Introduction to Sociology

A brief introduction to Sociology; prepared & compiled by: Lule Belay

Sociology

A brief

Introduction

By: Addis Ababa

Lule Belay Haile March

2011

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I. The discipline of sociology

1.1. Definition of sociology

The term sociology etymologically has diversified backgrounds that were

originated back to the history of mid 18th and 19th c. in France. Among essay

writers, Immanuel Joseph had pronounced the word Sociology in one of his

essay writings for the first time. However, Sociology was again coined in

refined way by Auguste Comte at the mid of 19th c. So, Auguste Comte was

French Social philosopher and Sociologist who derived sociology from two

different language origins. These were “Socius” and “Logos”, Latin and

Greek respectively. These words had their own meanings. “Socius” meant

Companion or Friendship, while “Logos” meant knowledge or word or reason.

Some times later, these two words were merged together to mean “The New

Social life”. Today, Sociology attains comprehensive definitions in many

literatures with identical concepts. Hence, “Sociology is the systematic study

of social behavior and human groups that primarily focuses on the influences

of social relationships on people’s attitudes and behavior” (Schaefer,

2000:3).

Sociology is the study of human society including social actions and social

institutions. It is a science of society that is extremely broad in its scope

which investigates social life in line with the wide variety of settings which

offers us not only information about society, but also a distinctive ways of

looking at the world and our place in it.

Sociology examines not only at how social behavior is influenced by others

but also at how major social institutions like family, religion, education,

government and economy affect us.

Among other concepts in sociology, social structures, social actions,

functional integration, prestige, power and culture are basic concepts in

sociology (Functionalism).

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1.2. Subject matter and Scope

The subject matter and the scope of sociology ranges from micro-level of

face-to-face social interactions to the macro level of whole political

institutions, economic order or even world systems. Sociology studies the

sum total of individuals’ actions, social behaviors and interactions.

Historically, Sociology pays special emphasis on modern and industrialized

societies. In studying its subject matter, Sociology mainly uses careful

observation, objective measurements and comparison methods.

In sum, Sociology is a systematic and scientific discipline seeking knowledge

of man as social animal, his societies, sub-societies as well as adjustment to

them, his cultures, customs, institutions, the patterns of stability and change

that they develop.

Sociology has distinctive characteristics which can be traced as it examines

ethnic groups, social class divisions, various religious organizations such as

Ecclesia, Church, Denominations, Sects and Cults, world of poverty, deviant

behavior, variations in life and chances for the young. It also sees equality

or social inequality in a society. In sociology, the most distinctive field of

study is group life.

Sociology does its studies mainly in modern industrial societies rather than in

preliterate societies. Sociology also looks development trends in urban as

well as in rural areas.

1.3. Sociology and Other Social Sciences

Social sciences seek greater understandings of man and society, although

their approaches are a bit different. Sociology and Anthropology are both

extremely broad in their perspectives. Both are trying to study societies in

their entirety, not just as political, economic or systems of beliefs and values.

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Sociology and Allied fields of study

In general consensus, anthropology has focused on studying preliterate or

traditional societies, where as sociology studies contemporary or modern

societies.

Psychology studies mental and emotional side of man, where as economics

studies the systems of production and distribution of goods as well as

services.

Political science studies the systems by which Social power and authority are

institutionalized, exercised and regulated, where as history records the past,

which are important evidences for all social sciences.

Therefore, all social science disciplines are interrelated and interdependent.

So, sociology doesn’t ignore any of them.

Sociology and other social science disciplines have many things in

common such as:-

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Political

Science Econom

ics

Sociology

Socia

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sych

olo

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Syste

ms

of

beliefs

Socia

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His

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Anthropology


Methodology,

History/Origin,

Shared theories, fields of inquire, and Subject matters.

Sociology always responds complex relationships between nature and

nurtures. It is also widely used in management science, esp. in the field of

organizational behavior as well as in social work.

1.4 Sociological Imagination

Sociological imagination is a sociological term that was coined by the

American sociologist called C. Wright Mills in 1959. Wright Mill described the

process of linking individual experiences with social institutions as well as

one’s place in history.

Sociological imagination is a new way of looking the world that recognized

links between widespread societal issues and the private problem of the

individual. It was also taken as a means to solve the problems of the current

sociological discourse.

C. Wright Mill characterized that men’s private lives are trapped into series

predicaments. They are trapped due to the fact that, there are uncontrollable

and continuous changes to society such as unemployment, war, marriage,

life in cities, tensions between private trouble and public issues.

Challenges in the life of women e.g. home makers, social change, reactions

to being unemployed, interactions between the individual lives and society,

as well as the inter play of a man and society.

For example, when society is industrialized, a peasant becomes a factory

worker; a feudal lord is liquidated or becomes a businessman. When classes

rise or fall, a person is employed or unemployed, when the rate of

investment goes up or down, a person takes new heart or goes broke.

When war takes place, an insurance sales man may become a rocket

launcher, a store clerk, may become a radar operator, a wife or a husband

may live alone, a child may grow up without a parent.

Neither the life of an individual nor the history of a society can be

understood without under standing both.

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Note:

(1)Sociological imagination is an inspired thinking to understand social

behavior as well as an awareness of the relationship between an

individual and society.

(2)Sociological imagination can be shown across race, gender, social class

and national boundaries.

(3)Sociological imagination can enhance our understandings about

current social issues. It is also an awareness of the relationship

between individual and the wider society that may become also an

ability to view our own environment.

II. Origin and development of Sociology

2.1. Early origin and development:

To under stand better about modern development of sociology, it is

necessary to scrutinize briefly the history of sociology in the past. In this

regard, one can explore all about tradition periods in terms of

understandings about society.

A. The period of tradition:

Since the downward of recorded history, man kind has sought greater

knowledge about his species. How did he come to be a man? What was/is

the relationship between moral order and his place in the universe etc?

The ancient Hebrew writers, Confucius, Chinese early philosopher,

Greek thinkers such as Sophists, Pioneers of philosophy like Plato and

Aristotle reflected their own views about man and the wider group,

society.

The Chinese early thinkers focused on man’s relationship to man in

perpetuating the social system.

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Greek thought had centered on the political and legalistic aspects of

society. Plato and Aristotle investigated and classified the patterns of

government that men create for themselves.

In sum, tradition period was strongly dominated by long-established values,

norms and thoughts about society and its social settings.

B) The period of Theology:

Early Christian ideas were reflected about society in the work of St.

Augustine (354-430 A.D.). St. Augustine described the institutions of a

society as being either good or bad according to whether they inspire

man to wards salvation or not.

The theories of St. Augustine and the later those of Thomas Aquinas

sufficiently dominated European Philosophy until the 17th and 18th C.

Nevertheless, contemporary philosophers like John Locke in England, Jean

Jacques Rousseau in France began to develop different theories which

were emphasizing on social factors and practically eliminate theological

views as the foundation of social institutions in a society.

New trends towards modern social thought were rising gradually.

These modern thoughts were born in a spirit of revolution against the

injustice of the old social order.

Continuous arguments have been conceded out among many

disagreeing philosophers that led to the realization of the need for more

exact knowledge of society.

Early 19th c. the idea of an actual Science of society was cultivating in

the mind of Saint-Simon, who was a French noble man that helped

Washington’s cause in America. He also participated in much less

successful French Revolution. Saint-Simon was a lecturer at Ecole

polytechnique institution where he exerted a powerful influence on his

students. One of his students was Auguste Comte. Comte became not

only his student, but also Simon’s friend and collaborator. Auguste Comet

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later became adversary of his former teacher. So, their partnership was

dissolved.

C) The period of Social Philosophy:

Sociology emerged after the great transformations in European

societies, which took place during 17th and 18th C. In this respect, three

basic interrelated changes fostered the emergence of the sociological

perspectives. These include:-

Industrial technology

The growth of cities, and

Political changes.

Sociology is a science of society, social institutions, and social

relationships, specifically the systematic study of the development,

structure, interaction and collective behavior of organized human groups.

Sociology emerged at the end of the 19th c. through the work of

Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, George Simmel, Robert E.

Park, Albion W. Smell, Karl Marx etc.

Sociologists use observational techniques, surveys, interviews,

statistical analysis, controlled experiments and other methods to study

subjects such as family, ethnic relations, schooling, social status social

class, bureaucracy, religious movements, deviance, elderly and social

changes.

2.2. Major founders of sociology:-

(i) Auguste Comte (1798-1857):

Auguste Comte was a French Philosopher, a founder of the discipline of

sociology and the doctrine of positivism. He was regarded as the first

philosopher of science in the modern brains of the term. Comte developed

sociology in an attempt to therapy the social depression left by the French

revolution.

The discipline was later formally and academically established by Emile

Durkheim. Auguste Comte attempted to introduce a consistent “Religion of

Humanity” which, though largely unsuccessful, was influential in the

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development of various worldly humanist organizations in the 19th c. Comte

also created and defined the term “altruism”. August Comte’s fields of

studies were Positivism, Sociology, Law of three stages and encyclopedic

law.

(ii) Emile Durkheim (1858-1917):

Though, Auguste Comte was generally considered as the “Father of

sociology”, the academic subject was formally established by Emile

Durkheim. He developed positivism in great detail. Durkheim set up the first

European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895. He

published “Rules of the Sociological method”. In 1896, he also established

the journal of “L’Annee Sociologique”. Durkheim’s influential monograph,

suicide (1897), a case study of suicide rates amongst Catholic and protestant

populations that distinguished sociological analysis from psychology or

philosophy. It was also marked a major contribution to the theoretical

concept of structural functionalism. Emile Durkheim was also represented by

“Social facts”, mechanical and organic solidarity, origin of religion, as well as

moral unity.

(iii) Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

Herbert Spencer was an English philosopher, who was prominent as classical

liberal political theorist, and sociological theorist.

