2011Lecture 2Methods of ResearchQuantitative designs approach social phenomena through quantifiable evidenceIt involves Methods which rely on statistical analysis of many cases (or across intentionally designed treatments in an experiment) Ways to create valid and reliable general claims

Methods of ResearchQualitative designs emphasize understanding of social phenomena through direct observationIt involvesCommunication with participantsAnalysis of textsStress contextual and subjective accuracy over generality

Methods of StudyCross sectional studyLongitudinal StudyLaboratory StudyFiled StudyObservational Study

Cross Sectional Study Cross Sectional study forms a class of research methods that involve observation of all of a population, or a representative subset, at a defined time.It involvesSpecial data collection e.g. censusesIncluding questions about the past rely on data originally collected for other purposes It is moderately expensivePast events may also contribute biasLongitudinal StudyIt is a correlational research study that involves repeated observations of the same items over long periods of time, often many decadesIn Sociology it is used to studyLife events throughout lifetimes or generationsTrack the same peopleDifferences observed in those people are less likely to be the result of cultural differences across generations Observing changes are more accurate and they are applied in various other fieldsObserve the state of the world without manipulating Laboratory Study It is a study involving a comparison group in which the investigator intentionally alters one or more risk factors in order to discover or demonstrate some fact or general truthIt involvesStandard conditionsOne set up in such a way that all levels of each intervention or treatment occur with each level of responseConditions can be almost completely controlledField StudyIt is a term used by naturalists for the scientific study of free-livings in which the subjects are observed in their natural habitat, without changing, harming, or materially altering the setting or behavior of the specimen under studyIt involvesCollection of raw dataStudies to helps to reveal the habits and habitats of various organismsSociometry: Quantitative method of measuring social relationshipsthe hidden beliefs, the forbidden agendas, the ideological agreements, the stars of the show

Observational Study It is either an activity of a living being (such as a human), consisting of receiving knowledge of the outside world through the senses, or the recording of data using scientific instrument. It involvesTechniques which may or may not feature participationRecords information about social phenomenon or behaviorway you look at things or you look at anything

February 14, 2011Lecture 3The Roles of a SociologistThe Sociologist as a Research ScientistThe Sociology as a Policy ConsultantThe Sociologist as a TeacherThe Sociologist as a Social ActionSociologist as a ResearcherConducting Scientific ResearchForemost TaskDivision of time between Teaching and ResearchFunding agencies: The Influencing PowerMilitarism, Racism & other OppressionsBiasness &PartisanshipWhat characteristics of poor people contribute to the poverty?What social arrangements produce poverty?Sociologist as a ResearcherCorrecting Popular NonsenseTo clear out rubbish of misinformationCluttering of social thinkingE.g. nonsense about race, class, sex difference White race is superiorWomen are intellectually inferior to menThe most important FunctionSociologist as a ResearcherMaking Social PredictionsTrack record is not impressivePolicy based on certain assumptions about the present & futureE.g. The trend towards employment of women will continue until most of the women are working for most of their married livesThe present popularity of jeans & causal clothing will be followed by a return to high style clothing

Sociologist as a Policy ConsultantSocial decision is a predictionTo estimate the probable effects of a social policyContribution to the selection of policiesTo achieve the intended purposeWould low birthrates and small family norm increase marital happiness?Yes; there is a research evidence that smaller families are better off in every way.21Sociologist as a TechnicianClinical Sociology has appeared to describe the work of sociologist as TechnicianNew name for the same work sociologists have been doing for longit is the broadening of sociologists efforts to be useful in societySociologist works as an applied scientistUsage of scientific knowledge in pursuing certain valuesQuestion of ethicsHas scientific integrity been compromised?What clinical appointments are proper for a Sociologist to accept?Still a QUESTION22Sociologist as a TeacherValue neutrality vs value commitmentE.g. Should the sociologist supervise an objective study of facts & theories ORShould the course be designed to dedicated advocates of an action program?Should the sociologist convert the students to conservatism, liberal reformism or revolutionary activism?