Spencer developed an all-embracing conception of evolution as the

progressive development of the physical world, biological organisms, the

human mind, and human culture and societies. As a polymath, he

contributed to a wide range of subjects, including ethics, religion,

anthropology, economics, political theory, philosophy, biology, sociology and

psychology. During his life time, he achieved tremendous authority, mainly

in English-speaking academia. In 1902, he was nominated for the Noble prize

in literature.

He was best known for the coining the concept “survival of the fittest”, which

he did in principles of Biology (1864), after reading Charles Darwin’s on the

origin of species;. This term strongly suggests natural selection, yet as

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Spencer extended evolution into realms of sociology and ethics, he made use

of Lamarckism rather than natural selection. Herbert Spencer was in the

school of evolutionism, positivism, and classical liberalism. His main interests

were evolution, positivism and utilitarianism Spencer’s notable ideas were

Social Darwinism, “survival of the fittest”.

(iv) Max Weber (1864 – 1920)

Max Weber was a German sociologist and political economist, who

profoundly influenced social theory, social research, and the remit of

sociology itself. Weber’s major works dealt with the rationalization and the

so-called “disenchantment” which he associated with the rise of capitalism

and modernity. Weber was along with his associate George Simmel, a central

figure in the establishment of methodological anti-positivism presenting

sociology as a non-empirical field, which must study social action through

stubbornly subjective means. He is typically cited with Emile Durkheim and

Karl Marx, as one of the three principal architects of modern social science

and has variously been described as the most important classic thinkers in

the social sciences.

Max Weber was most famous for his thesis in economic sociology, the”

protestant Ethic and the spirit of capitalism.” Dissimilar to Marx, Weber did

not consider the development of capitalism in purely material terms; he

instead, emphasized religious influences embedded into culture. The

protestant Ethic formed the earliest work in Weber’s broader project in the

sociology of religion; he would go to examine the religion of China, India and

ancient Judaism, with particular regard to the apparent non-development of

capitalism and to differing forms of social stratification.

In another major work, politics as a career, Weber defined the state as an

entity which claims a “monopoly on the legitimate use of violence”. A

definition that became pivotal to the study of modern western political

science. His analysis of bureaucracy in his economy and society is still

central to the modern study of organizations. Weber was the first to

recognize several diverse aspects of social authority, which he respectively

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categorized according to their charismatic, traditional and legal forms. His

analysis of bureaucracy, thus, noted that modern state institutions are based

on a form of rational-legal authority. Weber’s thought regarding to the

rationalizing and secularizing tendencies of modern Western society would

come to facilitate critical theory, particularly in the work of thinkers.

V. Karl Marx (1818-1883)

Karl Marx was a German philosopher, political economist, historian, and

political theorist, sociologist, communist and revolutionary, whose ideas are

credited as the foundation of modern communism. Marx summarized his

approach in the first line of chapter one of the communist manifestos

published in 1848: “The history of all hitherto existing society is the history

of class struggle”.

Marx argued that capitalism like previous socio- economic systems would

inevitably produce internal tensions which would lead to destruction. Just as

capitalism replaced feudalism, he believed socialism would in its turn replace

capitalism. This would be stateless society called pure communism.

Karl Marx argued that for a systemic understanding of socio-economic

change. He argued that the structural contradictions within capitalism

impose its end, giving away to socialism.

“The development of modern industry, therefore, cuts from under its feet the

very foundation on which the bourgeoisie produces and appropriates

products. What the bourgeoisie, therefore, produces, above all, are its own

grave-diggers. Its fall and the victory of the proletariat are equally

inevitable” (The communist Manifesto). Marx is typically cited with Emile

Durkheim and Max Weber, as one of the three principal architects of modern

social science. Karl Marx’s main contributions were in the areas of politics,

economics and philosophy. His interests were sociology, history and class

struggle.

Notable contributions were surplus value, alienation and exploitation of the

workers, the communist manifesto, Das Kapital and materialist conception of

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history. Karl Marx is considered to be the first theorist to form series of

concepts within the break between modern and pre-modern theories.

Karl Marx had lot contributions for the theory of conflict perspective. He

believed in social change through class struggle. He is considered to be the

father of conflict theory.

IV. Others: Ibn Khaldun (1332 – 1406):

Ibn Khaldun was born in North Africa, in present day, Tunisia. He was

astronomer, economist, historian, Islamic theologian, and also he was

considered a fore runner of several social scientific disciplines such as

demography, cultural history, historiography, the philosophy of history and

sociology. Khaldun was also considered as one of the forerunners of modern

economics next to the earlier Indian scholar Chanaxya. Ibn Khaldun was

considered by many to be the father of a number of these disciplines

Centuries before they were founded in the West. His school of thought was

Malikimadhab, Islamic economic Jurisprudence. His main interests were

social sciences, sociology, history, cultural history demography etc. He

developed theories of “Asabiyyah” and the rise and fall of Civilizations.

Asabiyyah: “social cohesion”, group solidarity or tribalism”

Concerning the discipline of sociology, he conceived a theory of social

conflict. He developed the dichotomy of sedentary life versus nomadic life as

well as the concept of a “generation” and the inevitable loss of power that

occurs when desert warriors conquer a city.

•Harriet Martineau (1802 – 1876)

Harriet Martineau was born in England. She wrote more than 50 books and

were significant to sociologists, today because of her argument that “when

one studies a society, one must focus on all its aspects, including key

political, religious and social institutions”. She also believed an analysis of a

society should be required to have an understanding of women’s lives.

Harriet changed sociological opinions on issues that were ignored such as

marriage, children, domestic and religious life, and race relations. She

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believed that sociologists should not just simply observe, they should do

things to benefit society. Harriet was known as the first women sociologist.

•American sociologists (19th c.)

Lester Frank Ward: Social liberalist

He was an American sociologist. He served as the first president of the

American sociology Association.

L.F. Ward (1841 – 1913): Major works

Neo-Darwinism, neo-Lamarckism

The psychic factors of civilization

Contemporary sociology ,etc

W. Graham Sumner (1840 – 1910):

Social Darwinist,

The causes of the farmers’ discontent of ,1873

Monetary development

Politics in America

Socialism, 1878 and Sociological fallacies, 1884 and

Evils of the Tariff system.

III. Major theoretical perspectives:

3.1. Functionalist perspectives

3.2. Conflict perspectives

3.3. Interactionist perspectives

In addition to the above stated theories, the followings can be included:

Post-structuralism

Post- modernism

Feminism

Rational choice and exchange theory

Phenomenology

Ethno- methodology

Social construction theory

3.4. An overview of Sociological research methods.

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(A) Some group of sociologists view the world basically as a stable and on

going entity. So that, they are impressed with the endurance of the

family, religion and other social institutions.

(B) Another group of sociologists also view society as composed of many

groups who are in conflict for scarce resources.

(C) The third group of sociologists also view society as routine interactions

among individuals. Therefore, in general:-

These different views of sociologists can be classified as:-

(i) Functionalist perspective,

(ii) Conflict perspective, and

(iii) Interactionist perspective

(i) Functionalist perspective:-

Functionalist perspective is a sociological approach that focuses on the way

that different parts of a society are structured to hold its stability and social

order. Let us think of a society as living organism in which each part of the

organism contributes to its survival. This sort of sociological view is called

functionalist perspective. Functionalism attempted to explain social

institutions as a collective means to fill individual-biological needs earlier

time. Nevertheless, gradually, it came to focus on that social institutions fill

social needs, esp. social stability.

Functionalism is most often associated with structures and workings of

society. So, functionalists see society as made up of inter-dependent

sections which they work together to fulfill the functions necessary for the

survival of society as a whole.

Functionalists believe that behavior in a society is structural, which relates

with various institutions and social ages of a society.

The origins of functionalist perspectives can be traced to the work of Herbert

Spencer, Emile Durkheim and recently Talcott Parsons. These leading

functionalists see society as having a structure, with key institutions

performing vital functions and roles directing people in how to behave. They

identify the functions of each part of the structure. E.g. the family socializes

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the young and produces a shared culture. Other institutions are there to

meet the basic needs of society e.g. producing food and shelter for people.

Other institutions help society to run smoothly and integrate the different

parts.

When all parts of a society work together, balance is maintained and the

overall order of the system is achieved. Hence, social structures in a society

promote integration, stability, consensus and balance.

Prominent functionalists:

(i) Herbert Spencer sees the social system as an organic, even as super

organic body. Indeed, this is followed by a fluctuating state of equilibrium

and disequilibrium or a state of adjustment and adaptation and finally, a

stage of disintegration or dissolution. Spencer concluded that society was

constantly facing pressure internal/external. He also recognized that the

degree of centralized and consolidated authority in a given polity could

make or break the ability to adapt. He also saw the effects of

centralization of power as leading to stagnation and ultimately, pressure

to decentralization.

H.Spencer recognized functional needs such as – Regulation, Operation and

Distribution. All societies need to solve problem of control and coordination

of production of goods, services and ideas. Spencer was known by coining

the term “survival of the fittest”.

ii) Talcott parsons

Parsons wanted to develop a grand theory of society. Hence, he began to

examine the individuals and their actions. He stated that “The social system

is made up of the actions of individuals”. Parsons also developed the idea of

“role” in to collectivities of roles that complemented each other in fulfilling

functions for society.

Some of the roles are bound up in institutions and social structures, such as

economic, educational, legal and even gender structures.

Parsons viewed equilibrium to be maintained, when socialization and social

control are essentially practiced.

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Socialization is important, because, it is a means for transferring the

accepted norms and values of a society to the individuals within the

system.

Prefect socialization may occur when these norms and values are completely

internalized, i.e. when they become part of the individuals’ personality:

(iii) Robert Merton:-

R. Merton agreed with parson’s theory. However, he tended to emphasis

middle-range theory rather than a grand theory. Robert Merton differentiated

between manifest and latent functions. In this aspect, he believed that there

is no functional unity. All modern and complex societies do not work for the

functional unity of a society.

Some structures and institutions may have other functions, while even be

generally dysfunctional or be functional. Hence, all structures may not be

functional for society as a whole. R. Merton introduced the concepts of power

and coercion into functionalism and identifies the sites of tensions which

may lead to struggle or conflict. Merton’s theory of deviance is derived from

Durkheim’s idea of anomie.

According to Merton, anomie means a discontinuity between cultural goals

and accepted methods available for reaching them. In this regard, Merton

believed that there are five situations facing an actor. These are:-

(A) Conformity (B) Innovation (C) Ritualism (D) Retreatism E) Rebellion

Therefore, change can occur internally in a society through either innovation

or rebellion. It is true that society will attempt to control these individuals

and negate the changes. However, innovation or rebellion builds momentum,

so, society will eventually adapt or face dissolution.

Merton had contributed to differentiate between manifest and latent

functions.

(i) Manifest function: - This is intended and recognized consequences of

social actions upon other social actors or institutions (conscious intentions of

actors).

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(ii) Latent function: - This is unintended and unrecognized

consequences of social action upon other social actors or institutions. These

consequences can be either beneficial or not. Furthermore,

Manifest function is open, stated and conscious functions that involve

into the intended, recognized consequences of an aspect of a society such

as the university’s role in certifying an academic competence and

excellence.

By contrast;

Latent functions are unconscious or unintended functions and may reflect

hidden purposes of an institution. Both manifest and latent functions are to

be considered as positive.

Examples for manifest functions:-

The manifest function of a school is to teach,

The manifest function of military institution is to defend,

The manifest function of economic institution is to produce and

distribute goods.

Examples for latent function:-

College students during their stay in the college may make good

friends.

During staying abroad for education, may purchase a new car and

house hold furniture’s for home. During business interaction, if the two

individuals make love affairs and get married.

(iii) Dysfunctions: Those elements or processes of a society that may

disrupt a social system or lead to decrease in stability. When social order

breaks down in many cases, negative consequences may reveal. For

example, over population and pollution etc.

Note:Famous functionalists include:-

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(A) Herbert Spencer (C) Talcott Parsons

(B) Emile Durkheim (D) Bronislaw Malinowski

(F) Robert K. Merton (E) A.R. Radcliff – Brown

(ii) Conflict perspective:-

Conflict perspective is a sociological approach which assumes that

social behavior is best understood in terms of conflict or tension between

competing groups. Conflict theory strives to explain social facts interms of

different groups competing for controlling resources or advantages. This

process occurs on macro level. It is expressed interms of the conflict

between class groups. In sociology, conflict theory states that the society

or organization functions so as each individual participates and its groups

struggle to maximize their benefits, which inevitably contributes to social

change such as changes in politics and revolutions. This theory is mostly

applied to explain conflict between social classes in ideology such as

socialism and communism.

The discipline of sociology accepts conflict theory as one valid way to

gain insight into a society.

Karl Marx is regarded as the father of conflict theory and the idea of

human society. In this regard, key figures are K. Marx and F. Engles in

which das kapital and the communist manifesto are included in their

work. Besides,

Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes, Karl Marx and Max Weber had

contributed important parts to conflict theory.

In brief, Marx stated about sociological conflict theory as follows:- (1) classes

are formed through property divisions such as slaves and slave-owners, serfs

and lords, capitalists and workers are the opposing agents in the struggle for

political power in the line of underpinning their means of livelihood.

(2) Material contributions determine the extent to which social classes can

organize effectively to fight for their interests. This condition of mobilization

is a set of intervening variables between class and political power.

1. Race and ethnicity conflict

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2. Conflict of religion

3. Gender conflict

4. Regions conflict

5. Class conflict

(3) The Marxist conflict approach emphasizes a materialist

interpretation of history, a dialectical method of analysis, a critical stance

towards existing social arrangements and a political program of revolution or

at least, reform.

K. Marx divided human history into several stages based on

economic structure of a society. The most important stages for Marx’s

argument were Feudalism and Capitalism.

For Marx’, the central institution of capitalist society is private

property, the system by which capital (money, machine, tools, factories

and other material objects used in production) is controlled by small

minority of the population. This arrangement leads to two opposed

classes, the owners of capital which Marx called them “bourgeoisie”, and

the workers which he called them “proletariat”, whose only property is

their only labor time, which they have to sell to the capitalists.

Owners of means of production are seen as making profits by

paying workers less than their work is worth and thus, exploiting them.

Contradictions do mean inherent conflict and instability that lead

to class struggle. As Marx said this class struggle will eventually culminate

in a socialist revolution.

(iii) Interactionist perspective:

Interactionism concerns itself with social interaction in micro level settings,

unlike conflict theory and functionalism assumes that person’s social

behavior occurs only in the context of the subjective meanings that one may

attach to social position:

Interactionism has long history. Since, Max Weber and George Herbert

Mead put emphasizes on the subjective meaning of human behavior, the

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social process and pragmatism. Herbert Blumer was responsible for

coining the term “symbolic interactionism”.

Interactionists focus on the subjective aspects of social life, rather than an

objective, macro-structural aspects of social system. One reason for their

focus is that interactionists’ base their theoretical perspective on their

image of humans, rather than on their image of society.

For interactionists, humans are pragmatic actors who continually must

adjust their behavior to the actions of other actors. We can adjust to these

actions only because we are able to interpret them, i.e. to denote them

symbolically and treat the actions and those who perform them as

symbolic objects. This process of adjustment is aided by our ability to

imaginatively rehearse alternative lines of action before we act.

Interactionism sees humans as active, creative participant, who

construct their social world, not as passive, that conforming objects of

socialization.

Society consists of organized and patterned interactions among

individuals. For interactionists, negotiation among members of a society

creates temporary, socially constructed relations which remain in

constant flux, despite relative stability in the basic framework governing

those relations.

Role-taking: It is a key mechanism of interaction which permits us to take

the other’s perspective to see what our actions might mean to the other

actors with whom we interact.

Role-making: It is a key mechanism of interaction for all situations and

roles are inherently ambiguous. Thus, requiring us to create those situations

and roles to some extent before we can act.

Interactionists tend to study social interaction through participant

observation, rather than surveys and interviews.

Interactionists view in general:-

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(I) Interactionism is a sociological framework for viewing human beings

as living in a world of meaningful objects. The “objects” may include

material things, actions, other people, relationships, and even symbols.

(II) George Herbert Mead: is widely regarded as the founder of the

interactionist perspectives. He focused on human interactions within one

to one situations and small groups. Mead was interested in observing

the most minute forms of communications such as smiles, frowns, nod

dings etc.

Frown = to show anger,

Nodding = to say “yes” or to show agreeness

(III) Interactionist perspective is sometimes referred to as the symbolic

interactionist perspective. Because, interactionists see symbols as an

especially important part of human communication. In general symbolic

form of communication is labeled as “non-verbal communication” which

includes many other gestures, facial expressions, and postures.

Facial expressions: Symbolic communication:

Smiling, Distress objects; artifacts,

Laughing, etc. Sounds,

Crying, images, and

Shame , tools, ornaments

Emotions clothing’s, institution etc.

Summary views:

P C

I

1. Society view:

20

Stable, well integrated

Tension and struggle b/n groups

Active and affecting everyday social interaction


2. Level of analysis:

3. Key concepts:

4. Individual view:

5. View of social change:

6. Example:

7. Proponents:

Discussion questions:

1) Draw significant distinctions between functionalist and interactionist

theories:-

2) What are the main roles of institutions in social system?

3) What is the role of social structures in the society?

4) When H. Spencer coined the phrase “survival of the fittest”, what did

he want to indicate?

21

Macro Macro Small group Micro

Symbols Non verbal com. Face-to-Face

People are socialized to perform social functions

People are shaped by power and authority

Through symbols create their social worlds.

Predictable reinforcing

Change takes place all the time and may have positive consequences/Neg.

Communication with others

Reflected in people’s social

Public punishments

Reinforce the social order

Laws reinforce the positions of those in power

People respect laws or disobey them based on their own past exp.

E. Durkheim, Talcott parsons,

and Robert Merton

K. Marx, W.E.B. Dubois,

and C. Wright Mills

G.H. MeadC.H. Coole

E.


5) How do societies maintain social “equilibrium”? In the light of

functionalist point of view, identify the main conceptual discrepancies

interms of society between Talcott parsons and Robert Merton:

6) What is the difference between manifest and latent functions?

7) What is Dysfunctions? Give examples

8) Does conflict theory have always positive value to society? Yes or no

with reasons/justifications

9) What is symbolic interactionist perspective?

10) List the most proponents of functionalist theory.

11) List a few personalities of interactionist theory.

22


Recommended references for further readings:

Blumer,H. (1969). Symbolic Interactionism: perspective and method.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Coser, L. (1977). Masters of Sociological Thought: Ideas in Historical

and Social Context, 2nd Ed., Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.,

pp. 140-143, accessed:

http://www2.pfeifer.edu/~lridener/DSS/Durkheim/DURKW5.HTML

Craib, I. (1992). Modern Social Theory: From Parsons to Habermas,

Harvester Wheatsheaf, London

Cuff, E. & Payne, G., (eds) (1984). Perspectives in Sociology, Allen &

Unwin, London

Davis, K. (1959). “The Myth of Functional Analysis as a Special Method

in Sociology and Anthropology”, American Sociological Review, 24(6),

757-772.

Elster, J.,Modgil, C. & Modgil, S., (eds) Robert Merton: Consensus and

Controversy, Falmer Press, London, pp. 129-35

Gingrich, P., (1999) “Functionalism and Parsons” in Sociology 250

Subject Notes, University of Regina, accessed, 24/5/06,

rul:http://uregina.ca/~gingrich/n2f99.htm

Holmwood, J. (2005) “Functionalism and its Critics” in Harrington, A.,

(ed) Modern Social Theory: an introduction, Oxford University Press,

Oxford, pp. 87-109.