23Sociologist as a Social ActionSociologist should tell society how to use the discovered knowledgeSociologists know about the public problems and they should be public advocates of these problemsMajor roles in making decisions about public policyInvolve themselves in major issues of societyShow what they have learnt from their experiencesSociologists should show the relationship between valuesIf this is what you want, here is what you must do to get itSociologist should make value judgments, support causes etcAs a parent a sociologist should know TV violence is harmful

24February 23, 2011Lecture 4CultureCulture from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate") is a term that has various meanings.However, the word "culture" is most commonly used in three basic senses:Excellence of taste in the fine arts and humanities, also known as high cultureAn integrated (incorporated) pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends upon the capacity for symbolic thought and social learningThe set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution, organization or group

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CultureCulture is everything which is socially learned and shared by the members of a society.Culture can be divided in to two main typesNonmaterial Culture consists of the words people use Ideas & customsThe beliefs they hold The habits they followMaterial Culture consists of the manufactured objects Tools & FurnitureAutomobiles Cultivated farms, roads and bridges28Culture and SocietyTwo different words with different meaningsCulture is an organized system of norms and values which people holdSociety is an organization of people whose associations are with one anotherE.g. Khyber Pakhtoon Khwa has a number of societies we call Tribes but they share a similar culture.29Social & Cultural DevelopmentTwo important factors Biological FactorsGeographic Factors30Biological FactorsSociobiology a new attraction in SociologyIt is the systematic study of the biological basis of human behaviorThe interaction of biology and culture influence human behavior to develop the human societyIn the beginning the culture accumulation was very slowCavesSimple stone toolsEdible roots to eatFire produced by lightning or stonesHumans were more like Apes31Biological FactorsCulture started growing when first Man came into being about 150,000 years ago.Human started using brains to build cultureSocial Evolution the exciting idea of nineteenth centauryCharles Darwin wrote the book Origin of Species Human has evolved from lower orders of lifeSurvival to the fittestAuguste Comte in his book Positive Philosophy states three stages through which human thought movedThe TheologicalThe MetaphysicalThe Positive (Scientific)32Biological FactorsHerbert Spencer (Giant of nineteenth centaury) says that:Societies moved from simple to complex systemsFrom homogeneous to heterogeneousEnd misery and increase human happiness Anthropologists deny this factE.g. many primitive tribes have more elaborated kinship systemMore ritualistic and ceremonial life than modern societies33March 2, 2011Lecture 5CultureProsperities of CultureIdeal n Real Culture

The topics discussed in class in the shape of presentations from different groups.35March 30, 2011Lecture 6Social OrganizationAn organization is: the planned, coordinated and purposeful action of human beings working through collective action to reach a common goal or construct a tangible product.Advantages of organizations are: Enhancement (more of the same) Addition (combination of different features) ExtensionDisadvantages are: Inertness (through co-ordination) Loss of interaction

37FamilyIn human context, a family (from Latin: familiare) is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity, or co-residence. In most societies it is the principal institution for the socialization of children.Family concepts are:Affinity (Kinship of Spirit), marriage, economy, culture, tradition, honor, and friendship that grow extending to community, village, city, region, nationhood, global village and humanism. A family group consisting of a father, mother and their children is called a nuclear family. This term can be contrasted with an extended family.Extended family is used synonymously with consanguineous family or joint family

38Family in EastFamily in East is based on joint family system.Six key aspects of Joint Family are:head of the family takes all decisionall members live under one roofshare the same kitchenthree generations living together (though often two or more brothers live together, or father and son live together or all the descendants of male live together)income and expenditure in a common pool- property held together.a common place of worshipall decisions are made by the male head of the family39Family StructureImmediate family: Spouse (Husband | Wife) Parent (Father | Mother) Child (Son | Daughter) Sibling (Brother | Sister)Extended family :Grandparent Uncle Aunt Cousin Nephew Niece Common ancestorFamily-in-law: Father-in-law Mother-in-law Brother-in-law Sister-in-lawKinship:Affinity Marriage Adoption Divorce DisownmentRelationships: Familial love Parental love Marital love Brotherly love

April 11, 2011Lecture 7Social InstitutionsThe Institutional Concept:A system of norms to achieve a goal or activity that people feel is important.They are structured processes through which people carry on their activities.Institutions & Associations:Institutions dont have members, they have followers.Examples are:

Institutions & AssociationsExample 1: ReligionReligion is a system of ideas, beliefs, practices and relationships.A Mosque is an association where people accept the same beliefs and follow the practices of a particular religion.Example 2: FootballThe game is set of rules and practices with supporting values and sentiments.The players are the association of persons who play the gameExample 3: BanksBanking institutions are standardized ways of handling transactionsBank is an association of bankers who carry out those transactions. The Development of InstitutionsThe Process of Institutionalization:Institutions emerge as the unplanned products of social living.People group practical ways of meeting their needs.They find workable patterns which harden through repetition into standardized customs.With passage of time, these patterns acquire a body of supporting folklore which justifies them.For example:The custom of dating developed as a means of mate selection.Banks gradually developed as a need of storing, transferring and borrowing.