Humans, G. (1962). Sentiments and Activities. New York: The Free

Press of Glencoe.

Hoult, T. (1969). Dictionary of Modern Sociology.

Lenski, G. (1966). “Power and Privilege: A Theory of Social

Stratification. “New York: McGraw-Hill.

Lenski, G. (2005). “Evolutionary-Ecological Theory.” Boulder, CO:

Paradigm.

Maryanski, A. (1998). “Evolutionary Sociology.” Advances in Human

Ecology. 7:1-56.

23


Maryanski, A. and Jonathan Turner (1992). “The Social Cage: Human

Nature and the Evolution of Society.” Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Marshall, G. (1994). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Sociology. ISBN

019285237X

Merton, R. (1957). Social Theory and Social Structure revised and

enlarged. London: The Free Press of Glencoe.

An overview of Sociological research methods:

Sociological research is systematic which gathers data,

organizes and analysis’s that informed by theory and it reaches to

conclusions. Effective sociological research can be quite thought

provoking. It may suggest many new questions about social interactions

that require further study. In some cases, rather than raising additional

questions, a study will simply confirm previous beliefs and findings.

What is scientific research method?

Scientific method is a systematic and organized series of

steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in

researching a problem.

The scientific method requires precise preparations in

developing useful research. Other wise, the research data collected

may prove to be unacceptable for purposes of sociological study. As it

is noted that there are five basic steps in the scientific research

method which sociologists and other researchers follow:-

Steps in Research process:

1. Identification of the research problem/selecting a topic:

2. Reviewing the literature/evidence.

3. Making the research problem precise/formulate the hypothesis

4. Workings out the research design/choosing the research method.

5. Carrying out the research/collecting and analyzing the data.

- Survey - Focus Group Discussion

- Experiment - In depth- interview

24


- Field research - Documentary research

6. Interpreting the results.

7. Sharing/Reporting the findings

Defining the Problem:-

Researcher must state clearly what it needs to be investigated?

What is the interest of the researcher in examing?

Needs to identify clearly the core problem of the study.

Reviewing literature:-

After defining the problem, the next essential step is to go

through relevant literature so as to lay down fundamental contextual

concepts for further investigation of the problem.

Formulating hypothesis/Research Questions:

It is a speculative statement about the relationship between two

or more factors, known as variables.

Independent variable:- To cause or influence another

Dependent variable: - When its action is depending on

others.

Formulating hypothesis can also be written as research questions

or guide questions.

Research design and collecting data:-

This part focuses on how to collect data and formulate essential

data collection techniques.

This is the research plan section which indicates research

techniques, discussions and others. It is the major part of the research:

Developing summary, conclusions and recommendations

25


After collecting and analyzing data, the researchers have to

come to the final steps in the scientific method. This final step is

conclusions:-

4.2. Research designs and methods:-

Research design is a detailed plan or method for obtaining data

scientifically. Selection of a research design is a critical step for

sociologists and requires creativity and ingenuity. This choice will directly

influence both the cost of the project and the amount of time needed to

collect the results of the research:

Researchers (sociologists) usually implement the following major

steps in research process:

Summary Chart

26

Scientific Method

Defining the problem

Review the literature

Formulate the hypothesis

Select research design

Collect and analyze data

Develop the conclusion

Interpret your results

Report the research findings

Surveys Observations Experiments Existing


(1) Surveys:

A survey is a study, generally in the form of an interview or

questionnaire that provides sociologists with information concerning how

people think and act. A survey must be based on precise, representative

sampling if it is to reflect genuinely abroad range of the population.

A representative sample is a selection from a larger population that is

statistically typical of that population. There are many kinds of samples,

but the one social scientists most frequently use is the random sample:

In random sample, every member of an entire population being studied

has the same chance of being selected.

The advantage of using specialized sampling techniques is that

sociologists do not need to question everyone in a population.

An effective survey question must be simple and clear enough for

people to understand it. It must also be specific enough so that there are

no problems in interpreting the results.

There are two main forms of surveys. These are interview and

questionnaire. Each of these has its own advantages.

Skillful interviewer can go beyond written questions and “probe” for a

subject’s underlying feelings and reasons. On the other hand,

questionnaires have the advantage of being cheaper, especially when

large samples are used.

(2) Observation:-

Investigators who collect information through direct participation in

and/or observation of a group, tribe, or community under study are

engaged in observation. This method allows sociologists to examine

certain behaviors and communities that could not be investigated through

other research techniques. In some cases, the sociologists actually “join”

a group for a period of time to gain an accurate sense of how it operates.

This is called participant observation.

The methodology of participant observation proved usefulness in

solving practical problems.

27


Experiments:

To study a cause and effect relationship, one may conduct an

experiment. In the other hand, an experiment is an artificially created

situation that allows the researcher to manipulate variables.

In classic method of conducting an experiment, two groups of people

are selected and matched for similar characteristics such as age or

education. The researchers then assign the subjects to one of two groups,

the experimental or the control group.

The experimental group is exposed to an independent variable, the

control group is not. Thus, it scientists were testing a new type of

antibiotic drug; they would administer that drug to an experimental group

but not to control group.

Use of existing sources:-

Sociologists do not necessarily have to collect new data in

order to conduct research and test hypotheses.

The term secondary analysis refers to a variety of research

techniques that make use of publicly accessible information and data.

Generally, in conducting secondary analysis, researchers utilize data in

ways an intended by the initial collectors of information.

Sociologists consider secondary analysis to be noncreative,

since it does not influence people’s behavior.

For example, Emile Durkheim’s statistical analysis of suicide neither

increased nor decreased human self-destruction.

28


4.3 Ethics of Research:

Researchers in general, sociologists in particular must

abide by a certain specific standards in conducting research code of

ethics. American sociologist’s associations put forth the following basic

principles (1997).

1. Maintain objectivity and integrity in research.

2. Respect the subject’s right to privacy and dignity.

3. Protect subjects from personal harm.

4. Preserve confidentiality.

5. Seek informed consent when data are collected from research

participants or when behavior occurs in a private context. (Voluntary

participation).

6. Acknowledge research collaboration and assistance.

7. Disclose all sources of financial support.

PAC = Privacy, Anonymity and Confidentiality

Most sociological research uses people as sources of

information – as respondents to survey questions, subjects of observation,

or participants in experiments. In all cases, sociologists need to be certain

that they are not invading the privacy of their subjects. This is by assuring

guaranteeing that personal information disclosed will remain confidential.

The scientific method or methodology provides a

systematic, organized series of steps that insure maximum objectivity and

consistency in researching a problem. It provides a shared basis for

discussion and analysis, and helps to promote reliability and validity

(Consistency and Accuracy). Theory directs research and research informs

theory (Reflexivity).

29


V. Culture:

5.1. Definition of Culture

5.2. Components of Culture

5.3. Traits of Culture

5.4. Ethnocentrism Vs Cultural Relativism

5.5. Socialization and its agents

5.1 Definition of Culture

The concept of culture has been defined, investigated and explained by

different scholars with various time frames and stages of development

starting down to the records of history. The definitions of culture are raised

to the extent of beyond 160, to be more specific 164 definitions of culture

are recorded in different written materials. Nevertheless, the definition of

culture was examined coherently and presented by British anthropologist

Edward Teylor. He proposed that cultures, systems of human behavior and

thought, obey natural laws and therefore can be studied scientifically.

Teylor’s definition of culture is more comprehensive and is widely quoted.

Tylor’s definition of culture:

“…Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts,

morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man

as a member of society” (1871/1958 p. 1)

Culture can also be broadly defined as the learned norms,

values, artifacts, language and symbols that are constantly

communicated among people who share a common ways of life. Culture

includes beliefs about what is important in life, and it shapes

interpretations of what events mean.

Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge,

experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion,

notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and

30


material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the

course of generations through individuals and groups striving for.

Culture is the system of knowledge shared by relatively

large groups of people. The sociology of culture shows that our hopes and

fears, our likes and dislikes, our beliefs and habits are very much social

creations, strongly influenced by the time and place in which we live. This

does not mean that culture dictates thoughts and behavior. It leaves room

for actions. Culture is something, people develop and use. On the other

hand, in the process, there is also room for reshaping culture, for adapting

it to meet new demands and situations. As a result culture is never static.

It is constantly in the process of change.

The particular content of culture varies from place to place,

but all human cultures have the same basic elements. These include

knowledge, language, and symbols of all kinds, values, norms, and

artifacts (the physical objects that people make). People use these as

cultural “tool kit” both to maintain and to change their ways of life.

Culture is the sum total of the learned behavior of a group

of people that are generally considered to be the tradition of that people

and are transmitted from generation to generation. Culture is a collective

programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or

category of people from another.

Culture can be two aspects. Material culture and Non-

material culture.

Material culture consists of all the physical objects or

artifacts that people make and attach meanings to them. E.g. Books,

Schools, Missiles, Clothes, and Churches, etc.

Natural objects are not part of material culture, but how

people see and use them is shaped by culture.

Non-material culture consists of human creations that are

not embodied in physical objects such as values, norms, knowledge,

systems of government, language, we speak and so on.

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5.2 Components of Culture;

Culture, as the whole way of life of the people is composed of widely

four essential components. These are language, symbols, values, and

sanctions.

(i) Language: It is a system of verbal symbols and in many cases

written with rules about how those symbols can be strung together to

convey more complex meanings,. Language is extremely important in

the development, elaboration, and transmission of culture. Language

often offers many clues to the meanings of social interactions.

Language enables people to store meanings and experiences

and to pass on this heritage to new generations. Through language, we

are able to learn about and from the experiences of others. Language

enables us to transcend the here and now, preserving the past and

imagining the future. It also makes possible the formulation of complex

plans and ideas.

Language has a role in social action, focusing on how people use language to

coordinate their activities, to create and confirm social understandings.

Language is culturally universal, striking differences in the use of language

are evident around the world. For example: “I will ring you up”, this means “I

will call on the telephone”. Similarly, the meanings of non-verbal gestures

vary from one culture to another. Language does more than simply describe

reality; it also serves to shape the reality of a culture. The English language

distinguishes between yellow and orange, but some other languages do not.

Language can also transmit stereo types related to race. Example “black” in

U.S. dictionary which it means dismal, gloomy, for binding, destitute of moral

etc. Language can be seen in the form of non-verbal communication such as

gestures and facial expressions to communicate such as, smiling, laughing,

crying, shaming, emotions, and distress etc. Like any other form of language,

non verbal communication is not the same in all cultures. Functionalists

32


emphasize the important role of language in unifying members of a society.

In contrast, conflict

theorists focus on the use of language to perpetuate divisions between group

and societies i.e. gender and racism expressed in communication.

Interactionists study how people rely on shared definitions of phrases and

expressions in both formal speech and everyday conversations. Language

can shape how we see, taste, smell, fell and hear.

It also influences the way we think about the people, ideas, and objects

around us. Culture’s most important norms, values, and sanctions are

communicated to people through language.

(ii) Symbols: Something, verbal or non verbal that arbitrarily and by

convention stands for something else, with which it has no necessary

or natural connection.

Symbolic thought is unique and crucial to humans and to cultural

learning. Symbols are objects, gestures, sounds or images that represent

something other than themselves. Depending upon symbols culture

consists of tools, implements, utensils, clothes, ornaments, customs,

institutions, beliefs, rituals, games, works of art, language etc.

A symbol is something verbal or non-verbal within a particular language

or culture that comes to stand for something else. There is no obvious,

natural or necessary connection between the symbols and what it

symbolizes. Symbols are usually linguistic. But there are also non-verbal

symbols such as flags, cross, holy water, etc.

For hundreds of thousands of years, humans have shared the abilities on

which culture rests. These abilities are to learn, to think symbolically, to

manipulate language and to use tools and other cultural products in

organizing their lives and coping with their environments. Every

contemporary human population has the ability to use symbols and thus

to create and maintain culture.

33


(iii) Values: These are general ideas that people share about what is

good or bad, desirable or undesirable. Society typically share a

number of values, among them, achievement and success,

practicality, progress, material comfort,

democracy, and individuality, etc. When values are in conflict, people

tend to apply them selectively.

Values indicate what people in culture prefer as well as what they find

important and morally right or wrong. Values may be specific such as

honoring one’s parents and owning a home or they may be more general

such as health, love, and democracy.

Values influence people’s behavior and serve as criteria for evaluating the

actions of others. There is often a direct relationship among the values,

norms and sanctions of a culture.

The value of a culture may change, but most remain relatively stable

during any one person’s life time. Socially shared, intensely felt values are

fundamentally part of our lives.

Sociologist Robin Williams (1970) has attempted to offer a list of these

basic values. These are: - Achievements, - Material comfort,

- Efficiency, - Nationalism,

- Equality, - Supremacy of science etc

Sanction:

Sanctions are penalties and rewards for conduct concerning a social

norm. Not that the concept of reward is included in this definition.

Conformity to a norm can lead to positive sanctions such as a pay raise, a

medal, a word of gratitude, or a pat on the back.

Negative sanctions include fines, threats, imprisonment and stores of

contempt.

Sanctions can be seen as positive such as salary, bonus, testimonial

dinner, granting medal and Diploma. These are formal norms of

communications. Sanctions also can be exercised in negative norms such

as demotion, firing from a job, jail sentence and expulsion. These are

34


mainly formal communications. There are also informal sanctions such as

smile, compliment, and cheers as positive ones. Frown, humiliation,

belittling as informal negative sanctions:

35


Summary note:

5.3. Traits of Culture:

Culture can be acquired; one can easily acquire or learn a culture where

he/she raised. If you are conceived in one culture but born and raised in

another i.e. culture is transferred at birth. In this regard, you acquired the

culture of the second, not the first one.

(I) Culture and personalities’ views:

Culture: “A learned meaning system that consists of patterns of

traditions, beliefs, values, norms, meanings and symbols that are

passed on from one generation to the next and are shared to

varying degrees by interacting members of a community”. (Ging-

Toomey and Chung)

36

Formal

Positive

Negative

Pay raise Grant medal Word of gratitude, Salary bonus, Testimonial dinner,

and Diploma, medal(s)

Fines, threats, Imprisonment, Stores of contempt Demotion Firing from a job, and Exclusion etc.

Informal

Sanctions

Positive

Negative Smile,

Compliment, Cheers, and Pat on the

back etc

Frown; Humiliation, Belittling, and Inconvenience

creations


Culture: “A deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values,

actions, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of

time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and

artifacts acquired by a group of people in the course of

generations through individual and group striving”. (Samovar

and Porter)

Culture: “An integrated systems of learned behavior patterns that are

characteristic of the members of any given society” (Osterwal)

Culture: “A learned set of shared perceptions about beliefs, values, norms

which affect the behaviors of a relatively large group of people”

(Lusting and Koester)

Culture: What gives people “a sense of whom they are, of belonging, of

how they should behave, and of what they should be doing?”

(Moran, Harris and Moran)

(II) Traits: Seven Major Traits of Culture

2.1. Learned:

Note innate but something acquired because of where one is raised. If you

are conceived in one culture but born and raised in another (i.e.

transferred at birth) – you acquired the culture of the second, not the first

one. Learned through interaction, observation, and imitation

Conscious – being told, reading Unconscious – most culture is learned

unconsciously – i.e. through language for example: Learned from a variety

of sources such as: Proverbs ,Folk tales and folklore

High Culture: poetry, art, music

Mass media (especially TV )

2.2. Transmitted:

Each generation (older) passes it on to the younger – and constantly

reinforces it. If not transmitted, a culture dies.

2.3. Based on Symbols:

Language (verbal and nonverbal) is key element/ but also from images,

icons.

37


2.4. Changeable:

No culture is static. The culture of your grandparents or parents is not

identical with our own (a major cause of the so-called generation gap).

Changes occur from:

Innovation (discovery) e.g. television, computer, women’s

movement Diffusion (borrowing) e.g. McDonalds worldwide,

Acculturation - long-term contact with another culture.

2.5. Integrated:

One dimension affects other dimensions. Consider how the civil rights

movement in the US (initially concerned with voting rights) spread to

encompass multiple parts of the USA.

2.6. Ethnocentric:

A trait found in every culture – the belief that one’s culture is superior

and more worthy than another. While it is important to have a positive

view of one’s self, ethnocentrism can be a major hindrance to

intercultural communication – can shut others out, lead to derogatory

view points.

2.7. Adaptive:

In order to survive, culture must adapt. Example – roles of women in

USA after WWII.

Culture is the total way of life of the people of a society including their

customs, institutions, beliefs and values. Culture functions as a binding force,

holding people together by common attitudes, beliefs and traditions. Culture

is learned behavior, transmitted through communications, largely in the form

of language. Culture is a vehicle for man’s survival, it is also a trap of habit

and custom from which he cannot fully escape. Culture develops values,

traditions and heroes.

5.4. Ethnocentrism Vs Cultural Relativism:

What is ethnocentrism?

o The tendency to view one’s own culture as best and to judge the

behavior and beliefs of culturally different people by one’s own standards.

38


What is cultural relativism?

The position that the values and standards of

cultures differ and deserve respect. Extreme relativism argues that

cultures should be judged solely by their own standards.

Ethnocentrism is the tendency to view one’s own culture as superior and

to apply one’s own cultural values in judging the behavior and beliefs of

people raised in other cultures. Ethno centrism is a culturally universal. It

contributes to social solidarity, a sense of value and community, among

people who share a cultural tradition. People everywhere think that their

familiar explanations, opinions, and customs are true, right, proper, and

moral. They regard different behavior as strange, immoral or savage. The

tribal names that appear in anthropology books often come from the native

word for people.

Opposing ethnocentrism is cultural relativism, the argument that behavior in

one culture should not be judged by the standards of another culture. At its

most extreme, cultural relativism argues that there is no superior,

international, or universal morality, that the moral and ethical rules of all

cultures deserve equal respect. In the extreme relativism view, Nazi

Germany would be evaluated as non judgmentally as Athenian Greece.

In today’s world, human rights advocate challenges of many of the tenets of

cultural relativism. For example, several cultures in Africa and the Middle

East have traditions of female genital modification. This tradition is practiced

in several societies. Female genital mutilation has been opposed by human

rights’ group of women.

5.5. Socialization and its Agents:

Socialization is the process of instilling fundamental elements of

culture in a society’s members. It is one of the basic forces that shape

human social behavior.

Socialization is particularly important during early childhood. Without

it in the first few years of life, people would not become social beings.

39


However, socialization is certainly not confined to childhood. It continues

throughout life and is especially important during major life transitions,

such as starting a new job or getting divorced.

Socialization is the process by which people acquire the beliefs,

attitudes, values and customs of their culture.

(A) Agents of socialization: - During Childhood,

(i) Family,

(ii) Peers,

(iii) The mass media, and

(iv) Schools

(B) Agents of socialization: - During Adulthood

(i) Colleges/ Universities, and

(ii) All Tertiary levels of learning institutions.

During the stage of socialization process, desocialization and

resocialization would take place:

Desocialization: - The process of shedding one’s self image

and values usually followed by resocialization to a different set of

values and view of one self.

Resocialization: - The internalization of a new set of norms and

values that are very different from those held in the past.