Institutionalization consists of establishment of definite norms which assign status position and role functions for behaviors.It involves replacement of spontaneous or experimental behaviors with behaviors which are expected, patterned, regular and predictable.A social relationship becomes institutionalized when:A regular system of statuses and roles has been developedThat system of statuses and roles has generally been accepted in society. The Development of Institutions45Individual Roles in Institutional BehaviorInstitutionalized Role is the set of behavioral expectations that limit ones free choices.Not all roles are institutionalized.Roles that are generally accepted and respected in a society are the institutionalized roles.For Example:All judges act a good deal alike when on the bench, however they may differ at other times from each other.Every minister, priest or religious scholar fulfills its duties defined by institutions. Its hazardous when they deviate from them.When Edward VIII insisted to get married to a divorces woman, he was forces to abdicate the throne of England.

46The Institutional TraitsThe Cultural Symbols:Symbols serve as shorthand reminder of the institution.Citizens are reminded of allegiance to government by the flag, family to the wedding ring/Nikahnama, education by the school and system of economics to brand names and trademarks.Music also has symbolic meanings like national anthems, school songs, national songs, religious hymns.Buildings are becoming institutional symbols tooIts hard to think home without a house, religion without a mosque or church, education without a school building.The Institutional TraitsCodes of Behavior:People involved in institutionalized behaviors have to carry out their appropriate roles.These roles are often expressed in formal codes such as oath of allegiance, the marriage vows, the medical professions oath.People sometimes dont perform their roles properly.Husband and wives may prove unfaithful to marital vows.Citizens not paying the taxesIf there are no sure punishment for violation, the code may be quietly ignored.Allegiance-loyalty to country cause or a person48The Institutional TraitsCodes of Behavior:Behavior in any role has informal traditions, expectations and routines which one absorbs through observation and experience.For ExampleChildren who never lived in happy family face difficulty in successfully filling the roles of parent and husband or wife.Institutionalized roles can be performed successfully by those who internalized the proper role attitudes and behaviors.

The Institutional TraitsInstitutional Ideologies:Ideology is a system of ideas which sanction a set of norms.Norm defines how people are expected to act whereas Ideology explains why people should act and why they sometimes fail to act.It includes bothCentral beliefs, norms of institutionRational justification for the application of institutional norms.Simpler cultures do not have developed behavioral ideologiesComplex cultures generally have elaborated institutional ideologies.April 15, 2011Lecture 8ReligionReligion is a cultural system that creates powerful and long-lasting meaning, by establishing symbols that relate humanity to beliefs and values. Many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to explain the origin of life or the universe. They tend to derive morality, ethics, religious laws or a preferred lifestyle from their ideas about the cosmos and human nature.ReligionThe word religion is sometimes used interchangeably with faith or belief system, but religion differs from private belief in that it has a public aspect. The practice of a religion may also include sermons, commemoration of the activities of a god or gods, sacrifices, festivals, feasts, trance, initiations, funerary services, matrimonial services, meditation, music, art, dance, public service, or other aspects of human culture.1st Row: Christian Cross, Jewish Star of David, Hindu Aumkar2nd Row: Islamic Star and crescent, Buddhist Wheel of Dharma, Shinto Torii 3rd Row: Sikh Khanda, Bah' star, Jain Ahimsa Symbol

The Development of ReligionThe development of religion has taken different forms in different cultures. Some religions place an emphasis on belief, while others emphasize practice. Some religions focus on the subjective experience of the religious individual, while others consider the activities of the religious community to be most important. Some religions claim to be universal, believing their laws and cosmology to be binding for everyone, while others are intended to be practiced only by a closely defined or localized group. In many places religion has been associated with public institutions such as education, hospitals, the family, government, and political hierarchies.

Four largest religionsAdherents(followers)% of world populationWorld population6.8 billionFigures taken from individual articles:Christianity1.9 billion 2.1 billion29% 32%Islam1.3 billion 1.57 billion19% 21%Buddhism500 million 1.5 billion7% 21%Hinduism950 million 1 billion14% 15%Total4.65 billion 6.17 billion68.38% 90.73%

The Functions of a ReligionThere are three functions of a religionDoctrines: A pattern of beliefs which defines the nature of the relationship of human beings to one another and to God.Rituals: Which symbolize the doctrines and remind people of them.Behavior Norms: The series of norms which are consistent with the doctrines.The work of explaining and defending the doctrines, carrying out the rituals and reinforcing the desired behavior norms leads to the complex pattern of worship and teaching.