Occupational socialization: - The process of aligning the

norms, values, and beliefs of a new worker with those of the

organization or occupation in which he or she is employed.

Socialization to a job: - This means specific job-related skills,

set of values, and ethics that apply to a person’s work, the unofficial

rules of the work place that the person is entering. For example, in

an army camp, large sales training programme etc.

Peer relations and informal group norms become very

important for making/creating socialization.

40


People try to prepare themselves for socialization to new work

role. For example, New University graduate may start to talk and

ask experience and other related matters at the work place.

All these changes are collectively called anticipatory socialization. This

means, the process of starting to adjust one’s belief, norms, and values

in anticipation of new socialization one is about to undergo.

Desocialization and resocialization occur in organizations that

deliberately close themselves from the outside world. These

organizations are called total institutions.

Total institutions: - organizations that deliberately close

themselves off from the outside world and lead a highly insular life

that is formally organized and tightly controlled.

E.g. Prisons, mental hospitals, and military camps.

Socialization may take place mainly through language, interaction

and affection.

Values and views can be conveyed through language.

Interaction can be revealed through social, emotional sense,

participation in a society.

Affection can be seen through cooperation’s, love affairs etc.

Note (Summary):

(1) Socialization is the process through which you learn a culture and it

continues through out life.

(2) Primary socialization is the first phase, often taking place in the

family.

(3) Secondary socialization takes place in the peer groups (similar age

and status), educational systems and occupational places.

(4) Socialization is essential for participation in human society.

Discussion Questions:

41


1) What is “Ethnocentric” in culture?

2) What is “Cultural relativism”?

3) Can you identify any specific difference(s) between “cultural

relativism” and “Ethical relativism”?

4) How do we presence values and assets of culture for future

generation?

5) What is social role? Explain diffusionism and acculturation?

References for further readings

Jary, David, Jary, Julia (1991). The Harpert Collins Dictionary of

Sociology, New York, Harper Collins, ISBN 0064610365

Poore, S. Over view of social control theories. The Hewett School.

Retrieved (2007).

_____________ 2007, culture and identity, Livesay, Chris.

B.J. Biddle (1986). Recent development in role theory. Vol. 12 pp 67-

92.

Goldhegen, Daniel Jonah, Hitler’s willing executioners: ordinary

Germans and the Holocaust vintage books, New York (1996).

Nagle, Brendan D. ‘The ancient world’. A social and cultural history 6 th

ed. Pearson Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey (2006).

Merton, Robert K. British Journal of Sociology Eighth Edition (1957).

42


VI. Social Structure and Interactions:

6.1. Groups, Institutions and Society

6.2. Social Values, Norms and Social Control

6.3. Statuses and Social Roles

6.4. Social Interaction in Everyday Life

6.1. Groups, Institutions and Society:

(A) Croup

Before we proceed to the discussions of groups, social institutions and

society, let us have brief insights about social structure and interactions: -

What is social structure? What are the components?

The term social structure refers to the way in which a society is

organized into predictable relationships.

The concepts of social interaction and social structure, which are

closely linked to each other, are central to sociological study. Sociologists

observe patterns of behaviour closely to understand and accurately

describe the social interactions of a community or society and the social

structure in which they take place.

There are five basic elements or components of social structure.

These are Groups, institutions, social roles and statuses, social net

works.

Groups

Social networks

∙ Social structure Institutions

Social roles

Statuses

What is/are group (s)?

Predictable social relationships in terms of five elements such as

statuses, social roles, groups, social networks, and social institutions.

43


In sociological terms, a group is any number of people with similar

norms, values, and expectations who regularly and consciously interact

each other.

Every society is composed of many groups in which daily social

interaction takes place. We seek out groups to establish friendships, to

accomplish certain goals, and to fulfill social roles that we have acquired.

Groups play a vital part in a society’s social structure. Much of our

social interaction takes place within groups and is influenced by their

norms and sanctions of a group.

The study of groups has become an important part of sociological

investigation, because they play such as a key role in the transmission of

culture. As we interact with others, we pass on our ways of thinking and

acting from language and values to ways of dressing and leisure

activities.

Types of groups:

Sociologists have made a number of useful distinctions between

types of groups: primary and secondary groups, in-groups and out-groups

and reference groups.

Primary and Secondary groups:

Charles Horton Cooley coined the term primary group that

refers to small groups characterized by intimate, face-to-face association

and cooperation. Some examples for these definitions are street gang,

members of family, sister in a college.

Primary groups play a pivotal role both in the

socialization process, development of roles, and statuses.

Indeed, primary groups can be instrumentals in a person’s day-to-day

existence.

Secondary group refers to a formal, impersonal

group in which there is little social intimacy or mutual understanding. The

difference between primary and secondary groups is not always clear cut.

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Some social clubs may become so large and impersonal that they no

longer function as primary groups.

Secondary group often emerge in the work

place among those who share special understandings about their

occupation:

There is a new understanding of secondary

group. These are:

An in-group can be defined as any group of category to

which people feel they belong. Simply, everyone who is regarded as “we”

or “us”. The in-group may be as narrow as one’s family or as broad as an

entire society. The very existence of an in-group implies that there is an

out-group viewed as “they” or “them” more formally.

An out-group is a group or category to which people

feel they do not belong.

Reference group: - set and enforce standards of

conduct and perform a comparison function for people’s evaluations of

themselves and others.

Small group: There are distinct and predictable

processes at work in the functioning of small groups. The simplest group

is a dyad, composed of two members.

Triads and larger groups increase ways of interacting

and allow for conditions to form.

(B) Social institutions:

Institutions are organized patterns of beliefs and

behavior centered on basic social needs, such as replacing personnel (the

family) and preserving order (the government).

When we study institutions, then we may have good

insights to the structure of society.

The main functions of social institutions: -

Social institutions have the following brief essential

functions. These are: -

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Family replacing personnel,

Education teaching new recruits,

Economy producing and distributing goods and

services,

Politics preserving order, and

Religion providing and maintaining a sense of

purpose.

Replacing personnel (Family)

Any group or society must replace personnel when they die,

leave or became incapacitated. This is accomplished through such means

as immigration, annexation of neighboring groups of people’s acquisition

of slaves or normal sexual reproduction of members.

Teaching new recruits (Education)

No group can survive if many of its members reject the

established behavior and responsibilities of the group. Thus, finding or

producing new members is not sufficient. The group must encourage

recruits to learn and accept its values and customs. This learning can take

place formally within schools or informally through interaction and

negotiation in peer groups.

Producing and distributing goods and services (Economy)

Any relatively permanent group or society must provide and

distribute desired goods and services for its members. Each society

establishes a set of rules for the allocation of financial and other

resources. The group must satisfy the needs of most members at least to

some extent or it will risk the possibility of discontent and ultimately

disorder.

Preserving order (Political Sociology)

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Critical function of every group or society preserving order and

protecting itself from attack.

Providing and maintaining a sense of purpose (Religion)

People must feel and motivated to continue as members of a

society in order to fulfill the previous four requirements. The behavior of

United States prisoners of war, while in confinement during the war in

Vietnam is a testament to the importance of maintaining a sense of

purpose.

(C) Society

Society is an organized group of individuals living together in a territory for

long period of time. Society must hold the following essential elements.

(1)living together for long period of time,

(2)possessing common values and interests,

(3)Sharing common cultures, traditions and psychological makeup.

Pre- industrial societies are:

a) Hunting and gathering society, Horticultural society and

Agrarian society.

Hunting and gathering society is the first type of human

society in which the people rely on whatever foods and fibers are readily

available. Technology in such societies is minimal. People are organized in

groups and are constantly on the move in search of food. There is little

division of labour in to specialized tasks.

Hunting and gathering societies are composed of small, widely dispersed

groups. Each group consists almost entirely of people related to one another.

As the result, kinship ties are the source of authority and influence and the

social institution of the family takes on a particularly important role.

Horticultural society: It is people who plant seeds and crops rather

than subsist merely on available foods, emerged about 10,000 to 12,000

years ago.

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Members of horticultural society are much less nomadic than

hunters and gatherers. They place greater emphasis on the production of

tools and household objects. Yet technology within horticultural societies

remains limited. They cultivate crops with the aid of digging sticks or

hoes.

Agrarian society: This is the last stage of pre-industrial

stage of society, which emerged about 5000 years ago. Members of

agrarian society primarily engaged in the production of food. However,

the introduction of new technological innovations such as the plow allows

farmers to dramatically increase their crop yield. They can cultivate the

same fields over generations, thereby allowing the emergence of still

larger settlements.

The social structure of the agrarian society continues to rely on the physical

power of humans and animals. Nevertheless, the social structure has more

carefully defined roles than in horticultural societies. Individuals focus on

specialized tasks, such as repair of fishing nets or work as a block smith. As

human settlements become more established and stable, social institutions

become more elaborate and property rights take on greater importance. The

comparative permanence and greater surpluses of agrarian society make it

more feasible to create artifacts such as statues, public monuments, and art

objects and to pass them on from one generation to the next one.

As the industrial revolution proceeded in Europe, a new form of social

structure emerged. This new form of society is called industrial

society.

Industrial society is a society that depends on mechanization to produce

its goods and services. Industrial societies relied on new inventions that

facilitated agricultural and industrial production and on new sources of

energy such as steam.

The process of industrialization had distinctive social

consequences. Families and communities could not continue to faction as

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self-sufficient units. Individuals, villages, and regions began to exchange

goods and services and become interdependent. As people came to rely

on the labour of members of other communities, the family lost its unique

position as the source of power and authority.

The need for specialized knowledge led to more formalized education, and

education emerged as a social institution distinct from the family.

Post industrial society as society whose economic system is engaged

primarily in the processing and control of information. The main output of

post industrial society is services rather than manufactured goods. Large

numbers of people become involved in occupations devoted to the teaching,

generations or dissemination of ideas.

More recently, sociologists have gone beyond discussions of post industrial

societies to the ideal type of “post modern society”.

A postmodern society is a technologically sophisticated society that is

pre occupied with consumer goods and media images. Such societies,

consume goods and information on mass scale.

6.2. Norms and Social Control

(A) Norms

All societies have ways of encouraging and enforcing what they view

as appropriate behavior while discouraging and punishing what they

consider to be improper behavior.

Norms are established standards of behavior maintained by a society:

In order for a norm to become significant, it must be widely shared and

understood.

Sociologists distinguish between norms into two ways. These norms

are classified as either formal or informal.

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Formal norm: This is generally has been written down and specify strict

rules for punishment of violators. In some countries, they often formalize

norms into laws, which must be very precise in defining proper and improper

behavior.

Laws are one example of formal norms, although not the only

type.

By contrast, informal norms generally are understood but are not

precisely recorded. Standards of proper dress are a common example of

informal norms. Society has no specific punishment or sanction for a

person who comes to school, say, wearing “a monkey suit”.

Norms are also classified by their relative importance to society.

When classified in this way, they are known as ‘mores’ and ‘folkways’.

Mores are norms deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a

society, often because they embody the most cherished principles of a

people. Each society demands obedience to its mores violation can lead

to severe penalties. Thus, the U.S.A has strong mores against murder,

treason, and child abuse that have been institutionalized into formal

norms.

Folkways are norms governing everyday behavior.

Folkways play an important role in shaping the daily behavior of

members of a culture.

Society is less likely to formalize folkways than mores and

their violation raises comparatively little concern.

In many societies around the world, folkways serve to

reinforce patterns of male dominance (pp. 57)

Various folkways reveal men’s hierarchical position above women within

the traditional areas of South East Asia.

People do not follow norms, whether mores or folkways in all

situations. Example, teenagers are illegal to drink alcoholic

beverages, yet drinking by minors is common through out

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the nation. (In fact, “teenage alcoholism” is one of our

country’s most serious social problems).

Norms are violated in some instances because one norm conflicts with

another e.g. beating wife or undesirable behavior in your neighbor.

Acceptance of norms is subject to change as the political, economic and

social conditions of a culture are transformed. For example; under traditional

norms, woman is expected to marry, rear children and remain home, if

husband support the family sufficiently. These norms are now changed due

to many reasons and circumstances:

(B) Social Control:

How does a society bring about acceptance of basic norms? The term social

control refers to the techniques and strategies for preventing deviant human

behavior in any society. Social control occurs on all levels of society. In the

family, we are socialized to obey our parents simply because they are our

parents. Peer groups introduce us to informal norms such as dress codes;

that govern the behavior of members. Colleges establish standards they

expect of their students. In bureaucratic organizations, workers encounter a

formal system of rules and regulations. Finally, the government of every

society legislates and enforces social norms including norms regarding

“proper” and “improper” expressions of sexual intimacy.

Most of us respect and accept basic social norms and assume that others will

do the same.

We are all aware that individuals, groups and institutions expect us to act

“properly”. If we fail to do so, we may face punishment through informal

sanctions such as fear and ridicule or formal sanctions such jail sentences or

fines.

There are many techniques and strategies to control social and legal values.

These are some of the major ones: Conformity and Obedience

a) Conformity: Going along with one’s peers,

individuals of a person’s own status, who have no special right to direct

that person’s behavior.

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b) Obedience: Compliance with higher authorities in a

hierarchical structure.

Informal and formal social control:

The sanctions used to encourage conformity

and obedience and to discourage violation of social norms are carried out

through informal and formal social control. As the term implies, people

use informal social control casually to enforce norms. Examples of

informal social control include similes, laughter, raising of an eyebrow,

and ridicule.

There are also controversial examples of

informal social control is parental use of corporal punishment. Adults

often view spanking, slapping or kicking children as a proper and

necessary means of maintaining authority. Child development specialists

counter that corporal punishment is in appropriate because it teaches

children to solve problems through violence, they warn that slapping and

spanking can escalate into more serious forms of abuse.

Sometimes informal methods of social control are not adequate to enforce

conforming or obedient behavior. In those cases, formal social control is

carried out by authorized agents such as police officers, physicians, schools

administrators, employers, military officers, and managers. It can serve as a

last resort when socialization and informal sanctions do not bring about

desired behavior.

As increasingly significant means of formal social control is to jail people.

Societies vary in deciding which behaviors will be subjected to formal social

control and how severe the sanctions will be. Another controversial example

of formal social control is the use of surveillance techniques.

6.3. Statuses and Roles

Statuses:

Social structure contains at least five elements. These are statuses, social

roles, groups, social networks and social institutions. These elements make

up social structure as a foundation.

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We normally think of a person’s “status” as having to do with influence,

wealth, and fame. However, sociologists use status to refer to any of the full

range of socially defined positions within a large group or society – form the

lowest to the highest position. A person may hold more than one status

simultaneously. [at a time)

According to sociologists’ view, statuses are divided into two main parts:

These are ascribed and achieved.

Ascribed status

It is a status which is “assigned” to a person by society without regard for

the person’s unique talents or characteristics. Generally, this assignment

takes place at birth, thus a person’s racial background, gender, and age are

all considered ascribed statuses. These characteristics a re biological in

origin but are significant mainly because of the social meanings they have in

culture.

An ascribed status does not have necessarily the same social meaning in

every society: E.g. “Old man” in some societies “Respect” in some

“insulting”.

Achieved status: -

Achieved status comes to us largely through our own efforts. Example, Bank

president, prison guard etc.

One must do something to acquire an achieved status.

One must go to school, learn a skill, establish a friendship or invent a

new product:

Achieved status usually is heavily influenced by our ascribed status.

A master status: - It is a status that dominates others and thereby

determines a person’s general position within society. Our society gives

such importance to race and gender that they often dominate our lives.

Indeed, such ascribed statuses often influence achieved status. In the

United States, ascribed statuses of race and gender can function as

master statuses that have an important impact on one’s potential to

achieve a desired professional and social status.

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Social Roles:

Throughout our lives, we are acquiring what sociologists call social roles.

A social role is a set of expectations for people who occupy a given

social position or status. The actual performance varies from individual to

individual. One secretary may assume extensive administrative

responsibilities, while another may focus on clerical duties.

Roles are a significant component of social structure. It is viewed from

a functionalist perspective.

Roles contribute to a society’s stability by enabling members to anticipate

the behavior of others and to pattern their own actions accordingly. Yet

social roles can also be dysfunctional by restricting people’s interactions and

relationships. If we view a person only as a “police officer” or as “supervisor”

it will be difficult to elate to this person as a friend or neighbor.

Role can be divided or seen in different forms. These are: -Role

conflict, Role exit and Role strain.

1. What is role conflict?

It occurs when incompatible expectations arise from two or more social

positions held by the same person. Fulfillment of the roles associated with

one status may directly violate the roles linked to a second status. In the

example above, the newly promoted supervisor will experience a serious

conflict between certain social and occupational roles. Role conflicts call for

important ethical choices.

2. What is role strain?

It is to describe difficulties that result from the differing demands and

expectations associated with same social position.

3. What is role exit?

It is to describe the process of disengagement from a role that is central to

one’s self-identity and reestablishment of an identity in a new role.

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VII. Social Inequality and Social Processes:

7.1. Social Stratification

7.2. Social Mobility

7.3. Social Movements and Change

7.1. Systems of Stratification: -

There are three systems of stratification: These are slavery, castes and

social classes.

Any stratification system may include elements of more than one type.

(A) Slavery:

The most extreme form of legalized social inequality for individuals or groups

is slavery. What distinguishes this oppressive system of stratification is that

enslaved individuals are owned by other people. They treat these human

beings as property, just as if they were household pets or appliances.

Slavery, an ascribed status, has varied in the way it has been practiced. In

ancient Greece, the main source of slaves consisted of captives of war and

piracy. A person’s status might change depending on which city-state

happened to triumph in a military conflict.

(B) Castes:

Caste are hereditary systems of rank, usually religiously dictated that tend to

be fixed and immobile. The caste system is generally associated with

Hinduism in India and other countries. For example, in India, there are four

major castes called varnas. A fifth category of out castes referred to as

untouchables is considered to be slowly and un clean as to have no place

within this system of stratification.

There are also many minor castes. Caste membership is an ascribed status.

Each caste is quite sharply defined, and members are expected to marry

within that caste.

Caste membership generally determines one’s occupation or role as a

religious functionary. An example of lower caste in India is the Dons, whose

main work is the undesirable job of cremating bodies. The caste system

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promotes a remarkable degree of differentiation. Thus, the single caste of

chauffeurs has been split into two separate sub-castes: drivers of luxury cars

have a higher status than drivers of economy cars.

(C) Social Classes:-

A class system is a social ranking based primarily on economic position in

which achieved characteristics can influence mobility. In contrast to slavery

and caste systems, the boundaries between classes are imprecisely defined,

and one can move from one stratum, or level, of society to another. Yet class

systems maintain stable stratification hierarchies and patterns of class

divisions, and they too are marked by unequal distribution of wealth and

power.

Income inequality is a basic characteristic of a class system.

Sociologist Daniel Rossides (1997) has conceptualized the class system of

the United Sates using a five class model: The upper class, the upper-middle

class, the lower middle class, the working-class and the lower class.

Sandwiched between the upper and lower classes in Rossides’s model are

the upper-middle class, the lower-middle class, and the working class.

In many cases, the upper middle class is composed of professionals such as

doctors, lawyers, and architects. They participate extensively in politics and

exercise leadership roles in voluntary associations.

The lower-middle class, which accounts for approximately 30 to 35 percent

of the population, includes less affluent professionals such as elementary

school teachers, and nurses, owners of small business, and sizable number

of clerical workers.