Religious Belief in Christianity Luke Timothy Johnson writes that "Most religions put more emphasis on orthopraxy (right practice) than on orthodoxy (right belief). Christianity puts more emphasis on belief than other religions.The Church has throughout its history set out creeds that define correct belief for Christians and which identify heresy. Judaism and Islam have each created sophisticated systems of law to guide behavior, but have allowed an astonishing freedom of conviction and intellectual expression. Both have been able to get along with comparatively short statements of belief.

Religious Belief in ChristianityBuddhism and Hinduism concentrate on the practices of ritual and transformation rather than on uniformity of beliefTribal religions express their view of reality through a variety of myths, not a 'rule of faith' for their members." Christianity by contrast places a peculiar emphasis on belief and has created ever more elaborate and official statements in its creeds. Religious Belief in JudaismWhether Judaism entails belief or not has been a point of some controversy. Some say it is does not, some have suggested that belief is relatively unimportant for Jews. "To be a Jew," says de Lange, "means first and foremost to belong to a group, the Jewish people, and the religious beliefs are secondary.Others say that the Shema prayer, recited in the morning and evening services, expresses a Jewish creed: "Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One." Maimonidess Thirteen Principles of the Faith are sometimes taken as the statement of Judaism' fundamental beliefs, especially by Orthodox Jews.

Maimonidess Thirteen Principles of the Faith God is the Creator. God is a unity. God is incorporeal. God is the first and the last. It is right to pray to God and to no other. The words of the prophets are true. The prophecy of Moses was true. The Torah was given to Moses. The Torah will never change. God knows all the deeds of human beings and all their thoughts. God rewards those who keep His commandments and punishes those that transgress them. The Messiah will come. The dead will be resurrected.

Religious Belief in IslamMuslims declare the shahadat, or testimony: "I bear witness that there is nothing worthy of worship except Allah, and I bear witness that Muhammad is the messenger of Allah."

April 25, 2011Lecture 9

Political-Economic InstitutionsEach Society developed institutional ways of meeting needs for food, clothing , housing and whatever else if needed.E.g. food sharing was an institutional practice in many simple societiesEvery household in the village had a right to a share of the kill made by anyone in the villageThus economic institutions emerge from peoples trial and error efforts to meet their needsIt is emerged from the success of one group in imposing duties and obligations upon another group.

Political-Economic InstitutionsTrade developed when people wanted something their neighbor producedThe process of exchange became standardized, orderly and predictable and therefore institutionalized.Economic Institutions emerged when people developed orderly routines for exchanging goods, assigning work tasks and recognizing claims upon one another.The domestication of animals, the establishment of settled agriculture with claims to land and eventual development of industries led to development of economic n governmental system.

Political-Economic InstitutionsThe growth of political authority paralleled the growth of cultural complexityFrom family head to tribal council to chiefThe word civilized implies a system of civil law in place of traditional authority administrated by set of designated officers.Civil govt. became necessary when the ancient river valley civilization arose along the Nile. Feudalism was a set of economic and political institutions which developed in the number of places as an intermediate stage between the tribal societies and the national state.It was a way of organizing life and work at a particular moment in the history.

Political-Economic InstitutionsFrom the beginning, Governments have been involved in economic affairs.Rome had state operated mines throughout the empire, requiring a constant stream of slaves and convicts for their operationThe mercantilist system of the 17th & 18th centuries assumed that it was the responsibility of the state to control and direct all economic activity.Mercantilism is an economic theory, considered to be a form of economic nationalism, that holds that the prosperity of a nation is dependent upon its supply of capital, and that the global volume of international trade is "unchangeable"Modern capitalism is in part a reaction against mercantilist.

Political-Economic InstitutionsIn past economic activities of governments have expanded enormously.With economic development comes division of labor.We have 12,000 occupations listed in Dictionary of Occupational TitlesWarfare also feeds the growth of government.A disciplined army can defeat an unorganized horde many times its size.In modern societies, the social service function has become a powerful source of governmental growth.A century ago, western government began providing services directly to their citizens like health, education and welfare services

Political-Economic InstitutionsTypes of Modern Governmental-economic systems:

There are three different types of Governmental-economic systems.Mixed EconomiesCommunist SocietiesFascist Societies

Political-Economic InstitutionsMixed Economy: It is a balanced economy that includes a variety of private and public control, reflecting characteristics of both capitalism and socialism.Most mixed economies can be described as market economies with strong regulatory oversight, in addition to having a variety of government sponsored aspects. There is not one single definition for a mixed economy, but the definitions always involve a degree of private economic freedom mixed with a degree of government regulation of markets. The relative strength or weakness of each component in the national economy can vary greatly between countries

Political-Economic InstitutionsEconomies ranging from the United States to Cuba have been termed mixed economies.The economic freedom side includes privately owned industry for reasons including individual freedom, economic efficiency (most especially the allocate efficiency provided by the invisible hand of markets), and the incentive to innovate provided by competition. The government regulation side addresses concerns that the private sector cannot be (or at least has never yet been) well equipped to address, such as environmental protection, maintenance of employment standards, and maintenance of competition.

Political-Economic InstitutionsIn some mixed economies, it even includes various degrees of centralized economic planning, that is, state ownership of some of the means of production for national or social objectives.Mixed economies as an economic ideal are supported by people of various political persuasions, typically centre-left and centre-right, such as social democrats or Christian democrats.

Political-Economic InstitutionsCommunist Society: It is the society postulated by the ideology of communism: a society which is classless and stateless, based upon common ownership of the means of production with free access to articles of consumption, the end of economic exploitation.The term "communist society" should be distinguished from "communist state", the latter referring to a state ruled by a party which professes the communist ideology.In Marxist theory, communism is a specific stage of historical development that inevitably emerges from the development of the productive forces that leads to a superabundance of material wealth, allowing for distribution based on need and social relations based on freely-associated individuals.

Political-Economic InstitutionsIn a communist utopia, economic relations no longer would determine the society. Scarcity would no longer be a factor. Alienated labor would cease, as people would be free to pursue their individual goals. It would be a democratic society, enfranchising the entire population.A communist society would also have no need for a state, whose purpose was to enforce hierarchical economic relations (thus Marx wrote of "the withering of the state").Capitalism is an economic system in which the means of production are privately owned and operated for profit

Political-Economic InstitutionsFascist Society: Fascism is a radical, authoritarian nationalist political ideology.Fascists advocate the creation of a totalitarian single-party state that seeks the mass mobilization of a nation through indoctrination, physical education, and family policy including eugenics.Eugenics is the "applied science or the biosocial movement which advocates the use of practices aimed at improving the genetic composition of a population," usually referring to human populations

Political-Economic InstitutionsFascists produce their nation's rebirth based on commitment to the national community based on organic unity where individuals are bound together by suprapersonal connections of ancestry, culture, and "blood". Fascists believe that a nation requires strong leadership, singular collective identity, and the will and ability to commit violence and wage war in order to keep the nation strong. Fascist governments forbid and suppress opposition to the state.Fascism was founded by Italian national syndicalists in World War I who combined left-wing and right-wing political views, but it gravitated to the right in the early 1920s.

May 2, 2011Lecture 10

Educational InstitutionsDevelopment of Educational Institutions:

Ancient societies had no educational institutionsChildren learn what they needed to learn by watching whatever was going on and helping wherever practical.A father would give his son instructions in hunting and these lessons were the nearest thing to educational institutions.Schools appear when cultures became too complex for all needed learning to be handled easily within familyAs empires grew they needed tax gatherers and record keepers.

Educational InstitutionsDevelopment of Educational Institutions:

Developing religions often require that great legends, chants and rituals should be memorized. With full time specialists as teachers and formal classes of students, operating apart from the family and viewed as necessary and a proper way to train these boys, we can say that educational institutions have arrived.

Educational InstitutionsStructure of Educational Institutions in Pakistan:

There are four basic types of Educational InstitutionsEarly Childhood EducationPrimary EducationSecondary EducationHigher Education

Educational InstitutionsEarly Childhood Education:There are three sub types of early childhood educationPreschoolAlso known as Infant education, it is the provision of education for children before the commencement of statutory and obligatory education, usually between the ages of zero and three or five, depending on the jurisdiction.Kindergartenliterally means "children's garden is a form of education for young children that serves as a transition from home to the commencement of more formal schooling.

Educational InstitutionsEarly Childhood Education:There are three sub types of early childhood education

Nursery SchoolIt is a school for children between the ages of three and five years, staffed by qualified teachers and other professionals who encourage and supervise educational play rather than simply providing childcare.