7.2 Social Mobility:-

The term social mobility refers to movement of individuals or groups from

one position of a society’s stratification system to another. But how

significant, how frequent, how dramatic, is mobility in a class society.

There are two ways or systems of social mobility: These are open and closed

systems.

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Open system: - It implies that the position of each individual is

influenced by the person’s achieved status. An open class system

encourages competition between members of society.

Closed system: - It is little or no possibility of moving up. The slavery

and caste systems of stratification are examples of closed systems. In

such societies, social placement is based on ascribed statuses, such as

race or family background, which can not be changed.

Types of Social Mobility:-

There are different types of social mobility. These are:

(1) Horizontal mobility;

(2) Vertical mobility;

(3) Intergenerational mobility;

(4) Intragenerational mobility;

(1) Horizontal mobility: - The movement of an individual from one social

position to another of the same rank.

(2) Vertical mobility: - The movement of a person from one social position

to another of different rank.

(3) Intragenerational mobility: - Changes in person’s social position within

his or her adult life.

(4) Intergenerational mobility: - changes in the social system/position of

children relative to their parents.

There are different factors that have significant impacts on social mobility.

These are occupational structure, education, gender, etc.

7.3 Social Change: -

Social change is significant alteration over time in behavior patterns and

culture, including norms and values. Before, it needs to discuss about social

change, preferably essential to go through about social movements. So,

what are social movements?

7.4 Social Movements:

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Factors such as physical environment, population, technology and social

inequality serve as sources of change, but it is the collective effort of

individuals organized in social movements that ultimately leads to social

change.

Sociologists use the term “social movements” to refer to organized collective

activities to bring about or resist fundamental change in an existing group or

society. Herbert Blumer recognized the special importance of social

movements when he defined them as collective enterprises to establish a

new order of life.

In many nations, including the big countries, social movements have had a

dramatic impact on the course of history and the evaluation of social

structure.

Social movements imply the existence of conflict, but we can also analyse

their activities from a functionalist perspectives. Even when unsuccessful,

social movements contribute to the formation of public opinion. Initially, the

ideas of Margaret Sanger and other early advocators of birth control wee

viewed as “radical”, yet contraceptives are now widely available in the U.S.

moreover, functionalists view social movements as training grounds for

leaders of the political establishment.

How and why do social movements emerge?

People are often discontented with the way things are. In this regard

sociologists identified the main causes of social movements from two main

approaches: -

(A) Relative-Deprivation: -

The term relative-deprivation is defined as the conscious feeling of a

negative discrepancy between legitimate expectations and present

actualities (J. Wilson, 1973). In other words, things are not as good as you

hoped they would be such a state may be characterized by scarcity rather

than complete lack of necessities. A relatively deprived person is dissatisfied

because he or she feels down trodden relative to some appropriate reference

group. Thus, blue-collar workers who live in two-family houses with little lawn

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space – though hardly at the bottom of the economic ladder – may

nevertheless feel deprived in comparison with corporate managers and

professionals who live in lavish and exclusive suburbs.

(B) Resource Mobilization: -

The term resource mobilization refers to the ways in which a social

movement utilizes such resources. The success of a movement for change

will depend in good part on how effectively it mobilizes its resources.

Sociologists argued that to sustain social protest or resistance, there must be

an “organizational base and continuity of leadership”. As people become

part of a social movement, norms develop to guide their behavior. Members

of the movement may be expected to attend regular meetings of

organizations, pay dues, recruit new adherents, and boy cott “enemy”

products or speakers. The emergence of a new social movement can be

evident from the rise of special language or new words for familiar terms.

Social movements have been responsible for such new terms of self-

reference as Blacks and African Americans, senior citizens and people with

disabilities.

7.4 Social Change:

Social change is significant alternation overtime in behavior patterns and

culture including norms and values. To have better understandings about

social charge, one needs to review three theoretical approaches to change.

These are: -

o Evolutionary

o Functionalist

o Conflict Theory

(I) Social Change and Evolutionary Theory: -

Charles Darwin’s (1809 – 1882) pioneering work in biological evolution

contributed to 19th c. theories of social change. According to his approach,

there has been a continuing progression of successive life forms. For

example, since human beings came at a later stage of evolution than

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reptiles, we represent a “higher” form of life. Thus, evolutionary theory views

society as moving in a definite direction. It was agreed that society was

inevitably progressing to a higher state.

Early evolutionary theorists concluded in ethno-centric fashion that their own

behavior and culture were more advanced than those of earlier civilizations.

In this regard, let us trace some of the ideas of early sociologists such as

Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim and Herbert Spencer.

1. Auguste Comte (1798 – 1857) was an

evolutionary theorist of change. He saw human societies as moving

forward in their thinking from my theology to the scientific method.

2. Emile Durkheim (1933, 1893) in his edition

maintained that society progressed from simple to more complex forms

of social organization.

The ideas and writings of the above stated theorists are examples of

unilinear evolutionary theory. This approach contends that all societies pass

through the same successive stages of evolution and inevitably reach the

same end.

Later on also English sociologist, Herbert Spencer (1820 – 1903) discussed

that society is moving forward with inter related parts to common destiny.

The most contemporary evolutionary theorist views social change with the

relation of multilinear perspectives:-

Multilineary evolutionary theory holds that change can occur in several

ways and that it does not inevitably lead in the same direction.

Multilinear theorists recognize that human culture has evolved along a

number of lines. E.g. demographic change, cultural changes etc.

(II) Social Change and Functionalist Theory

Functionalist sociologists focus on what maintains a system, not on what

changes it. Talcott Parsons (1902 – 1979) viewed society as naturally being

in a state of equilibrium. By “equilibrium”, he meant that society tends

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toward a state of stability or balance. Parsons would view even prolonged

labor strikes or civilian riots as temporary disruptions in the status quo rather

than a significant alternation in social structure. Therefore, according to his

equilibrium model, as changes occur in one part of society, there must be

adjustments in other parts. If this does not take place, the society’s

equilibrium will be threatened and strains will occur.

Reflecting an evolutionary approach, parsons (1966) maintained that four

processes of social change are inevitable. There are: differentiation,

adaptive, inclusion and value generalization.

Differentiation: refers to the increasing complexity of social

organization.

Adaptive upgrading: refers to whereby social institutions

become more specialized in their purposes.

Inclusion: to include groups into society those were

previously excluded because of such factors as gender, race, and social

background.

Value generalization: the development of new values that

tolerate and legitimate a greater range of activities.

(III) Social Change and Conflict Theory:

The functionalist perspective minimizes change. It sees change as a means

of maintaining the equilibrium or balance of a society. By contrast, conflict

theorists contend that social institutions and practices continue because

powerful groups have the ability to maintain the status quo. Change has

crucial significance, since it is needed to correct social injustices and in

equalities.

Karl Marx accepted the evolutionary argument that societies develop along a

particular path. However, unlike Comte and Spencer, he did not view each

successive stage as an inevitable improvement over the previous one.

According to Marx’s views; Ancient society exploited slaves, the estate

system of feudalism exploited serfs, modern capitalist society exploits the

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working class. Marx further said that ultimately, through a socialist

revolution led by the proletariat, human society will move toward the final

stage of development, a classless communist society or community of free

individuals (Das Kapital: 1867; 250)

The Marxist view of social change is appealing because it does

not restrict people to a passive role in responding to inevitable cycles or

changes in material culture.

Marxist theory offers a tool for those who wish to seize control of

the historical process and gain their freedom from injustice. Marx argues

that conflict is a normal and desirable aspect of social change. Indeed,

change must be encouraged as a means of dominating social inequality

(1982).

One conflict sociologist, Ralf Dahrendorf has noted that the

contrast between the functionalist perspective’s focus on stability, where

as conflict perspective emphasis on change reflects the contradictory

nature of society.

Human societies are stable and long-lasting, yet they also

experience serious conflict. Indeed parsons spoke of new functions that

result from social change, and Marx recognized the need for change so

that societies could function more equitably. Functionalist and conflict

approaches are ultimately compatible despite their many areas of

disagreement.

Discussion Questions I:

1) Workout a research design

2) How do you define research problem?

3) Mention some of the techniques of conventional method.

4) What is “Triangulation “in a research work?

5) Please, state the correct steps of research work: Conventional

approach

6) What does documentary research mean?

Discussion Questions II:

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1) Discuss the impacts of global social change in terms of social

movements and changes.

2) What are the main resistances to social change?

3) Draw significant distinctions between functionalist perceptions to social

change and conflict one.

4) Discuss in details about the main process of social change of Talcott

parsons:

5) Identify the main causes of social movements:

6) What are the social and economic factors for stratification in the

society? Explain either in line of functionalism or conflict theory.

7) Does social inequality inevitable societal phenomenon? If yes/no, why?

Explain in terms of relevant theories.

Discussion questions III:

1) What is ‘value’ within the context of culture?

2) Why does society need to have social control?

3) Sate some of the main techniques of social control

4) Describe and identify formal and informal techniques of social control

5) What are the main elements of social structure?

6) What is “status” in sociology? Explain the two main parts of ‘status’

7) What is social role? Explain different forms of role

8) What are the major models of role theory?

References for further readings:-

Giddens, Anthony, (1989). Sociology. Polity Press, Cambridge pp.

659 – 89

Bernard, H. Russell (1994). Research Methods in Anthropology:

Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, Second Edition, SAGE

Publications, London.

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Mikkelsen, Britha (1995). Methods for Development Work and

Research: A Guide for Practioners, SAGE Publications, New Delhi.

Durkin, Diane Bennett, 1987; Writing in the Disciplines, Random

House, New York. (Chapter 2, 4 and 9)

Richard T. Schaefer (2000). Sociology, A brief Introduction 3rd Ed.

U.S.A. McGraw-Hill Companies.

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Introduction to Sociology

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