Educational InstitutionsPrimary Education:There are three sub types of primary educationElementary SchoolIt is an institution where children receive the first stage of compulsory education known as elementary or primary education. Elementary school is the preferred term in some countries, particularly those in North America. Primary school is the preferred term in the United Kingdom, India, Ireland, Pakistan, Australia, Latin America, South Africa and New ZealandMiddle SchoolMiddle school and junior high school are levels of schooling between elementary and high schools..

Educational InstitutionsPrimary Education:There are three sub types of primary educationComprehensive SchoolIt is a state school that does not select its intake on the basis of academic achievement or aptitude. This is in contrast to the selective school system, where admission is restricted on the basis of a selection criteriaIn principle, it was originally conceived as a "neighbourhood" school, which all students in its catchment area were meant to attend, irrespective of ability and without, in most cases, any significant element of parental choice.

Educational InstitutionsSecondary Education:There are three sub types of secondary educationSecondary SchoolIt is a term used to describe an educational institution where the final stage of schooling, known as secondary education and usually compulsory up to a specified age, takes place. It follows elementary or primary education, and may be followed by university education.There are many different types of secondary school, and the terminology used varies around the world. Children usually transfer to secondary school between the ages of 10 and 16 years, and finish between the ages of 16 and 18 years, though there is considerable variation from country to country.

Educational InstitutionsSecondary Education:There are three sub types of secondary educationHigh SchoolIt is used in some parts of the world, to describe an institution that provides all or part of secondary education. The term "high school" originated in Scotland with the world's oldest being the Edinburgh's Royal High School in 1505. The Royal High School was used as a model for the first public high school in the United States, the English High School founded in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1821. The precise stage of schooling provided by a high school differs from country to country, and may vary within the same jurisdiction

Educational InstitutionsSecondary Education:There are three sub types of secondary educationUpper SchoolUpper Schools tend to be schools within secondary education.Outside England, the term normally refers to a section of a larger school. There is some variation in the use of the term in England. In England it is called as State Maintained SchoolIndependent School

Educational InstitutionsHigher Education:There are three sub types of higher educationCollegeA college (Latin: collegium) is an educational institution or a constituent part of an educational institution. A college may be a degree-awarding tertiary educational institution, an institution within a federal university, an institution offering vocational education, or a secondary school.College also include various religious madrassahs.

Educational InstitutionsHigher Education:There are three sub types of higher educationInstituteAn institute is a permanent organizational body created for a certain purpose. Often it is a research organization (research institution) created to do research on specific topics. An institute can also be a professional body.In some countries institutes can be part of a university or other institution of higher education, either as a group of departments or an autonomous educational institution without a classic full university status such as a University Institute

Educational InstitutionsHigher Education:There are three sub types of higher educationUniversityA university is an institution of higher education and research, which grants academic degrees in a variety of subjects. A university is a corporation that provides both undergraduate education and postgraduate education. The word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, roughly meaning "community of teachers and scholars.Jamiah and Academies also fall under this category.May 9, 2011Lecture 11

Social Stratification: Social ClassSocial Class:It is a stratum of people of similar position in the social status continuum.The social position of janitor is not the same as that of the college president.A student will not greet them in exactly the same manner. The members of a particular social share the same way of life including:MoneyAttitudes &Values

Social StratificationTypes of Social Class:The number of social class is not fixed nor there are any definite boundaries that can separate them.Persons are found at all status levels from top to bottom just as persons are found at all weights and heights with no abrupt gaps in the series.There were previously three types of Social ClassUpper, Middle & LowerNow it has sixfold classification by breaking each of these classes into upper and middle section

Social Stratification: Upper ClassUpper-upper Class: The top class is composed of the wealthy old families.They are socially prominent.They have had money long enough that they have forgotten when and how they got it.Inherited wealth.Lower-upper ClassThey have much money but not for long.Wealth has not transferred from generation to generation.These families are not that much socially prominent.

Social Stratification: Middle ClassUpper-middle Class: They include successful business and professional persons.Blue-collar workersGood family background.Comfortable income.Lower-middle Class:They include clerks, semi professionals, supervisors and top craftsmen.White-collar workersSuitable income

Social Stratification: Lower ClassUpper-lower Class: They include steadily employed workers.They are not exactly employed but are considered as working people when compared with the responsible workersLower-lower Class:They include the irregular employed, unemployed, migrants labors.Some in this class are also living more or less on welfare.

Determinants of Social ClassWhat places one in a particularly social class?Is it birth, money, education, occupation or what?The answer to each question is yes.The three determinants of social class are:Wealth and IncomeOccupationEducation

Determinants of Social Class:Wealth and IncomeMoney is necessary for upper-class position but it is not directly proportional to ones income.Social class is a way of life and it takes a good deal of money to live as upper class people live.Yet no amount of money will gain immediate upper class status.The new rich have the money but the lack the way of life of the upper class person.They can buy house, car, clothes, books, furniture etc but it takes a little longer to learn the formal manners of the upper class.Money over a period of time usually gains an upper class status.Income from investment is more prestigious than income from welfare payments.

Determinants of Social Class:Wealth and IncomeIncome from investment is more prestigious than income from welfare payments.Income from the professions is better then the income from wages.Money from speculating on stocks is better than money from gambling on horses.The nature and source of ones income carry suggestions as to ones family background and probable way of life.Money is an important determinant of social class because of what it suggests about ones family background and way of life.

Determinants of Social Class:OccupationAs people developed specialized kinds of work, they got idea that some kinds of work are more honorable than others.Classical China honored the scholar and despised the warrior.Nazi Germany reversed the formula.The high prestige occupations usually receive the higher incomes.Some times there is an exception and with changing traits of occupation in modern world the rule changes.A popular entertainer may earn as much in a week as Supreme Courte Justice in a year.

Determinants of Social Class:OccupationThe importance of work is an unsatisfactory test.How can we say that a work of a farmer or a police officer is less valuable to society than the lawyer or a sociologist?Surveys of data from many countries show that a particular occupation has about the same status rating in most urbanized, industrialized societies.Occupation is important because so many other facets of life are connected with it.Through occupation we can make some guesses about the persons amount and education, standard of living and daily routine of his/her family life.

Determinants of Social Class:EducationSocial class and education interact in two ways:A higher education requires money and motivation.The amount and kind of education affects the class rank secured.Education changes your life in two aspects:It brings occupational skills.It brings changes in tastes, interests, goals, etiquettes and speech.Education in some ways is more important than occupationBlue-collar workers differed widely from white-collar workers in personal and social attitudes but these differences largely disappeared when education was compared.

May 9, 2011Lecture 12

Social MobilityIt refers to the degree to which an individual's or group's status is able to change in terms of position in the social hierarchy.

It has two approaches which are:Vertical Mobility: it most commonly refers to material wealth and the ability of an agent to move up the class system. Horizontal Mobility: It refers to a more general change in position

Inter-generational & Intra-generational MobilityIntra-generational Mobility: Intra-generational mobility ("within" a generation) is defined as change in social status over a single life-time. Inter-generational Mobility: ("across" generations) is defined as changes in social status that occur from the parents' to the children's generation.These definitions have proven particularly useful when analyzing how social status changes from one time-period to another, and if a person's parents' social status influences that of their own.Sociologists usually focus on intergenerational mobility because it is easier to depict changes across generations rather than within one. This information helps sociologists determine whether inequality in a culture changes over time.

Absolute & Relative MobilityAbsolute mobility means that living standards are increasing in absolute terms: You are better off than your parents, and your children will be better off than you.Structural changes, such as changes in occupational structure rates, mean that there is more room at the top, which leads to high absolute mobility rates. For example, suppose a person begins their working career with an income of $32,000. If a decade later their income is $36,000 (adjusted for inflation), they have experienced upward absolute income mobility.

Absolute & Relative MobilityRelative mobility refers to the degree to which individuals move up or down compared to others in their cohort. In other words, relative mobility means that if your family is poor, you have a decent chance of moving up the relative income ladder.Relative mobility relates to the openness or fluidity of society and is insensitive to the impact of structural changes. For example, suppose a persons income increases from $32,000 at the start of his working career to $36,000 a decade later, whereas most other people who began their work life around the same time experienced a larger increase. The person has experienced upward absolute mobility but downward relative mobility.

Roles of Status: AchievementAchieved status is a position gained based on merit, or achievement (used in an open system). An open system describes a society with mobility between different social classes. Individuals can move up or down in the social rankings; this is unlike closed systems, where individuals are set in one social position for life despite their achievements.

Roles of Status: AscriptionAscribed status is a position based on who a person is, not what they can do (used in a closed system). When this ascriptive status rule is used (Medieval Europe), people are placed in a position based on personal traits beyond their control. Mobility is much more frequent in countries that use achievement as the basis for status. However, societies differ on the amount of mobility that occurs due to the direction of structural changes in their overall status systems. The process by which an individual alters the ascribed social status of their parents into an achieved social status for themselves is called Social Transformation.

Structural & Exchange MobilityStructural mobility is a type of forced vertical mobility that results from a change in the distribution of statuses within a society.It occurs when the demand for a particular occupation reaches its maximum and more people are needed to trade-off. This means instead of positions reaching the maximum and more people being needed, positions are dropped and someone else must step up to fill the position. When ascriptive status is in play, there is not much exchange mobility occurring.

Structural & Exchange MobilityStructural mobility is a type of forced vertical mobility that results from a change in the distribution of statuses within a society.It occurs when the demand for a particular occupation reaches its maximum and more people are needed to trade-off. This means instead of positions reaching the maximum and more people being needed, positions are dropped and someone else must step up to fill the position. When ascriptive status is in play, there is not much exchange mobility occurring.

Downward & Upward Social MobilityUpward social mobility is a change in a person's social status resulting in that person receiving a higher position in their status system. Downward mobility results in a lower position. A prime example of an opportunity for upward mobility nowadays is athletics. There is an increased number of minorities seeking careers as professional athletes which can either lead to improved social status or could potentially harm them due to neglecting other aspects of their life (e.g. education).

Downward & Upward Social MobilityTransformative assets would also allow one to achieve a higher status in society, as they increase wealth and provide for more opportunity.A transformative asset could be a trust fund set up by family that allows one to own a nice house in a nice neighborhood, instead of an renting an apartment in a run-down community. This type of move would allow the person to develop a new circle of friends of the same economic status.

Social SystemSocieties which use slavery are an example of low social mobility because, for the enslaved individuals, upward mobility is practically nonexistent, and for their owners, downward mobility is practically outlawed.Social mobility is normally discussed as "upward only", but it is a two-sided phenomenon - where there is upward mobility, there can also be relative downward mobility. If merit and fortune play a larger role in life chances than the luck of birth, and some people can manage a relative upward shift in their social status, then some people can also move downward relative to others.

Social SystemThis is the risk that motivates people in power to increasingly devise and commission political, legal, educational, and economic mechanisms that permit them to fortify their advantages. However, by controlling that inclination, it is possible in a growing economy for there to be greater upward mobility than downward - as has been the case in Western Europe.Not only does social mobility vary across types of countries, it can also change over time. Comparing the United States to the United Kingdom, there was social mobility of different degrees existing between the two countries during different historical periods. In the United States in the mid-19th century inequality was low and social mobility was high.

Social SystemIn the late 19th century, the U.S. had much higher social mobility than in the UK, due to the common school movement and open public school system, a larger farming sector, as well as higher geographic mobility in the United States. However, during the latter half of the 20th and early 21st centuries, the difference between the social mobilities of the two countries has narrowed, as social inequality has grown in both countries, but particularly in the United States. In other words, the individual's family background is more predictive of social position today than it was in 1850.

Social System: ExamplesPopular examples of upward social mobility from America include:Abraham Lincoln Bill Clinton, who were born into working-class families yet achieved high political office in adult lifeAndrew Carnegie, who arrived in the U.S. as a poor immigrant and later became a steel tycoon. Examples from other countries include Pierre Brgovoy who started working at the age of 16 as a metal worker and later became Prime Minister of FranceRamsay MacDonald the illegitimate son of a farm labourer and a housemaid who became Prime Minister of the United KingdomSir Joseph Cook, an Englishman who had no schooling and worked as a coal miner at the age of nine and went on to become Prime Minister of Australia.

Social Mobility vs Economic MobilityThe ability of an individual to become wealthy out of poverty does not necessarily indicate that there is social mobility in his or her society. Some societies with low or nonexistent social mobility afford free individuals opportunities to initiate enterprise and amass wealth, but wealth fails to "buy" entry into a higher social class. In feudal Japan and Confucianist China, wealthy merchants occupied the lowest ranks in society (at least in theory). In pre-revolutionary France, a nobleman, however poor, was from the "second estate" of society and thus superior, at least in theory, to a wealthy merchant (from the "third estate").

Social RegimesMobility regimes can be positive and/or an negative sum.Structural mobility is mobility resulting from changes in the number and kinds of jobs available in a society. Examples: Great Depression, many job losses, the government and many people in need of major help.According to sociologist John H. Goldthorpe, social mobility is normally seen in two ways. The first being that it is a basic source of social "structuration.The second is that the extent of mobility may be a strong indicator of the balance of power and different characteristics within a society.